ADVANCED COMPLEX ANALYSIS MAT 601

Master of Science
(THIRD SEMESTER)

MAT 601
ADVANCED COMPLEX ANALYSIS

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
SCHOOL OF SCIENCES
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY
HALDWANI, UTTARAKHAND
263139
COURSE NAME: ADVANCED COMPLEX
ANALYSIS

COURSE CODE: MAT 601

Department of Mathematics
School of Science
Uttarakhand Open University
Haldwani, Uttarakhand, India,
263139
ADVANCED COMPLEX ANALYSIS MAT 601

BOARD OF STUDIES-FEBRUARY 2024

Chairman
Prof. O.P.S. Negi
Honorable Vice Chancellor
Uttarakhand Open University
Prof. P. D. Pant Prof. Harish Chandra Prof. Manoj Kumar
Director Professor Professor and Head
School of Sciences Department of Mathematics Department of Mathematics,
Uttarakhand Open University Institute of Science Statistics and Computer Science
Banaras Hindu University G.B. Pant University of
Varanasi Agriculture & Technology,
Pantnagar

Prof. Sanjay Kumar Dr. Arvind Bhatt Dr. Jyoti Rani

Professor Programme Cordinator Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics Associate Professor Department of Mathematics
Deen Dayal Upadhyaya College Department of Mathematics Uttarakhand Open University
University of Delhi Uttarakhand Open University Haldwani, Uttarakhand
New Delhi Haldwani, Uttarakhand

Dr. Kamlesh Bisht Dr. Shivangi Upadhyay

Assistant Professor(AC) Assistant Professor (AC)
Department of Mathematics Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Uttarakhand Open University

Editor
Dr. Kamlesh Bisht
Assistant Professor (AC)
Department of Mathematics,
School of Sciences, Uttarakhand Open University

Unit Writer Block Unit

Dr. Jyoti Rani I, II, III, IV 1 ,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13, 14

Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University
ADVANCED COMPLEX ANALYSIS MAT 601

Course Title and Code : ADVANCED COMPLEX ANALYSIS (MAT-601)

Copyright : Uttarakhand Open University

Edition : 2024

Published by : Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani, Nainital -263139

ISBN :

*NOTE: The design and any associated copyright concerns for each unit in this book are the sole
responsibility of the unit writers.

Published By : Uttarakhand Open University

 CONTENTS
MAT 601

BLOCK-I Analytic Functions Page No.1

Unit 1 Complex Number 02-22
Unit 2 Degree & Exactness of Differential Equation and Principle of 23-51
Duality
Unit 3 Analytic Function ( Cauchy-Riemann equations) 40-57

Unit 4 Power series 58-73

BLOCK-II Conformal Mapping Page No.74

Unit 5 Conformal Mapping 75-90

Unit 6 Möbius transformations and Other Mapping 91-107

Block-III Conformal Integration Page No.108

Unit 7 Complex line Integral 109-121
Unit 8 Cauchy’s inequalities and other consequences. 122-147
Unit 9 Cauchy’s Theorem and Cauchy integral formula 148-168
Unit 10 Maximum and Minimum Modulus Principle and Schwarz 169-184
Lemma.

Block– IV Singularities and Residues Page No.185

Unit 11 Singularities 186-205
Unit 12 The residue theorem, 206-231
Unit 13 Argument principle, Rouche’s theorem. 232-245
Unit 14 Uniqueness of analytic continuation 246-259
 COURSE INFORMATION

The self-learning material titled "Advanced Complex Analysis" has been specifically
designed for M.Sc. (Third Semester) learners at Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani,
to provide them with easy access to high-quality educational resources. The course is
organized into fourteen units, each focusing on different key concepts in complex
analysis. Units 1 and 2 introduce the foundational topics of complex numbers, including
the concept of functions, limits, and continuity, which are essential for understanding
more advanced topics. Units 3 and 4 delve into the concept of analytic functions,
particularly focusing on the Cauchy-Riemann equations and power series, which are
crucial for analyzing complex functions. Units 5 and 6 shift the focus to conformal
mapping and Möbius transformations, as well as other types of mappings that preserve
angles and are fundamental in complex analysis. Units 7 and 8 explore complex line
integrals and Cauchy's inequalities, along with their various consequences, which are key
tools in evaluating integrals and understanding the behaviour of complex functions. Units
9 and 10 cover Cauchy's Theorem and the Cauchy Integral Formula, along with the
Maximum and Minimum Modulus Principle and Schwarz Lemma, which provide
powerful results about the properties of analytic functions. Unit 11 is dedicated to
singularities, where the behaviour of functions near points of discontinuity is studied.
Units 12, 13, and 14 explain the residue theorem, argument principle, Rouche’s theorem,
and the uniqueness of analytic continuation, which are advanced topics that extend the
applications of complex analysis.
The material is not only structured for academic learning but is also useful for
competitive examinations. It explains fundamental principles and theories in a clear and
straightforward manner, with numerous examples and exercises included to help learners
easily grasp the subject matter.
Course Name: Advanced Complex Analysis Course code: MAT601
Credit: 4
Syllabus
Algebra and Topology of the complex plane. Geometry of the complex
plane, Complex differentiation. : Power series and its convergence,
Cauchy-Riemann equations, Harmonic functions, Conformal Mapping:
Circle and line revisited, Conformal Mapping, Möbius transformations,
Other Mapping, Integration along a contour, The fundamental theorem of
calculus, Homotopy, Cauchy’s theorem, Cauchy integral formula,
Cauchy’s inequalities and other consequences, Winding number, Open
mapping theorem, Schwarz reflection Principle, Singularities of a
holomorphic function, Laurent series, The residue theorem, Argument
principle, Rouche’s theorem, Uniqueness of analytic continuation.
Refrences
 Ruel V.Churchill, (1960), Complex Variables and Applications,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
 S. Ponnusamy, (2011), Foundations of Complex Analysis (2nd
edition), Narosa Publishing House.
 Murray R. Spiegel, (2009), Schaum's Outline of Complex
Variables(2ndedition).
Suggested Readings
 L. V. Ahlfors,(1966), Complex Analysis, Second edition,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
 J.B. Conway, (2000), Functions of One Complex Variable,
Narosa Publishing House,
 E.T. Copson, (1970), Introduction to Theory of Functions of
Complex Variable, Oxford University Press.
Advanced Complex Analysis MAT601

BLOCK I
ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS

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Advanced Complex Analysis MAT601

UNIT 1:-Introduction to Complex Numbers

CONTENTS:
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Complex Numbers
1.4 Equality of Complex Numbers
1.5 Geometrical Representation of Complex Numbers
1.6 Complex Plane or Argand Plane
1.7 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
1.8 Properties of Arguments.
1.9 Properties of Moduli
1.10 Summary
1.11 Glossary
1.12 References
1.13 Suggested Reading
1.14 Terminal questions
1.15 Answers

1.1 INTRODUCTION:-
Complex numbers extend the real number system to include solutions to
equations that have no real solutions, such as 𝑥 2 + 1 = 0. A complex
number is of the form 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 where 𝑎 the real part, 𝑏 is the
imaginary part, and 𝑖 is the imaginary unit with 𝑖 2 = −1. They can be
represented on the complex plane, with the real part on the horizontal axis
and the imaginary part on the vertical axis. The term “Complex Number”
was coined by C.F. Gauss, and later mathematicians like A.L. Cauchy, B.
Riemann, and K. Weierstrass made significant contributions, enriching the
subject with their original work. Basic operations with complex numbers,
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, follow specific
rules. The modulus and argument provide a polar form, offering an
alternative way to express complex numbers, which is particularly useful
in advanced mathematics and engineering.

1.2 OBJECTIVES:-
After studying this unit, the learner’s will be able to

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 To find the solutions to equations that lack real solutions.

 To represent complex numbers as points or vectors on the complex
plane.
 To solved the form of complex numbers.
 To solved the equation of straight line and circle.

1.3 COMPLEX NUMBERS:-

Complex numbers were introduced to provide solutions to equations like
𝑥 2 + 1 = 0, where there are no real solutions. These numbers include
both real and imaginary parts and are denoted as 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, where 𝑎, 𝑏 are
the real numbers, is called Complex Number. and 𝑖 represents the
imaginary unit, which is defined as the square root of −1, also called 𝑖 as
imaginary unit.

If we represent a number in the form 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, then 𝑧 is called a

complex Variable . Here, 𝑥 and 𝑦 are called the real and imaginary parts of
𝑧 respectively. Sometimes we write z as

𝑧 = (𝑥, 𝑦)

we also write

𝑅(𝑧) = 𝑥, 𝐼 (𝑧) = 𝑦

If 𝑥 = 0, 𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑦, then 𝑧 is known as pure imaginary number.

The complex conjugate of a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is denoted as

𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 and is equal to 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦. In other words, it involves changing the sign
of the imaginary part while leaving the real part unchanged.

𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

Example: the conjugate of −3 − 5𝑖 is 3 + 5𝑖.

It is easy to verify that

𝑧 + 𝑧̅ 𝑧 − 𝑧̅
𝑅 (𝑧 ) = 𝑥 = , 𝐼 (𝑧 ) = 𝑦 =
2 2𝑖

1.4 EQUALITY OF COMPLEX NUMBERS:-

The equality of complex numbers follows the same principles as equality
of real numbers. Two complex numbers 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 and 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 are
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considered equal if and only if both their real parts and imaginary parts are
equal, i.e., 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 and 𝑦1 = 𝑦2 .

Formally

𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 , 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2

𝑧1 = 𝑧2 if and only if 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 = 𝑦2 .

Remark: The phrases “greater than” or “less than” have no meaning in

the set of complex numbers.

Fundamental operations with complex numbers:

 Addition: To add two complex numbers, add their corresponding

real and imaginary parts.

If
𝑧1 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, 𝑧2 = 𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 then
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = (𝑎 + 𝑐 ) + 𝑖(𝑏 + 𝑑 )
 Subtraction: To subtract one complex number from another,
subtract their corresponding real and imaginary parts.

𝑧1 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, 𝑧2 = 𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 then
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = (𝑎 − 𝑐 ) + 𝑖(𝑏 − 𝑑 )
 Multiplication: To divide two complex numbers, multiply the
numerator and the denominator by the conjugate of the
denominator.
If
𝑧1 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, 𝑧2 = 𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 then
𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 ) = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑖𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑖 2 𝑏𝑑
= (𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑 ) + 𝑖(𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐 )
 Division: To divide two complex numbers, multiply the numerator
and the denominator by the conjugate of the denominator.
If
𝑧1 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, 𝑧2 = 𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑, the conjugate of
𝑧2 is 𝑧̅2 = 𝑐 − 𝑖𝑑 then
𝑧1 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 𝑐 − 𝑖𝑑 (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏)(𝑐 − 𝑖𝑑 )
= . =
𝑧2 𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 𝑐 − 𝑖𝑑 𝑐 2 + 𝑑2
(𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑 )(𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑 )
=
𝑐 2 + 𝑑2
𝑎𝑐−𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑐−𝑎𝑑
= ( 𝑐 2 +𝑑2 ) + 𝑖 ( 𝑐 2 +𝑑2 ) if 𝑐 2 + 𝑑 2 ≠ 0

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Absolute Value: For a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, where 𝑎 the real part
is and 𝑏 is the imaginary part, the absolute value is defined as:

|𝑧| = |𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏2

∴ |𝑧|2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏) = 𝑧𝑧̅

|𝑧|2 = 𝑧𝑧̅

Also 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = 𝑧̅1 𝑧̅2

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

Properties of the Absolute Value:

 Non-negativity: ∣ 𝑧 ∣≥ 0
The absolute value is always non-negative.
 Zero: ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 0

if and only if z=0 (i.e., both the real and imaginary parts are zero).

 Multiplicatively: |𝑧1 . 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 ||𝑧2 |

The absolute value of the product of two complex numbers is the
product of their absolute values.

 Triangle Inequality: |𝑧1 + 𝑧2 | ≤ |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 |

The absolute value of the sum of two complex numbers is less than
or equal to the sum of their absolute values.
 Conjugate: ∣ 𝑧 ∣=∣ 𝑧̅ ∣
The absolute value of a complex number is equal to the absolute
value of its conjugate.

1.5 GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION OF

COMPLEX NUMBERS:-
A complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is defined as an ordered pair of real
numbers (𝑥, 𝑦), where 𝑥 the real part is and 𝑦 is the imaginary part.

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Fig.1

A complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 can be represented by a point 𝑃 with

Cartesian coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦) on a rectangular coordinate system, where the
𝑋 −axis is the real axis and the 𝑌 − 𝑎xis is the imaginary axis.

Each complex number corresponds to a unique point in the plane, and

conversely, each point in the plane corresponds to one and only one
complex number.

1.6 COMPLEX PLANE OR ARGAND PLANE:-

The complex plane, also known as the Argand plane or the z-plane, is a
two-dimensional coordinate system used to represent complex numbers
geometrically. Gauss was the first to produce in 1799 that complex
numbers are represented by points in a plane, then this concept that was
developed by Argand in 1806. In this plane, each complex number 𝑧 =
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 can identify with a point 𝑃 = (𝑥, 𝑦), where 𝑥 the real part is and 𝑦
is the imaginary part. The horizontal axis, known as the real axis, contains
all points of the form (𝑥, 0), representing real numbers, while the vertical
axis, called the imaginary axis, includes points of the form (0, 𝑦),
representing purely imaginary numbers. Points not on the real axis
represent general complex numbers with both real and imaginary parts.
The origin (0,0), represents the complex number 0 + 𝑖0. This graphical
representation helps in visualizing complex number operations and
understanding their properties.

The nonnegative number ∣ 𝑧 ∣, called the modulus or absolute value of a

complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 , represents the distance of the complex
number 𝑧 from the origin in the complex plane. It is calculated using the
formula:
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|𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
This is derived from the Pythagorean theorem, considering 𝑧 = (𝑥, 𝑦) as a
point in the 𝑥𝑦 −plane.(see Fig.2.)

Fig.2.

The distance between two points 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 , 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 in the

complex plane is given by the distance formula:

|𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2

This formula measures the straight-line distance between the points

(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) in the complex plane.

1.7 POLAR FORM OF COMPLEX NUMBERS:-

In the complex plane, any complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 can be represented
as a point 𝑃 with coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦). The polar coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃) of this
point are derived from its Cartesian coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦). The modulus 𝑟,
also known as the absolute value of 𝒛, is found by taking the square root
of the sum of the squares of the real and imaginary parts, giving us 𝑟 =
√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 .

Fig.3.

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This represents the distance of the point 𝑃 from the origin 𝑂 . The
argument 𝜃, often referred to as the amplitude of 𝑧, is determined by the
angle 𝜃 between the line segment 𝑂𝑃 and the positive real axis. It is
𝑦
calculated as the arctangent of 𝜃 = tan−1 𝑥 , representing the direction of
the point 𝑃 from the origin. Together, the modulus and argument
provide a comprehensive description of the complex number's location
and direction within the complex plane and it is also written as 𝜃 =
𝑎𝑚𝑝(𝑧) or 𝜃 = arg(𝑧).

From the figure 3. 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Then 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦| = |𝑧|
𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1
𝑥
It follows
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
It is called polar form of the complex number 𝑧 and that 𝑟, 𝜃 are called
polar coordinates of 𝑧.
 The argument of a complex number 𝑧 is not unique because it can
differ by any integer multiple of 2𝜋.
 The principal value of the argument of a complex number 𝑧 ,
denoted as 𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧), is the value of θ that lies within the interval
−𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.
 If 𝑧 = 0, then 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧) = 𝑎𝑟𝑔(0) is not defined and 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧) is
defined only if only 𝑧 ≠ 0.
 If 𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧) denoted general value and argument 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧) denoted
principal value, then
𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧) = 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧) + 2𝑛𝜋 ∀ 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼
where 𝐼 = set of integers.
 If 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, then
𝑦
tan−1 𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0, 𝑦 > 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 ≤ 0
𝑦
𝜋 + tan−1 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≥ 0
𝑦
arg(𝑧) = −𝜋 + tan−1 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≥ 0
𝜋
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 > 0
2
𝜋
{ − 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 < 0

1.8 PROPERTIES OF ARGUMENTS:-

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Theorem1. The argument of the product of two complex numbers is

equal to the sum of their arguments.

arg(𝑧1 𝑧2 ) = 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧1 ) + 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧2 )

𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐟: Let 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 be two complex numbers with arguments 𝜃1 and 𝜃2

respectively. In polar form, these complex numbers can be written as:
𝑧1 = 𝑟1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 )
𝑧2 = 𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )

Now, consider the product 𝑧1 𝑧2 :

𝑧1 𝑧2 = [𝑟1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 )][𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )]
= 𝑟1 𝑟2 [(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 ) + 𝑖(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 )]
Using the angle addition formulas for sine and cosine:
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2
We can rewrite the product as:
𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )]
This shows that the modulus of the product is 𝑟1 𝑟2 and the argument of the
product is 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 .Therefore
arg(𝑧1 𝑧2 ) = 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧1 ) + 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧2 )
Theorem2. The argument of the quotient of complex numbers is equal
to the difference of their arguments.
𝑧1
𝑎𝑟𝑔 ( ) = 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧1 ) − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 (𝑧2 )
𝑧2
Proof: Let 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 be two complex numbers with arguments 𝜃1 and 𝜃2
and moduli 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 . In polar form, these complex numbers can be
expressed as:
𝑧1 = 𝑟1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 )
𝑧2 = 𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )
Now, consider the quotient 𝑧1 /𝑧2 :
𝑧1 𝑟1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 )
=
𝑧2 𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )

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Using the properties of complex numbers in polar form, we can write this
as:
𝑧1 𝑟1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 )
= .
𝑧2 𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )
To simplify the fraction, we multiply the numerator and the denominator
by the complex conjugate of the denominator:
𝑧1 𝑟1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 ) (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 )
= . .
𝑧2 𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 ) (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )
The denominator simplifies as:
(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 ). (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃2 = 1
𝑟
This shows that the modulus of the quotient is 𝑟1 , and the argument of the
2
quotient is 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 . Therefore
𝑧1
𝑎𝑟𝑔 ( ) = 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧1 ) − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 (𝑧2 )
𝑧2
This completes the proof that the argument of the quotient of two complex
numbers is equal to the difference of their arguments.

1.9 PROPERTIES OF MODULI:-

Theorem3: The modulus of the product of two complex numbers is the
product of their modulus.

|𝑧1 . 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 |. |𝑧2 |

Proof: |𝑧1 . 𝑧2 |𝟐 = (𝑧1 . 𝑧2 )(̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

𝑧1 . 𝑧2 ) = 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 . 𝑧̅1 . 𝑧̅2

= (𝑧1 . 𝑧̅1 )(𝑧2 . 𝑧̅2 ) = |𝑧1 |𝟐 . |𝑧2 |𝟐

|𝑧1 . 𝑧2 |𝟐 = |𝑧1 |𝟐 . |𝑧2 |𝟐

⇒
|𝑧1 . 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 |. |𝑧2 |
𝑧 𝑧
Remark: |𝑧1 | = |𝑧1 . 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 | . |𝑧2 |,
2 2

𝑧1 𝑧1
| |=| |
𝑧2 𝑧2

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Theorem4: The modulus of the sum of two complex numbers is less than
or equal to sum of their moduli.

|𝑧1 + 𝑧2 | ≤ |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 |

Proof: Suppose, 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 𝑒 𝑖𝜃1 , 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑖𝜃2 , then

𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 ) + 𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )

= (𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 ) + 𝑖(𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 + 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )

|𝑧1 + 𝑧2 | = √(𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 )2 + (𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 + 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )2

= √𝑟12 + 𝑟22 + 2𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )

≤ √𝑟12 + 𝑟22 + 2𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) ≤ 1

= 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 |

|𝑧1 + 𝑧2 | ≤ |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 |

Remark: By induction, it follows that

∞ ∞

|∑ 𝑧𝑛 | ≤ ∑|𝑧𝑛 |
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

Theorem5: The modulus of the sum of two complex numbers is less than
or equal to sum of their moduli.

|𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | ≥ |𝑧1 | − |𝑧2 |

Proof: Let, 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 𝑒 𝑖𝜃1 , 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑖𝜃2 , then

|𝑧1 | = 𝑟1 , |𝑧2 | = 𝑟2

𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 ) − 𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )

= (𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 ) + 𝑖(𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 − 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )

|𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | = √(𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 )2 + (𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 − 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )2

= √𝑟12 + 𝑟22 − 2𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )

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≤ √𝑟12 + 𝑟22 − 2𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) ≥ −1

= 𝑟1 − 𝑟2 = |𝑧1 | − |𝑧2 |

|𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | ≥ |𝑧1 | − |𝑧2 |

Remark: To prove
|𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | ≤ |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 |

|𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 + (−𝑧2 )|

≤ |𝑧1 | + |−𝑧2 | by theorem2

= |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 |

|𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | ≤ |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 |

Hence |𝑧1 | − |𝑧2 | ≤ |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | ≤ |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 |

Theorem6: To prove |𝑧1 + 𝑧2 | ≥ |𝑧1 | − |𝑧2 |.

Proof: : Let, 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 𝑒 𝑖𝜃1 , 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑖𝜃2 , then

|𝑧1 | = 𝑟1 , |𝑧2 | = 𝑟2

𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 ) + 𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )

= (𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 ) + 𝑖(𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 + 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )

|𝑧1 + 𝑧2 | = √(𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 )2 + (𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 + 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )2

= √𝑟12 + 𝑟22 + 2𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )

≥ √𝑟12 + 𝑟22 − 2𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) ≥ −1

= 𝑟1 − 𝑟2 = |𝑧1 | − |𝑧2 | if 𝑟1 > 𝑟2

𝑟1 − 𝑟2 = |𝑧1 | − |𝑧2 |

|𝑧1 + 𝑧2 | ≥ |𝑧1 | − |𝑧2 | if |𝑧1 | > |𝑧2 |

Theorem7: Parallelogram Law: The sum of squares of the length of

diagonals of a parallelogram is equal to the sum of squares of length of its
sides, i.e., prove that
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|𝑧1 + 𝑧2 |2 + |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 |2 = 2[|𝑧1 |2 + |𝑧2 |2 ]

OR

To prove that |𝑧1 + 𝑧2 |2 + |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 |2 = 2[|𝑧1 |2 + |𝑧2 |2 ]

Proof: Let 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 𝑒 𝑖𝜃1 , 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑖𝜃2 , then

|𝑧1 | = 𝑟1 , |𝑧2 | = 𝑟2

𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 ) + 𝑟2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )

= (𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 ) + 𝑖(𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 + 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )

𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = (𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 (𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 − 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )

Now |𝑧1 + 𝑧2 |2 + |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 |2 = [(𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 )𝟐 + 𝑖 (𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 +

𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )2 ] + [(𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 )2 + (𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 − 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 )2 ]

= [𝑟12 + 𝑟22 + 2𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )] + [𝑟12 + 𝑟22 − 2𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )]

= [𝑟12 + 𝑟22 ]

= 2[|𝑧1 |2 + |𝑧2 |2 ]

Theorem8: (Equation of Straight line)To find the equation of straight

line joining two points𝑧1 and 𝑧2 in the complex plane.

Proof: Let the equation of line AB joining the points A (𝑧1 ) and B(𝑧2 ),
suppose point P(z) on it. So

Fig.4.
𝑧−𝑧1
𝑎𝑟𝑔 (𝑧 ) = 0 or 𝜋
1 −𝑧2

𝑧−𝑧1
Consequently (𝑧 ) is purely real so that
1 −𝑧2

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𝑧 − 𝑧1 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧 − 𝑧1 𝑧̅ − 𝑧̅1
( )=( )=( )
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 𝑧̅1 − 𝑧̅2

(𝑧 − 𝑧1 )(𝑧̅1 − 𝑧̅2 ) = (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )(𝑧̅ − 𝑧̅1 )

𝑧(𝑧̅1 − 𝑧̅2 ) − 𝑧̅(𝑧̅1 − 𝑧̅2 ) − 𝑧1 𝑧̅1 + 𝑧1 𝑧̅2 + 𝑧1 𝑧̅1 − 𝑧2 𝑧̅1 = 0

𝑧(𝑧̅1 − 𝑧̅2 ) − 𝑧̅(𝑧̅1 − 𝑧̅2 ) + (𝑧1 𝑧̅2 − 𝑧2 𝑧̅1 ) = 0 is required equation of line.

Theorem9: (Equation of a Circle) To show that the equation of circle in

the Argand plane can be put in the form

𝑧𝑧̅ + 𝑧̅𝑏 + 𝑏̅𝑧 + 𝑐 = 0

where 𝑐 is real and 𝑏 is complex constant.

Proof: Suppose 𝑎 be a complex coordinate of the centre 𝐶 and 𝑟 be the

radius of circle. Consider any point 𝑃(𝑧) on the circle.
Then the length of line 𝐶𝑃 = radius of circle or
|𝑧 − 𝑎 | = 𝑟

Fig.5.
Squaring both sides, we have
|𝑧 − 𝑎 |2 = 𝑟 2
(𝑧 − 𝑎)(𝑧̅ − 𝑎̅) = 𝑟 2
(𝑧𝑧̅ − 𝑎̅𝑧 + 𝑎𝑎̅ − 𝑎𝑧̅) = 𝑟 2
𝑧𝑧̅ − 𝑎̅𝑧 − 𝑎𝑧̅ + (|𝑎|2 − 𝑟 2 ) = 0

Taking – 𝑎 = 𝑏 and (|𝑎|2 − 𝑟 2 ) = 𝑐 = 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

𝑧𝑧̅ + 𝑧̅𝑏 + 𝑏̅𝑧 + 𝑐 = 0

where 𝑐 is real and 𝑏 is complex constant.

SOLVED EXAMPLE

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EXAMPLE1: Prove that |𝑎 + √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 | + |𝑎 − √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 | =

[|𝑎 − 𝑏| + |𝑎 − 𝑏|]2 .

SOLUTION: Suppose |𝑧1 + 𝑧2 |2 + |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 |2 = 2[|𝑧1 |2 + |𝑧2 |2 ]

|𝑧1 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 |. |𝑧2 |

Now we shall prove the given problem

2
[|𝑎 + √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 | + |𝑎 − √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 |]
2 2
= |𝑎 + √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 | + |𝑎 − √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 |
+ 2 |𝑎 + √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 | |𝑎 − √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 |

2
= 2 [|𝑎|2 + |√𝑎2 − 𝑏2 | ] + 2 |[𝑎 + √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 ] [𝑎 − √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 ]|

= 2[|𝑎|2 + |𝑎2 − 𝑏2 |] + 2|𝑎2 − (𝑎2 − 𝑏2 )|

= 2[|𝑎|2 + |𝑎2 − 𝑏2 |] + 2|𝑏2 |

= 2[|𝑎|2 + |𝑏2 |] + 2|𝑎2 − 𝑏2 |

= [|𝑎 + 𝑏|2 + |𝑎 − 𝑏|2 ] + 2|𝑎 + 𝑏|. |𝑎 − 𝑏|

= [|𝑎 + 𝑏|2 + |𝑎 − 𝑏|2 ]2

Hence

|𝑎 + √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 | + |𝑎 − √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 | = [|𝑎 − 𝑏| + |𝑎 − 𝑏|]2 is required the

solution.

EXAMPLE2: Determine the regions of Argand diagram given by

|𝑧 2 − 𝑧| < 1.

SOLUTION: Let 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃

Then 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 = 𝑟 2 𝑒 𝑖2𝜃 − 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃

= (𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) + 𝑖(𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 − 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)

|𝑧 2 − 𝑧|2 = (𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 + (𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 − 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2

= 𝑟 4 + 𝑟 2 − 2𝑟 3 cos(2𝜃 − 𝜃)

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But |𝑧 2 − 𝑧 |2 < 1

Hence
𝑟 4 + 𝑟 2 − 2𝑟 3 cos 𝜃 < 1

or 𝑟 4 + 𝑟 2 − 2𝑟 3 cos 𝜃 − 1 < 0

Hence

𝑟 4 + 𝑟 2 − 2𝑟 3 cos 𝜃 − 1 = 0

EXAMPLE3: Determine the region of 𝑧 −plane for which

|𝑧 − 1| + |𝑧 + 1| ≤ 3.

SOLUTION: Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

|𝑧 − 1| + |𝑧 + 1| = |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 1| + |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 1|

= √(𝑥 − 1)2 + 𝑦 2 + √(𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝑦 2

But |𝑧 − 1 | + |𝑧 + 1 | ≤ 3

√(𝑥 − 1)2 + 𝑦 2 + √(𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝑦 2 ≤ 3

√(𝑥 − 1)2 + 𝑦 2 ≤ 3 − √(𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝑦 2

(𝑥 − 1)2 + 𝑦 2 ≤ 9 + (𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝑦 2 − 6√(𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝑦 2

0 < 4𝑥 + 9 − 6√(𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝑦 2

6√(𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝑦 2 ≤ (4𝑥 + 9)

36[(𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝑦 2 ] ≤ 16𝑥 2 + 81 + 72𝑥

36𝑥 2 + 36 + 36𝑦 2 + 72𝑥 ≤ 16𝑥 2 + 81 + 72𝑥

36𝑥 2 + 36 + 36𝑦 2 ≤ 16𝑥 2 + 81

20𝑥 2 + 36𝑦 2 ≤ 45

𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
(9/4) (5/4)

EXAMPLE4: Show that the locus of z such that

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|𝑧 − 𝑎 |. |𝑧 + 𝑎 | = 𝑎 2 , 𝑎 > 0

is a lemniscate.

SOLUTION: Let |𝑧 2 − 𝑎 2 | = 𝑎 2 or 𝑧 2 − 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 𝑒 𝑖𝜆

Put 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 . Then 𝑟 2 𝑒 𝑖2𝜃 − 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 𝑒 𝑖𝜆

This ⇒ 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆

𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆

Both above equations are squaring and adding

(𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 𝑎2 )2 + (𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃)2 = 𝑎4

𝑟 2 (𝑟 2 − 2𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃) = 0

But 𝑟 ≠ 0 as 𝑧 ≠ 0

𝑟 2 − 2𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 0 or 𝑟 2 = 2𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

which is lemniscates.

SELF CHECK QUESTIONS

1. Given two complex numbers𝑧1 = 3 + 4𝑖, 𝑧2 = 1 − 2𝑖 perform the

following operations:
a. Find the sum 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 .
b. Find the difference 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 .
c. Find the product 𝑧1 × 𝑧2 .
d. Find the quoteint of 𝑧1 /𝑧2
e. Find the magnitude of 𝑧1
f. Find the conjugate of 𝑧2 .
2. Determine whether the following pairs of complex numbers are
equal:
a. 𝑧1 = 4 + 2𝑖 and 𝑧2 = 4 + 2𝑖 equal
b. 𝑧3 = −1 + 4𝑖 and 𝑧3 = −1 − 4𝑖 not equal
c. 𝑧5 = 5 and 𝑧6 = 7 + 0𝑖 equal
d. 𝑧7 = 0 and 𝑧8 = 0 + 0𝑖 equal
e. 𝑧5 = 2𝑖 and 𝑧6 = −2𝑖 not equal
3. Determine whether the following statements about the geometrical
representation of complex numbers are true (Answer with "True"
or "False"):

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a. The complex number 3 + 4𝑖 is represented by the point

(3, 4) on the complex plane. true
b. The magnitude of the complex number −3 − 4𝑖 is 5. true
c. The complex number 0 + 0𝑖 is located at the origin. true
𝜋
d. The argument of the complex number 1 + 𝑖 is 4 . true
e. The complex number 4 lies on the imaginary axis. False
4. For the circle |𝑧| = 1, the inverse of the point 𝑧 is :
a. 𝑧
b. 𝑧̅
c. 1/𝑧̅
d. None
5. If the amplitude of the complex number 𝑧 be 𝜃, then amplitude of
𝑖𝑧 is :
a. – 𝜃
b. 𝜃 + 𝜋/2
c. 𝜃 + 𝜋
d. None
6. Polar form of complex number −5 + 5𝑖 is:
a. 5√2𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4
b. 5√2𝑒 −3𝑖𝜋/4
c. 5√2𝑒 3𝑖𝜋/4
d. None
7. If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 complex numbers representing vertices of two
triangles s.t., 𝑐 = (1 − 𝑟)𝑎 + 𝑟𝑏 and 𝑤 = (1 − 𝑟)𝑢 + 𝑟𝑣, where 𝑟
is a complex number, then the two triangles.
a. have the same area
b. are similar
c. are congruent
d. None
8. The points 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , 𝑧4 in the complex plane are the vertices of a
parallelogram in order iff
a. 𝑧1 + 𝑧4 = 𝑧2 + 𝑧3
b. 𝑧1 + 𝑧3 = 𝑧2 + 𝑧4
c. 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧3 + 𝑧4
d. None

1.10 SUMMARY:-
In this unit we have studied, a complex number is a mathematical entity
that extends the concept of one-dimensional real numbers to a two-
dimensional number system. It is expressed in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, where 𝑎
and 𝑏 are real numbers, and 𝑖 is the imaginary unit satisfying 𝑖 2 = −1.
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Here, 𝑎 is referred to as the real part and 𝑏 as the imaginary part of the
complex number. Complex numbers enable the solution of equations that
have no real solutions, such as 𝑥 2 + 1 = 0. They are fundamental in
various fields of mathematics, engineering, and physics, providing a way
to describe oscillations, waveforms, and other phenomena.

1.11 GLOSSARY:-
 Complex Number: A number of the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, where 𝑎 and 𝑏
are real numbers, and 𝑖 is the imaginary unit with 𝑖 2 = −1.
 Real Part: The component 𝑎 in a complex number 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 ,
representing a real number.
 Imaginary Part: The component 𝑏 in a complex number 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖,
representing a real number multiplied by the imaginary unit 𝑖.
 Imaginary Unit (𝒊): A mathematical constant satisfying 𝑖 2 = −1.
 Equality of Complex Numbers: Two complex numbers 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 and
𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖 are equal if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑.
 Complex Plane (Argand Plane): A two-dimensional plane for
representing complex numbers, where the horizontal axis is the
real part and the vertical axis is the imaginary part.
 Magnitude (Modulus): The distance from the origin to the point
(𝑎, 𝑏) in the complex plane, calculated as ∣ 𝑧 ∣= √𝑎2 + 𝑏2 for a
complex number 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖.
 Argument (Phase): The angle θ formed with the positive real axis,
𝑏
calculated using 𝜃 = tan−1 𝑎 , (𝑏/𝑎) for a complex number 𝑧 =
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖.
 Polar Form: A representation of a complex number in terms of its
magnitude and argument: 𝑧 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) or 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 .
 Conjugate: The conjugate of a complex number 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖.
 Addition of Complex Numbers: Combining two complex
numbers by adding their real parts and their imaginary parts
separately: (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) + (𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖) = (𝑎 + 𝑐) + (𝑏 + 𝑑)𝑖.
 Multiplication of Complex Numbers: Multiplying two complex
numbers using distributive property and the fact that 𝑖 2 = −1:
(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖)(𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖) = (𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑) + (𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)𝑖.
 Division of Complex Numbers: Dividing by multiplying the
numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator
𝑎+𝑏𝑖 (𝑎+𝑏𝑖)(𝑐−𝑑𝑖)
and simplifying: 𝑐+𝑑𝑖 = .
𝑐 2 +𝑑2

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1.12 REFERENCES:-
 James Ward Brown and Ruel V. Churchill 2009 (Eighth Edition)
,Complex Variables and Applications.
 Elias M. Stein and Rami Shakarchi (2003), Complex Analysis.
 I.John B. Conway1978 (Second Edition), Functions of One
Complex Variable.
 Theodore W. Gamelin(2001),Complex Analysis.

1.13 SUGGESTED READING:-

 file:///C:/Users/user/Downloads/Paper-III-Complex-Analysis.pdf
 Goyal and Gupta (Twenty first edition 2010), Function of complex
Variable.
 A.I. Markushevich 2005 (Dover Reprint of 1977 Edition),Theory
of Functions of a Complex Variable.
 file:///C:/Users/user/Desktop/1456304480EtextofChapter1Module1
%20(1).pdf

1.14 TERMINAL QUESTIONS:-

(TQ-1) Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two complex numbers s.t
𝐴 𝐵
+ =1
𝐵 𝐴
Prove that origin and two points represented by 𝐴 and 𝐵 form vertices of
an equilateral triangle.
(TQ-2) If the complex numbers 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 are
complex conjugate to each other, then the value of 𝑥.
(TQ-3)A relation R on the set of complex numbers is defined by
𝑧 −𝑧
𝑧1 𝑅𝑧2 ⇔ 𝑧1+𝑧2 real. Show that R is an equivalence relation.
1 2

(TQ-4) Show that the origin and the point representing the roots of the
equation 𝑧 2 + 𝑝𝑧 + 𝑞 = 0 form an equilateral if 𝑝2 = 3𝑞.
(TQ-5) Find 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) if 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝛼.
(TQ-6)Show that the triangles whose vertices are 𝑧1, 𝑧2, 𝑧3 and
𝑧′1 𝑧′2 𝑧′3 are directly if
𝑧1 𝑧 ′1 1
|𝑧2 𝑧 ′ 2 1| = 0
𝑧3 𝑧′3 1
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(TQ-7) Show that |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | ≥ (|𝑧1| − |𝑧2|)

(TQ-8) Prove that |𝑧1 − 𝑧2|2 + |𝑧1 + 𝑧2|2 = 2|𝑧1 |2 + 2|𝑧2|2 and deduce
that |𝛼 + √𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 | + |𝛼 − √𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 | = |𝛼 + 𝛽 | + |𝛼 − 𝛽 | all the
numbers concerned being complex.
(TQ-9) Find the principal value of 𝑎𝑟𝑔 ′𝑖′.
(TQ-10) Find the principal value of 𝑎𝑟𝑔 (1 + 𝑖).

1.15 ANSWERS:-
SELF CHECK ANSWERS (SCQ’S)
1.
a. 4 + 2𝑖
b. 2 + 6𝑖
c. 11 − 2𝑖
d. −1 + 2𝑖
e. 5
f. 1 + 2𝑖
2.
g. equal
h. not equal
i. equal
j. equal
k. not equal
3.
a. true
b. true
c. true
d. true
e. False
4. 1/𝑧̅
𝜋
5. 𝜃 + 2
6. 5√2𝑒 3𝑖𝜋/4
7. are similar
8. 𝑧1 + 𝑧3 = 𝑧2 + 𝑧4

TERMINAL ANSWERS (TQ’S)

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𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋
(TQ-2) 𝑥 = 8 , , ,…
8 8
𝜋
(TQ-5) 2 + 𝛼
𝜋
(TQ-9) 2
𝜋
(TQ-10) 4

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UNIT 2:-Concept of Functions, Limit and

Continuity
CONTENTS:
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Point Set
2.4 Neighborhood
2.5 Limit Points
2.6 Interior, Exterior and Boundary Points
2.7 Open Set and Closed Set.
2.8 Convex Set
2.9 Bounded, Unbounded and Compact Set
2.10 Derived Set, Closure of a Set and Connected Set
2.11 Domain
2.12 Jordan Arc(Curve)
2.13 Function Of A Complex Variable
2.14 Continuity
2.15 Summary
2.16 Glossary
2.17 References
2.18 Suggested Reading
2.19 Terminal questions
2.20 Answers

2.1 INTRODUCTION:-
In this unit, learners are well-versed in the definitions of limits and
continuity for functions of a real variable; in this chapter, we will extend
these concepts to functions of a complex variable. This includes exploring
the nuances of limits and continuity within the complex plane, where
functions involve both real and imaginary components. By understanding
these definitions in the context of complex variables, students will gain
deeper insights into the behavior and properties of complex functions,
building on their existing knowledge from real analysis to navigate the
more intricate landscape of complex analysis.

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2.2 OBJECTIVES:-
After studying this unit, the learner’s will be able to

 To Understand and describe the relationship between variables

through functions, enabling the modeling of real-world
phenomena.
 To verify the continuity of a function of two variables at a point.

Overall apply these fundamental concepts to solve practical problems in

various fields such as physics, engineering, economics, and beyond, where
understanding change and stability is essential.

2.3 POINT SET:-

A point set in the complex plane refers to a gathering of points, each
representing a distinct element within the set. These points, commonly
referred to as numbers or elements of the set, collectively constitute the
spatial arrangement of the set within the two-dimensional complex plane.

2.4 NEIGHBORHOOD:-
In the Argand plane (also known as the complex plane), the neighborhood
of a point 𝑧0 is defined as the set of points 𝑧 such that the distance
between 𝑧0 and 𝑧 (denoted as |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝜀 is less than some positive real
number ε. Mathematically, it can be expressed as {𝑧 ∈ ℂ: |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝜀 },
where ℂ represents the complex numbers. This neighborhood represents
an open set around the point z, where all points within a certain distance 𝜀
from 𝑧 are included.
The neighborhood of the point at infinity in the complex plane is the set
of points 𝑧 s.t. |𝑧| < 𝑘 where 𝑘 is any positive real number.

2.5 LIMIT POINTS:-

A point 𝑧0 in the complex plane ℂ is termed a limit point of a set 𝑆 ⊆ ℂ if
every punctured neighborhood of 𝑧0 contains at least one point of 𝑆. A
limit point may or may not be an actual member of the set. For instance,
all points on the circle |𝑧 ∣= 𝑟 are limit points of the set ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 𝑟, yet they
do not belong to the set itself. Conversely, all points within the circle ∣ 𝑧 ∣
= 𝑟 are limit points of the set and they do belong to the set ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 𝑟. This

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illustrates the nuanced relationship between limit points and sets in the
complex plane.
OR
A point 𝑧0 ∈ ℂ is called a limit point (or accumulation point) of a subset
𝑆 ⊆ ℂ if every open neighborhood of 𝑧0 contains at least one point of
𝑆 different from 𝑧0 itself. Formally, 𝑧0 is a limit point of 𝑆 if for every 𝜖 >
0, there exists a point 𝑧 ∈ 𝑆 such that 0 <∣ 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ∣< 𝜖. This means that
𝑧0 can be approached arbitrarily closely by points of 𝑆.
Theorem1: Let 𝑓 be a complex valued function defined on 𝐷 and let
𝑧0 𝜖𝐶𝑙(𝐷). If lim 𝑓(𝑧) exist, then this limit is unique.
𝑧−𝑧0

Solution: Suppose for contradiction that the limit is not unique. This
means there exist two distinct complex numbers 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 such that:

lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙1 , lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙2

𝑧−𝑧0 𝑧−𝑧0

Now assume 𝑙1 ≠ 𝑙2

By the definition of the limit, for any 𝜖 > 0, there exists a 𝛿1 > 0 such
that:

∣ 𝑧 − 𝑙1 ∣< 𝜖 whenever 0 <∣ 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ∣< 𝛿1

Similarly, there exists a 𝛿2 > 0 such that:

∣ 𝑧 − 𝑙2 ∣< 𝜖 whenever 0 <∣ 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ∣< 𝛿2

Let 𝛿 = 𝛿1 𝛿2 Then for any z satisfying 0 <∣ 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ∣< 𝛿 both inequalities

hold:

∣ 𝑧 − 𝑙1 ∣< 𝜖, ∣ 𝑧 − 𝑙2 ∣< 𝜖

Using the triangle inequality, we get:

∣ 𝑙1 − 𝑙2 ∣= |𝑙1 − 𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑙2 | ≤ |𝑙1 − 𝑓 (𝑧)| + |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑙2 | <∈ +∈

=2∈

However, by our assumption 𝑙1 ≠ 𝑙2 , so ∣ 𝑙1 − 𝑙2 ∣is a positive constant.

∣𝑙1 −𝑙2 ∣
By choosing we have
3

∣ 𝑙1 − 𝑙2 ∣ 2
∣ 𝑙1 − 𝑙2 ∣< 2. = ∣ 𝑙1 − 𝑙2 ∣
3 3

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This is a contradiction because ∣ 𝑙1 − 𝑙2 ∣ cannot be less than itself.

Therefore, our assumption that the limit is not unique must be false.

lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙1
𝑧−𝑧0

Hence the limit lim 𝑓(𝑧) is unique if it exist.

𝑧−𝑧0

Theorem2: Let f be the complex valued function defined on D. Suppose,

𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑧0 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0 , 𝑤0 = 𝑢0 + 𝑖𝑣0 and 𝑧0 ∈
𝐶𝑙(𝐷).

Then lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑤0 iff lim 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑢0 and lim 𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑣0

𝑧−𝑧0 𝑧−𝑧0 𝑧−𝑧0

Solution: Given

𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)

𝑧0 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0

𝑤0 = 𝑢0 + 𝑖𝑣0

and 𝑧0 ∈ 𝐶𝑙(𝐷)

Forward direction (𝐼𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑤0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) =

𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧→𝑧0

𝑢0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑣0 ):

𝑧→𝑧0

Assume 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑤0

𝑧→𝑧0

This means that ∀ ∈> 0, ∃ 𝛿 > 0 such that whenever 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿,
we have

|𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑤0 | <∈

We can express this in terms of the real and imaginary parts:

|𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) − (𝑢0 + 𝑖𝑣0 )| <∈

Using the properties of absolute values for complex numbers; this can be
written as

√(𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑢0 )2 + (𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑣0 )2 <∈

Since the square root function is positive and increasing, we have:

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(𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑢0 )2 + (𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑣0 )2 <∈2

This implies:

|𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑢0 | <∈ and |𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑣0 | <∈

Therefore, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑢0 and 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑣0 .

𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧→𝑧0

Reverse direction (𝑖𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑢0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) =

𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧→𝑧0

𝑣0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑤0 ):

𝑧→𝑧0

Assume

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑢0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑣0

𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧→𝑧0

This means that ∀ ∈> 0, ∃ 𝛿1 > 0 such that whenever 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿1 ,
we have
∈
|𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑢0 | <
√2

Similarly ∃ 𝛿2 > 0 such that whenever 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿2 , we have

∈
|𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑣0 | <
√2

Using these inequalities, we get:

2
∈ ∈2
(𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑢0 )2 < ( ) =
√2 2
2
∈ ∈2
(𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑣0 )2 < ( ) =
√2 2

This implies:

| 𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑤0 | = |(𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦)) − (𝑢0 + 𝑖𝑣0 )| <∈

Hence, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑤0 .

𝑧→𝑧0

Therefore 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑤0 if and only if 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑢0 and

𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧→𝑧0
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑣0 .
𝑧→𝑧0

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SOLVED EXAMPLE
𝑧̅
EXAMPLE1: Prove that lim 𝑧 does not exist.
𝑧→0

SOLUTION: Let 𝑓(𝑧) → 𝑙 (a unique limit) as 𝑧 → 𝑧0 in any manner in

the ℂ − plane.
𝑧̅
Let 𝑓 (𝑧) = and 𝑧 → 0, along the real axis.
𝑧

∴ 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑥 (∵ 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
𝑧̅ 𝑥
∴ lim𝑓(𝑧) = lim 𝑧 = lim 𝑥 = 1
𝑧→0 𝑧→0 𝑧→0

Suppose 𝑧 → 0, along the imaginary axis.

∴ 𝑥 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑦 (∵ 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
𝑧̅ −𝑖𝑦
∴ lim𝑓(𝑧) = lim 𝑧 = lim = −1
𝑧→0 𝑧→0 𝑧→0 𝑖𝑦

Hence the limit is not unique along real and imaginary axis.
𝑧̅
∴ lim 𝑧 does not exist.
𝑧→0

EXAMPLE2: If 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 2 , prove that lim𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2.

𝑧→0

SOLUTION: Let 𝜖 > 0 given, to find 𝛿 > 0 s.t. |𝑧 2 − 𝑧0 2 | <∈ whenever

0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿
Consider |𝑧 2 − 𝑧0 2 | = |(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )(𝑧 + 𝑧0 )|
|𝑧 + 𝑧0 ||𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿 |𝑧 + 𝑧0 |
= |𝑧 − 𝑧0 + 2𝑧0 | ≤ 𝛿 |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | + 2𝛿 |𝑧0 | < 𝛿𝛿 + 2𝛿|𝑧0 | =∈
∈
∵ now 𝛿 > 0s.t. min{1+2|𝑧 | , 1}
0
2 2|
⇒ |𝑧 − 𝑧0 <∈
⇒ lim𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧0 2
𝑧→0

2.6 INTERIOR, EXTERIOR AND BOUNDARY

POINTS:-
An interior point of a set 𝑆 ⊆ 𝐶 is a point 𝑧0 ∈ 𝑆 where there exists a
neighborhood entirely contained within 𝑆. An exterior point of 𝑆 is a
point 𝑧0 where there exists a neighborhood containing no point of 𝑆. A
boundary point of 𝑆 is a point 𝑧0 where every neighborhood contains at

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least one point of 𝑆 and at least one point of the complement of 𝑆. The
collection of all such boundary points is referred to as the boundary of 𝑆.

2.7 OPEN SET AND CLOSED SET:-

A set 𝑆 ⊆ ℂ is called as an open set if it exclusively comprises interior
points, ensuring that for every point in S, there exists a neighborhood
contained entirely within 𝑆. Conversely, a closed set in ℂ includes all its
limit points or possesses no limit points; if a set is closed, its complement
is open. Some sets neither qualify as open nor closed, while others exhibit
characteristics of both.

Notably, the empty set ∅ and the entire complex plane C are examples of
sets that are simultaneously open and closed. The set 𝐴 = {𝑧: 0 <∣ 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ∣
≤ 𝑟} exemplifies a set that fails to meet the criteria for either openness or
closedness. Moreover, the open disc ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1 represents an open set,
whereas the closed disc ∣ 𝑧 ∣≤ 1 constitutes a closed set. Additionally, it's
crucial to acknowledge that the intersection of a finite number of open sets
remains open, while the arbitrary union of open sets also remains open.

2.8 CONVEX SET:-

A set 𝑆 ⊆ ℂ is called a convex set if, for any two point 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ∈ 𝑆, the line
segment connecting1z1and z2is entirely contained with𝑆. Mathematically,
this means that 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ∈ 𝑆 and any t in the interval 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1, the point
𝑡𝑧1 + (1 − 𝑡)𝑧2 ∈ 𝑆.

2.9 BOUNDED, UNBOUNDED AND COMPACT

SET:-
Bounded Set: A set 𝑆 ⊆ ℂ is bounded if there exists a positive real
number 𝑀 such that for every point 𝑧 ∈ 𝑆 , the distance ∣ 𝑧 ∣ from the
origin is less than 𝑀. That is, 𝑆 is contained within some finite region of
the complex plane.

Unbounded Set: A set 𝑆 ⊆ ℂ is unbounded if for every positive real

number𝑀, there exists at least one point 𝑧 ∈ 𝑆 such that ∣ 𝑧 ∣≥ 𝑀. This
means that the set is not contained within any finite region of the complex
plane and can extend infinitely in one or more directions.

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Compact Set: A set 𝑆 ⊆ ℂ is compact if it is closed (contains all its limit

points) and bounded (contained within a finite region). Equivalently, a set
is compact if every open cover of the set has a finite subcover.

2.10 DERIVED SET, CLOSURE OF A SET AND

CONNECTED SET:-
Derived Set: The derived set (or the set of limit points) of a set 𝑆 ⊆ ℂ is
the set of all points in the complex plane that are limit points of 𝑆. A point
𝑧0 is a limit point of 𝑆 if every neighborhood of 𝑧0 contains at least one
point of 𝑆 other than 𝑧0 itself. The derived set can be denoted as 𝑆′.

Closure of a Set: The closure of a set 𝑆 ⊆ ℂ is the smallest closed set that
contains 𝑆. It is denoted by 𝑆̅ and includes all points of S along with all its
limit points. Mathematically, 𝑆̅ = 𝑆 ∪ 𝑆′, where 𝑆′ is the derived set of 𝑆.
The closure represents the "completion" of 𝑆 by including its boundary
points.

Connected Set: A set 𝑆 ⊆ ℂ is connected if it cannot be partitioned into

two non-empty disjoint open subsets. Intuitively, this means that 𝑆 is all in
"one piece," and there is a continuous path within 𝑆 between any two
points in 𝑆. A connected set does not have any isolated parts, making it an
essential concept in understanding the topological structure of sets.

2.11 DOMAIN:-
A domain is defined as a nonempty, open, and connected subset of the
complex plane C. If the set includes its boundary points, it is termed a
closed domain. Notably, every neighborhood of a point in the complex
plane qualifies as a domain. When a domain is combined with some, none,
or all of its boundary points, it is referred to as a region. Consequently,
every domain is a type of region, but not all regions qualify as domains,
highlighting that domains are a specific subset of regions with stricter
criteria.

2.12 JORDAN ARC(CURVE):-

The equation 𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑖𝑦(𝑡)

where 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑦(𝑡) are real-valued continuous functions of the real
variable t, with t in the interval [𝑎, 𝑏], defines a set of points in the

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complex plane known as a continuous curve. This curve is called a simple

curve if 𝑡1 ≠ 𝑡2 implies 𝑧(𝑡1 ) ≠ 𝑧(𝑡2 )meaning the curve does not intersect
itself. If the curve is such that 𝑡1 < 𝑡2 and 𝑧(𝑡1 ) = 𝑧(𝑡2 ) implies 𝑡1 =
𝑎 and 𝑡2 = 𝑏, then it is a simple closed curve, which means the curve
starts and ends at the same point, forming a loop without self-intersections
except at the endpoints. Simple curves are often referred to as Jordan
curves. A common example of a Jordan curve is a polygon formed by
joining a finite number of line segments end to end.

An important property of a bounded infinite set in the complex plane is

that it must have at least one limit point within the complex plane. This
property is derived from the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem, which states
that every bounded sequence in C has a convergent subsequence. This
implies that any bounded infinite set in the complex plane cannot be
composed entirely of isolated points; instead, it must contain points
arbitrarily close to each other, leading to the presence of limit points. This
property is fundamental in understanding the structure and behavior of sets
in the complex plane.

Theorem 3. (Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem)

If a set 𝑆 ⊆ ℂ is bounded and contains an infinite number of points, then it

must have at least one limit point.

Theorem 4. (Jordan Curve Theorem)

It states that a simple closed Jordan curve divides the Argand plane into
two open domains which have the curve as the common boundary. One of
these domains is bounded and is known as interior domain, while the other
is bounded and is called exterior domain.

2.13 FUNCTION OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE:-

A complex variable, symbolized by 𝑧, denotes any element within a set 𝑆
contained in the complex plane ℂ. A function 𝑓: 𝑆 → ℂ represents a rule
assigning a unique complex value 𝑓(𝑧) to each 𝑧 ∈ 𝑆, denoted as 𝑤 =
𝑓(𝑧), where 𝑧 is considered the independent variable and w is the
dependent variable. This function f maps elements from the domain S to
the complex planeℂ, often visualized in another complex plane known as
the 𝑤 − plane. If 𝑆 constitutes a subset of the real line, 𝑓 is termed a
complex function of a real variable. The set 𝑆 is identified as the domain

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of 𝑓, while the collection of all 𝑓(𝑧) for 𝑧 in 𝑆 is recognized as the range

of 𝑓.
OR
A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 , where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are non-empty subsets of the
complex numbers, is a rule that assigns to each complex number 𝑧0 =
𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0 ∈ 𝐴 a unique complex number 𝑤0 = 𝑢0 + 𝑖𝑣0 ∈ 𝐵.
The number 𝑤0 is the value of f at 𝑧0 , denoted 𝑓(𝑧0 ) = 𝑤0 . As 𝑧 varies in
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑤 varies in 𝐵. This function is a complex-valued function of a
complex variable, where w is the dependent variable and z is the
independent variable. If 𝑆 is a subset of 𝐴, then 𝑓(𝑆) = {𝑓(𝑧) ∣, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑆} is
called the image of 𝑆 under 𝑓, and the set 𝑅 = {𝑓(𝑧) ∣ 𝑧 ∈ 𝐴} is called the
range of 𝑓.
Single and Multiple Valued Function: For any non-zero complex
number 𝑧 ∈ ℂ − {0}, the polar form of 𝑧 is given by 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , where 𝑟 =∣
𝑧 ∣ is the modulus of 𝑧 and 𝜃 ∈ [−𝜋, 𝜋] is the argument of 𝑧. This can be
expressed as 𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 . If we increase the argument 𝜃 by 2𝜋, we
have:

𝑧(𝑟, 𝜃 + 2𝜋) = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖(𝜃+2𝜋) = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 . 𝑒 2𝜋𝑖 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑧(𝑟, 𝜃)

Thus, 𝑧(𝑟, 𝜃 + 2𝜋) returns to its original value, demonstrating the

periodicity of the complex exponential function with period 2𝜋.

Definition. A function 𝑓 is said to be single-valued if it satisfies 𝑓 (𝑧) =

𝑓(𝑧(𝑟, 𝜃)) = 𝑧(𝑟, 𝜃 + 2𝜋) , meaning the function's value remains
unchanged when the argument θ is increased by 2𝜋.

Otherwise, 𝑓 is said to be a multiple valued function.

Example: 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 is said to a single valued function.

𝑛
Solution: 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧 (𝑟, 𝜃)) = (𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )
𝑛
𝑓(𝑧(𝑟, 𝜃 + 2𝜋)) = [𝑟𝑒 𝑖(𝜃+2𝜋) ] = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑒 2𝜋𝑛𝑖

= 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑒 2𝜋𝑛𝑖

{∵ 𝑒 2𝜋𝑛𝑖 = 1, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ }
𝑛
= (𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) = 𝑓(𝑧(𝑟, 𝜃))

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Note: If 𝑛 ∉ ℤ then 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 𝑛 is multiplied valued function.

∵ 𝑒 2𝜋𝑛𝑖 ∉ 1, when 𝑛 ∉ ℤ

Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be a function then

i) If the elements of 𝐴 are complex numbers and those of 𝐵 are real

numbers, then 𝑓 is a real-valued function of a complex variable.

ii) If the elements of 𝐴 are real numbers and those of 𝐵 are complex
numbers, then 𝑓 is a complex-valued function of a real variable.

Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be a function. The graph of f is a subset of ℝ × ℝ and is a

two-dimensional object that can be represented well on a two-dimensional
page. However, for a function 𝑓: ℂ → ℂ, the graph is a subset of ℂ × ℂ,
which is equivalent to the Cartesian product ℝ × ℝ × ℝ × ℝ . This four-
dimensional object cannot be represented directly on a two-dimensional
plane. Instead, we use two separate planes: one for the z-plane (domain)
and another for the w-plane (range).

Fig.1.

2.14 CONTINUITY:-
A function 𝑓: ℂ → ℂ is said to be continuous at a point 𝑧0 ∈ ℂ if, for every
𝜖 > 0, there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that whenever ∣ 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ∣< 𝛿, it follows
that ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 ) ∣< 𝜖. In other words, small changes in the input 𝑧 near
𝑧0 result in small changes in the output 𝑓(𝑧). The function f is continuous
on a set 𝑆 ⊆ ℂ if it is continuous at every point in 𝑆.

OR

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A function 𝑓: 𝐷 → ℂ is said to be continuous at a point 𝑧0 ∈ 𝐷 iff ∀ ∈

> 0, ∃ 𝛿 > 0 s.t ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 ) ∣< 𝜖 whenever 𝑧 ∈ 𝐷 and ∣ 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ∣<∈.

Uniform Continuous: A function 𝑓: 𝐷 → ℂ is said to be uniformly

continuous D if for every ∈> 0 ∃ 𝛿 > 0 s.t. ∀𝑧1 and 𝑧2 in D.

|𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | < 𝛿 ⇒ |𝑓 (𝑧1 ) − 𝑓(𝑧2 )| <∈

SOLVED EXAMPLE

EXAMPLE3: If 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 2 then prove that 𝑓 is continuous at a point 𝑧 =

𝑖 ∈ ℂ.

SOLUTION: Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 , 𝑧0 = 𝑖

∴ 𝑓 (𝑖 ) = 𝑖 2 = −1

∴ lim 𝑧 2 = 𝑙 2 = −1
𝑧→𝑖

∴ lim 𝑧 2 = −1 = 𝑓(𝑖)
𝑧→𝑖

So 𝑓 is continuous at a point 𝑧 = 𝑖.
2
EXAMPLE4: Let 𝑓(𝑧) = {𝑧 𝑧 ≠ 𝑖 prove that 𝑓 is not continuous at a
0 𝑧=𝑖
point 𝑧 = 𝑖.

SOLUTION: 𝑓 (𝑖 ) = 0

∴ lim 𝑓(𝑧) = lim 𝑙 2 = −1

𝑧→𝑖 𝑧→𝑖

∴ lim 𝑓(𝑧) = − 1 ≠ 𝑓(𝑖)

𝑧→𝑖

∴ 𝑓 is not continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 .
𝜋
𝑧2
EXAMPLE5: explain the continuity of 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 4 +3𝑧 2 +1 at 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖 4 .
𝜋
SOLUTION: 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖 4
𝜋
⇒ 𝑧 2 = 𝑒 𝑖 2 = 𝑖 ⇒ 𝑧 4 = −1
𝑖 1
∴ 𝑓 (𝑧) = − −1+3𝑖+1 = 3
𝜋
∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖 4
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𝜋
∴ 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖 4 .

EXAMPLE6: Determine whether the function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 =

1 where:
𝑥 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = {
3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 1
SOLUTION: To determine whether 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 1, we need
to check the three conditions of continuity.
1. Check if the function is defined at 𝒙 = 𝟏:
The function is defined at 𝑥 = 1, and we have:
𝑓(1) = 3
2. Find the limit of the function as 𝒙 approaches 𝟏:We need to find
lim 𝑓(𝑥) Since the function has two different cases, we consider
𝑥→1
the limit as 𝑥 approaches 1 from the left (𝑥 → 1− ) and from the
right (𝑥 → 1+ ).
For 𝑥 → 1− (approaching from the left), 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , so:
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑥 2 = 12 = 1
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
For 𝑥 → 1 (approaching from the left), 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , so:
+

lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑥 2 = 12 = 1

𝑥→1 𝑥→1
Since both one-sided limits are equal, the limit lim⁡ lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1
exists and is equal to 1.
3. Compare the limit with the function value at 𝒙 = 𝟏: We have
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 𝑜𝑟 lim 𝑓(1) = 3
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
Since lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(1), the function is not continuous at 𝑥 = 1.
𝑥→1
Hence the function 𝑓(𝑥) is not continuous at 𝑥 = 1 because the limit as 𝑥
approaches 1 does not equal the function value at 1.
EXAMPLE7: Determine whether the function 𝑔(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 =
0, where:
sin(𝑥)
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑔 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { 𝑥
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0
We need to check the three conditions of continuity at 𝑥 = 0.
1. Check if the function is defined at 𝑥 = 0:
The function is defined at 𝑥 = 0, and:
𝑔(0) = 1
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2. Find the limit of the function as 𝑥 approaches 0:

We need to find lim 𝑔(𝑥 ). When 𝑥 ≠ 0, the function is given by
𝑥→0
sin(𝑥)
𝑔 (𝑥 ) = . So, we need to find:
𝑥
sin(𝑥 )
lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
This is a standard limit in calculus, and it is known that:
sin(𝑥)
lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
Compare the limit with the function value at 𝑥 = 0: We have
lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(0) = 1
𝑥→0
Since lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑔(0), the function is continuous at 𝑥 = 0.
𝑥→0
The function 𝑔(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 0 because the limit as 𝑥
approaches 0 equals the function value at 0. There is no discontinuity at
this point, and the function behaves smoothly.
SELF CHECK QUESTIONS
1. What is a function?
2. What is a limit?
3. What does it mean for a function to be continuous?
4. What is a complex-valued function?
5. What is the range of a function?

2.15 SUMMARY:-
Functions: A function is a relation between two sets, typically denoted as
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵, where each element 𝑧 ∈ 𝐴 (the domain) is associated with a
unique element 𝑤 ∈ 𝐵 (the codomain). If 𝑧 is a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 +
𝑖𝑦 and 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣, then 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦). The number 𝑤 =
𝑓(𝑧) is called the value of the function at 𝑧. Functions can be real-valued
or complex-valued, depending on whether their output values are real or
complex numbers.
Limit: The limit of a function describes the behavior of the function as its
input approaches a particular value. For a function 𝑓(𝑧) defined on a
domain 𝐷 and a point 𝑧0 ∈ 𝐷 ̅ (the closure of D), we say 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 (𝑧) =
𝑧→𝑧0
𝑤0 ∀ ∈> 0 and there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that whenever 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | <
𝛿, we have |𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑤0 | <∈ For complex functions, this can be broken
down into limits of the real and imaginary parts: 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑤0 if and
𝑧→𝑧0
only if 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑢0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑣0 .
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧→𝑧0

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Continuity: A function f is continuous at a point 𝑧0 if the limit of 𝑓(𝑧) as

𝑧 approaches 𝑧0 equals the function value at 𝑧0 : 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑧) =
𝑧→𝑧0
𝑓(𝑧0 ).Continuity can also be described in terms of ∈ and δ:f is continuous
at 𝑧0 if for every ∈> 0, there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that if |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿,
then|𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )| <∈.
Uniform Continuity: Uniform continuity strengthens the concept of
continuity by requiring that the 𝛿 in the definition of continuity works
uniformly over the entire domain 𝐷. A function 𝑓 is uniformly continuous
if for every ∈> 0, there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that such that for all 𝑧1, 𝑧2 ∈
𝐷 if |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | < 𝛿, then|𝑓(𝑧1 ) − 𝑓(𝑧2 )| <∈.

2.16 GLOSSARY:-
 Function: A relation between a set of inputs (domain) and a set of
possible outputs (co domain), where each input is related to exactly
one output. It is typically written as 𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑥 is the input, and
𝑓(𝑥) is the output.
 Domain: The set of all possible input values (or arguments) for
which a function is defined. For example, the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) =
1/𝑥 is all real numbers except 𝑥 = 0.
 Piecewise Function: A function that is defined by different
expressions or rules over different parts of its domain. For
example:
𝑥 + 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { 2
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
 Limit: The value that a function approaches as the input
approaches a certain point. Limits help describe the behavior of
functions at points where they may not be explicitly defined. It is
written as lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ).
𝑥→𝑎
 Left-Hand Limit: The value that a function approaches as the
input approaches a certain point from the left (i.e., from smaller
values). It is written as lim− 𝑓 (𝑥 ).
𝑥→𝑎
 Right-Hand Limit: The value that a function approaches as the
input approaches a certain point from the right (i.e., from larger
values). It is written as lim+ 𝑓 (𝑥 ).
𝑥→𝑎

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 Limit at Infinity: Describes the behavior of a function as the input

grows infinitely large (positive infinity) or infinitely small
(negative infinity). It is written as as lim 𝑓(𝑥 ).or lim⁡ lim 𝑓(𝑥 ).
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞
 Continuity: A function is continuous at a point 𝑥 = 𝑎 if the
function is defined at 𝑎, the limit as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 exists, and the
limit equals the function's value at 𝑎 (i.e., lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑎).).
𝑥→𝑎
 Continuous Function: A function that is continuous at every point
in its domain. This means the graph of the function has no breaks,
jumps, or holes.
 Discontinuity: A point at which a function is not continuous.
There are several types of discontinuities:
 Removable Discontinuity: Occurs when the limit lim 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑥→𝑎
exists, but is not equal to the function's value 𝑓(𝑎). The
discontinuity can be "removed" by redefining the function value at
𝑥 = 𝑎.
 Jump Discontinuity: Occurs when the left-hand limit and
right-hand limit at a point 𝑥 = 𝑎 are not equal, leading to a "jump"
in the graph.
 Infinite Discontinuity: Occurs when the function
approaches infinity or negative infinity as the input approaches a
certain point.

2.17 REFERENCES:-
 James Ward Brown and Ruel V. Churchill (2009),Complex
Variables and Applications.
 Ravi P. Agarwal, Kanishka Perera, and Sandra Pinelas (2011), An
Introduction to Complex Analysis.
 Goyal and Gupta (Twenty first edition 2010), Function of complex
Variable.

2.18 SUGGESTED READING:-

 Goyal and Gupta (Twenty first edition 2010), Function of complex
Variable.
 file:///C:/Users/user/Desktop/1456304615ETextofChapter2Module
1%20(1).pdf
 file:///C:/Users/user/Desktop/1456304677ETextofChapter2Module
2%20(1).pdf
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 https://old.mu.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Paper-III-
Complex-Analysis.pdf

2.19 TERMINAL QUESTIONS:-

(TQ-1) Find the limit of the sequence 𝑧𝑛 = 𝑧 𝑛 for |𝑧| < 1.
(TQ-2) Explain the definition of a function and provide an example.
(TQ-3) What is a limit in the context of a function, and how is it formally
defined? Provide an example.
(TQ-4) Define continuity for a function and explain the difference
between continuity and uniform continuity.
(TQ-5) Prove that if a function 𝑓 is uniformly continuous on a set D, then
it is also continuous on 𝐷.
(TQ-6) Determine whether the function ℎ(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 =
2, where:
𝑥 + 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 1
ℎ(𝑥 ) = { 2
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 1

2.20 ANSWERS:-
SELF CHECK ANSWERS

1. A function is a relation that assigns each input exactly one output

2. A limit is the value that a function approaches as the input
approaches a certain point.
3. A function is continuous if it does not have any abrupt changes in
value and the limit as the input approaches any point equals the
function's value at that point.
4. A real-valued function is one where the outputs are real numbers,
even if the inputs are complex.
5. A complex-valued function is one where the outputs are complex
numbers, even if the inputs are real.

TERMINAL ANSWERS

(TQ-1) 0
(TQ-6) The function is continuous at 𝑥 = 2.

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UNIT 3:- Analytic Function (Cauchy Riemann

Equation)
CONTENTS:
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Definition
3.4 Cauchy Riemann equation
3.5 Conjugate Function
3.6 Harmonic Function
3.7 Polar Form of Cauchy-Riemann Equations
3.8 Orthogonal System
3.9 Milne’s Thomson Method
3.10 Summary
3.11 Glossary
3.12 References
3.13 Suggested Reading
3.14 Terminal questions
3.15 Answers
3.1 INTRODUCTION:-
An analytic function is a complex-valued function that is differentiable at
every point in its domain and can be locally represented by a convergent
power series. A key condition for a function to be analytic is that it
satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations, which are a set of two partial
differential equations that link the partial derivatives of the function's real
and imaginary parts. Harmonic functions, which are closely related to
analytic functions, are real-valued functions that satisfy Laplace's
equation, meaning their second partial derivatives sum to zero. These
functions often represent the real or imaginary parts of an analytic
function.

3.2 OBJECTIVES:-
In this unit, we will explore the differentiability of complex-valued
functions through their power series expansions, where a function is
termed analytic around a point 𝑧0 ∈ ℂ. An analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) must
satisfy certain properties, notably the Cauchy-Riemann equations.
Additionally, we will examine the term-by-term differentiation of power

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series, assuming it is feasible. The unit will also cover the inverse function
theorem and introduce harmonic functions. Furthermore, we will discuss
the differentiability of well-known complex functions such as 𝑒 𝑧 ,
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑧), 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑧).

3.3 DEFINITION:-
A single-valued function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be differential at a point 𝑧0 if
there exists a neighborhood 𝑈 around 𝑧0 such that 𝑓(𝑧) is differentiable at
every point 𝑧 ∈ 𝑈. Mathematically, this can be expressed as: For all
𝑓(𝑧+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = lim exist.
ℎ→0 ℎ
This implies that the limit
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
lim
ℎ→0 𝑧 − 𝑧0
exists and is finite, and this condition holds not just at 𝑧0 but at every
point in the neighborhood 𝑈 of 𝑧0 .

Definition: The function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be analytic at a point 𝑧0 if it is

differentiable at 𝑧0 and at every point within some neighborhood of 𝑧0 .
In a broader context, 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a region 𝑅 of the complex
plane if it is analytic at every point within 𝑅.
The terms "regular" and "holomorphic" are often used
interchangeably with "analytic" to describe functions that satisfy these
conditions of differentiability in the complex plane.
Singular point: A point 𝑧 = 𝑧0 is said to be a singular point of a function
𝑓(𝑧) if 𝑓′(𝑧) does not exist.

3.4 CAUCHY RIEMANN EQUATIONS:-

The Cauchy-Riemann equations are a set of two partial differential
equations which, together with certain continuity conditions, are necessary
and sufficient for a complex function to be holomorphic. The Cauchy-
Riemann equations are given by:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= , =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
where 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦.

3.5 CONJUGATE FUNCTION:-

If 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic and if u and v satisfy Laplace’s equation
∇2 𝑉 = 0, then u and v are called conjugate harmonic functions or
conjugate function simply.

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3.6 HARMONIC FUNCTION:-

A function 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to be harmonic function if first and second order
partial derivatives of u are continuous and u satisfied Laplace’s
equation∇2 𝑉 = 0.

Theorem1: Necessary condition for 𝒇(𝒛) to be analytic. If 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢 +

𝑖𝑣 is analytic in a domain 𝐷, then 𝑢, 𝑣 satisfy the equations
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= , =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Provided the four partial derivatives 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑢𝑦 , 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 exist.
Proof: A function 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic at a point z if it is
𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤
differentiable 𝑑𝑧 exists so that 𝑑𝑧 has the same value along every path.
i. Along 𝑥 −axis, 𝛿𝑧 = 𝛿𝑥.
𝑑𝑤 𝛿𝑤 𝛿𝑤 𝜕𝑤
= lim = lim = … (1)
𝑑𝑧 𝛿𝑧→0 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑥
ii. Along 𝑦 −axis, 𝛿𝑧 = 𝑖𝛿𝑦.
𝑑𝑤 𝛿𝑤 𝛿𝑤 𝜕𝑤
= lim = lim = −𝑖 … (2)
𝑑𝑧 𝛿𝑧→0 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑦→0 𝑖𝛿𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
From (1) and (2), = −𝑖 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
+𝑖 = −𝑖 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
This ⇒ 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑥 , 𝜕𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑥
Theses equations are called Cauchy Riemann equations.
Theorem2: Sufficient condition for 𝒇(𝒛) to be analytic. The function
𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic in a domain 𝐷 if
i. 𝑢, 𝑣 are differentiable in 𝐷 and 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥
ii. The partial derivatives 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑢𝑦 , 𝑣𝑥 all are continuous in D.
Proof: Let 𝑤 = 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦), then
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 𝜕𝑥 , 𝜕𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑥 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 … (1)
𝜕𝑥

For 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) to be analytic in a domain 𝐷, 𝑢 and 𝑣 must

be differentiable with continuous partial derivatives satisfying the Cauchy-
Riemann equations, and increments 𝛿𝑧, 𝛿𝑢, 𝛿𝑣, 𝛿𝑤 correspond to the
increments 𝛿𝑥, 𝛿𝑦 of 𝑥 and 𝑦.
So
𝑢𝑥 ⇒ 𝛿𝑢 = 𝑢𝑥 𝛿𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦 . 𝛿𝑦 + 𝛼𝛿𝑥 + 𝛽𝛿𝑦
Similarly
⇒ 𝛿𝑣 = 𝑣𝑥 𝛿𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦 . 𝛿𝑦 + 𝛼1 𝛿𝑥 + 𝛽1 𝛿𝑦
where 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛼1 , 𝛽1 all tends to zero as 𝛿𝑥 → 0, 𝛿𝑦 → 0
Now
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𝛿𝑤 𝛿𝑢+𝑖𝛿𝑣
= 𝛿𝑥+𝑖𝛿𝑦 … (2)
𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑢 + 𝑖𝛿𝑣 = 𝛿𝑥(𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 ) + 𝛿𝑦(𝑢𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣𝑦 ) + (𝛼 + 𝑖𝛼1 )𝛿𝑥 + (𝛽 + 𝑖𝛽1 )𝛿𝑦
= 𝛿𝑥(𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 ) + 𝑖𝛿𝑦(−𝑖𝑢𝑦 + 𝑣𝑦 ) + 𝛼′𝛿𝑥 + 𝛽′𝛿𝑦
Where 𝛼 = 𝛼 + 𝑖𝛼1 , 𝛽 ′ = 𝛽 + 𝑖𝛽1
′

From (1)
𝛿𝑢 + 𝑖𝛿𝑣 = (𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 )(𝛿𝑥 + 𝑖𝛿𝑦) + 𝛼′𝛿𝑥 + 𝛽′𝛿𝑦
Dividing by 𝛿𝑥 + 𝑖𝛿𝑦 and then from(2)
𝛿𝑤 𝛼′𝛿𝑥 𝛽′𝛿𝑦
= 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 + +
𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 + 𝑖𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑥 + 𝑖𝛿𝑦
𝛿𝑤 𝛼′𝛿𝑥 𝛽′𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦
| − (𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 )| = | + | ≤ |𝛼′|. | | + |𝛽′| | |
𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧
≤ |𝛼′| + |𝛽′| as |𝛿𝑥 | ≤ |𝛿𝑥 + 𝑖𝛿𝑦|

𝛿𝑤 𝛿𝑤
| − | ≤ |𝛼 | + |𝛼1 | + |𝛽 | + |𝛽1 | as 𝛼 ′ = 𝛼 + 𝑖𝛼1
𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑥
But when 𝛿𝑧 → 0, the R.H.S→ 0. Hence
𝛿𝑤 𝛿𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝜕𝑤
lim 𝛿𝑧 − 𝛿𝑥 = 0 or 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥
𝛿𝑧→0
𝑑𝑤
But 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑣𝑥 exist. So hence 𝑤 is analytic in 𝐷.
𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑤 𝜕𝑤
Note1. The equation = is of vital importance for further study.
𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Note2. 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = = 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑖 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑧
| ′(
𝑓 𝑧)|2 = (𝑢𝑥 )2 + (𝑣𝑥 )2 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑣𝑦 − 𝑢𝑦 𝑣𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
Note3. 𝑑𝑢 = 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦.
𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢
𝑑 2 𝑢 = 𝑑 [𝑑𝑢] = [ ( 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ( 𝑑𝑦) 𝑑𝑦]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
= [ 2 (𝑑𝑥 )2 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦] + [ 2 (𝑑𝑦)2 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢
𝑑 2 𝑢 = 2 (𝑑𝑥)2 + 2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 2 (𝑑𝑦)2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
Similarly
2
𝜕2𝑣 2
𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
(
𝑑 𝑣 = 2 𝑑𝑥 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 2 (𝑑𝑦)2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

3.7 POLAR FORM OF CAUCHY-RIEMANN

EQUATIONS:-
Theorem3: If 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is an analytic function and 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 where
𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑟, 𝜃 are all real, show that the Cauchy-Riemann Equation are
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢
= , =−
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
Or
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To prove that the necessary and sufficient condition for 𝑓(𝑧) to be analytic
in polar coordinates.

Proof: Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is an analytic function so that Cauchy-Riemann

Equation
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 … (1)
𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 … (2)
are satisfied
to prove that , in view of above equations

𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢
= , =−
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
Let 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.
𝑦
Then 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑥 , 𝜃 = tan−1 (𝑦/𝑥 )
𝜕𝑟 𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝑦
= = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝑟
𝜕𝜃 1 −𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 2 .( 2) = −
𝜕𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑟
1 + ( 2)
𝑥

𝜕𝜃 1 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= .( ) =
𝜕𝑦 𝑦2 𝑥 𝑟
1+()
𝑥2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝜃
= +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑥
Or
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑢
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝜕𝑟 − 𝑟 . 𝜕𝜃 … (3)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝜃
= +
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜕𝑣
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝜕𝑟 + 𝑟 . 𝜕𝜃 … (4)
𝜕𝑦
Now, by (1), (3) and (4), we get
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜕𝑣
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝜕𝑟 − 𝑟 . 𝜕𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝜕𝑟 + 𝑟 . 𝜕𝜃 … (5)
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜕𝑢
= + = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 +
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑣
= + = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
Since last two equations obtains
𝜕𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑣
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑟 + 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜕𝑟 − 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 … (6)
Now the equation (5) multiply by cos𝜃 and (6) by sin𝜃 obtains

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𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣
= 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 … (7)
𝜕𝑟
From (6), we have
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑣
. + . = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. + .
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢
= − 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 … (8)
𝜕𝑟

The above equations (7) and (8), which is the required results.
Theorem4: Derivative of 𝒘 in polar form. To prove that
𝑑𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝑖 𝜕𝑤
= 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
Proof: the Cauchy-Riemann Equation are
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢
= , =−
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

Let 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.

𝑦
Then 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑥 , 𝜃 = tan−1 (𝑦/𝑥 )
𝜕𝑟 𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝑦
= = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝑟
𝜕𝜃 1 −𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 2 .( 2) = −
𝜕𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑟
1 + ( 2)
𝑥

𝜕𝜃 1 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= .( ) =
𝜕𝑦 𝑦2 𝑥 𝑟
)1+(
𝑥2
𝑑𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑤 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑤
= = . + . = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −
𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝑑𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ( 𝜕𝑟 + 𝑖 𝜕𝑟 ) − (𝜕𝜃 + 𝑖 𝜕𝜃 ) … (1)
𝑑𝑧 𝑟

𝜕𝑤 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − (−𝑟 + 𝑖𝑟 )
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ( + 𝑖 )
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
= (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝑑𝑤 −𝑖𝜃 𝜕𝑤
=𝑒 … (2)
𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑟
Now from (1), we obtain
𝑑𝑤 1 𝜕𝑣 𝑖 𝜕𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑤
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ( − )−
𝑑𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑤
= −𝑖 ( +𝑖 )−
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

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𝑖 𝜕𝑤 𝑖 𝜕𝑤
− (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) = − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝑑𝑤 𝑖 −𝑖𝜃 𝜕𝑤
=− 𝑒
𝑑𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
Which is required the results.

3.8 ORTHOGONAL SYSTEM:-

Two families of curves 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐1 , 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐2 are said to form an
Orthogonal System if they interest at right angles at each of their points
of interaction.
Theorem5: If 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is an analytic function, in domain D, prove
that the curves 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. , 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. from two orthogonal families.
Proof: Let 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is an analytic function so that Cauchy-Riemann
Equation
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 … (1)
𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 … (2)
are satisfied
To prove that the curves 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. = 𝑐1 , 𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. = 𝑐2
Suppose
𝑚1 = 𝑐1 = 𝑢(slope of tangent to the curve)
𝑚2 = 𝑐2 = 𝑣(slope of tangent to the curve)
Now if we show that 𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1, the result will be proved.
Taking
𝑢 = 𝑐1
𝑣 = 𝑐2
𝑑𝑢 = 0, 𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 0, 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑣𝑥
𝑚1 = = − , 𝑚2 = =−
𝑑𝑥 𝑢𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑣𝑦
𝑢𝑥 𝑣𝑥 𝑢𝑥 𝑣𝑥 𝑢𝑥 𝑣𝑥
𝑚1 𝑚2 = (− ) (− ) = = = −1
𝑢𝑦 𝑣𝑦 𝑢𝑦 𝑣𝑦 (−𝑣𝑥 )(𝑢𝑥 )
Theorem6: Real and imaginary parts of an analytic function satisfied
Laplace’s equation. That is to say, if 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is an analytic function
of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, then 𝑢, 𝑣 satisfy Laplace equation.
Or. If 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is an analytic function of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, then 𝑢 and
𝑣 both are harmonic functions.
Proof: Let 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is an analytic function so that Cauchy-Riemann
Equation
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 … (1)
𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 … (2)
are satisfied
To prove that ∇2 𝑢 = 0, ∇2 𝑣 = 0
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Differentiating (1) and (2) w.r.t. 𝑥 and 𝑦 and adding, we obtain

𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
+ = − =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
Or
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
+ = 0 𝑜𝑟 ∇2 𝑢 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
Differentiating (1) and (2) w.r.t. 𝑥 and 𝑦 and subtracting, we get

𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣

− = 2 − ( 2) = 2 + 2
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
2 2
𝜕 𝑣 𝜕 𝑣
+ = 0 𝑜𝑟 ∇2 𝑣 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

3.9 MILNE’S THOMSON METHOD:-

The Milne-Thomson method is a technique used to derive the Cauchy-
Riemann equations in polar coordinates from their Cartesian form. It
involves expressing a complex function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) in
terms of polar coordinates, where 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , and then applying the chain
rule to relate the partial derivatives in Cartesian coordinates to those in
polar coordinates. This method ensures that the conditions for analyticity
are preserved in the transformation.
𝑧+𝑧̅ 𝑧−𝑧̅
We have 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 so that 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑦 = 2𝑖
𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
Or
𝑧 + 𝑧̅ 𝑧 − 𝑧̅ 𝑧 + 𝑧̅ 𝑧 − 𝑧̅
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 𝑢 ( , ) + 𝑖𝑣 ( , )
2 2𝑖 2 2𝑖
Now let 𝑥 = 𝑧, 𝑦 = 0 so that 𝑧 = 𝑧̅, we have

𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑧, 0) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑧, 0)

𝑑𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑓 ′ (𝑧 ) = = = +𝑖
𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 𝜕𝑥 − 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 by Cauchy Riemann equation
Let we take
𝜕𝑢
= ∅1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = ∅1 (𝑧, 0)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
= ∅2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = ∅2 (𝑧, 0)
𝜕𝑦
We obtain 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = ∅1 (𝑧, 0) − ∅2 (𝑧, 0)
Now integrating,
𝑓(𝑧) = ∫[∅1 (𝑧, 0) − 𝑖∅2 (𝑧, 0)]𝑑𝑧 + 𝐶
Where C is constant.

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Similarly

𝑓 (𝑧) = ∫[𝜓1 (𝑧, 0) − 𝑖𝜓2 (𝑧, 0)]𝑑𝑧 + 𝐶′

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
Where 𝜓1 = 𝜕𝑦 , 𝜓2 = 𝜕𝑥.
SOLVED EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE1: Find the analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 of which the real
part 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 − 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦).
Solution: Now let
𝜕𝑢
= 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 − 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦) + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
= 𝑒 𝑥 (−𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 − 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦)
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑢
( ) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1)
𝜕𝑥 𝑦=0
𝜕𝑢
( ) = 𝑒𝑥0 = 0
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0

𝜕𝑢
𝜙1 (𝑥, 0) = ( ) = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1)
𝜕𝑥 𝑦=0
𝜕𝑢
𝜙2 (𝑥, 0) = ( ) =0
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0
By Milne’s method,
𝑓(𝑧) = ∫[𝜙1 (𝑧, 0) − 𝑖𝜙2 (𝑧, 0)] + 𝑐

= ∫[𝑒 𝑧 (𝑧 + 1) − 𝑖. 0]𝑑𝑧 + 𝑐 = ∫(𝑧𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑧 )𝑑𝑧 + 𝑐

= (𝑧 − 1)𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑐 = 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑐
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑐
EXAMPLE2: Find the analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 , where 𝑢 =
𝑒 −𝑥 [(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦].
SOLUTON: Let 𝑢 = 𝑒 −𝑥 [(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦]
𝜕𝑢
𝜙1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = = −𝑒 −𝑥 [(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦]
𝜕𝑥
+ 𝑒 −𝑥 [2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 2𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦]
𝜕𝑢
𝜙2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = = 𝑒 −𝑥 [−2𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 − (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 + 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦]
𝜕𝑦
Substituting 𝑥 = 𝑧, 𝑦 = 0 and so 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 = 1, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 = 0, we obtain
𝜙 (𝑧, 0) = −𝑒 −𝑧 (𝑧 2 + 2𝑧), 𝜙2 (𝑧, 0) = 0

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𝑓(𝑧) = ∫(𝜙1 − 𝑖𝜙2 ) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫(𝜙1 − 𝑖. 0) = ∫ 𝜙1 𝑑𝑧

= − ∫ 𝑒 −𝑧 (𝑧 2 + 2𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑒 −𝑧 (𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 + 4) + 𝑐
EXAMPLE3: If 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic function and 𝑢 − 𝑣 =
𝑒 𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦), find 𝑓(𝑧) in term of 𝑧.

SOLUTION: Given 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 … (1 )

𝑢 − 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦) … (2)
Again from (1)
𝑖𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑖𝑢 − 𝑣 … (3 )

Adding (1) + (3), we have

(1 + 𝑖 )𝑓 = (𝑢 − 𝑣) + 𝑖(𝑢 + 𝑣)
Let we take 𝑢 − 𝑣 = 𝑈, 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑉, (1 + 𝑖 )𝑓 = 𝐹 (𝑧)
We get 𝐹(𝑧) = 𝑈 + 𝑖𝑉
By (2), we obtain
𝑈 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦)
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
Take 𝜙1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝜕𝑥 , 𝜙2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝜕𝑦
Then
𝜙1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦), 𝜙2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 (−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦)
This ⇒ 𝜙1 (𝑧, 0) = 𝑒 𝑧 (𝑐𝑜𝑠0 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛0) = 𝑒 𝑧 , 𝜙1 (𝑧, 0) = 𝑒 𝑥 (−𝑠𝑖𝑛0 −
𝑐𝑜𝑠0) = −𝑒 𝑧
By Milne’s method,
𝐹 (𝑧) = 𝑐 + ∫[𝜙1 (𝑧, 0) − 𝑖𝜙2 (𝑧, 0)] 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑐 + ∫ 𝑒 𝑧 (1 + 𝑖 )𝑑𝑧
(1 + 𝑖 )𝑓 = 𝑐 + (1 + 𝑖 )𝑒 𝑧
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑐1 + 𝑒 𝑧
𝜕2 𝜕2 4𝜕 2
EXAMPLE4: To prove that 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 = 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅.
SOLUTION: 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
𝑧 + 𝑧̅ 𝑧 − 𝑧̅ −𝑖
𝑥= ,𝑦 = = (𝑧 − 𝑧̅)
2 2𝑖 2
𝜕𝑥 1 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑖 𝜕𝑦
This ⇒ 𝜕𝑧 = 2 = 𝜕𝑧̅ , 𝜕𝑧̅ = 2 = − 𝜕𝑧
Let 𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦). Then 𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑧, 𝑧̅) also
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑦 1 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
= + = ( −𝑖 )
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑦 1 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
= + = ( +𝑖 )
𝜕𝑧̅ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧̅ 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧̅ 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
2
𝜕 𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= = ( − 𝑖 )( + 𝑖 )𝑓
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅ 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧̅ 4 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
2 2 2
𝜕 𝑓 1 𝜕 𝜕
= ( 2 + 2) 𝑓
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅ 4 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

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𝜕2 1 𝜕2 𝜕2
= ( + )
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅ 4 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
+ =4
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅
EXAMPLE5: Show that the harmonic function satisfies the differential
equation:
𝜕2𝑢
=0
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅
SOLUTION: Let we know that

𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
+ =4 … (1)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅
𝜕 2𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢
Let u is harmonic function⇒ ∇2 𝑢 = 0 ⇒ 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 = 0
Now from (1), we get
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
4 = =0
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅ 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧̅
EXAMPLE6: If 𝑓(𝑧) is an analytic function of 𝑧, prove that
𝜕2 𝜕2
( 2 + 2 ) |𝑅 𝑓(𝑧)|2 = 2|𝑓 ′ (𝑧)|2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
SOLUTION: 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣, 𝑅𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢
𝜕 2 𝜕𝑢
𝑢 = 2𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Differentiation Again
𝜕 2 𝑢2 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕2𝑢
= 2 [( ) + 𝑢 2 ]
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Similarly
𝜕 2 𝑢2 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕2𝑢
= 2 [( ) + 𝑢 2 ]
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
Now adding
𝜕 2 𝑢2 𝜕 2 𝑢2 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
+ = 2 [( ) + ( ) + 𝑢 ( + )]
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
But 𝑢 satisfies Laplace’s equation, we get
𝜕 2 𝑢2 𝜕 2 𝑢2 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2
+ = 2 [( ) + ( ) ] + 2𝑢. (0)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
= [𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2 ] For 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥
But
𝑑𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑓 ′ (𝑧 ) = = = +𝑖
𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Now at last gives
𝜕 2 𝑢2 𝜕 2 𝑢2
+ = 2|𝑓 ′ (𝑧)|2
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

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𝜕2 𝜕2
( 2 + 2 ) |𝑅 𝑓(𝑧)|2 = 2|𝑓 ′ (𝑧)|2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
EXAMPLE7: Prove that the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑖𝑦 is everywhere
continuous but not analytic.
SOLUTION: Let given that 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑖𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 𝑦, = 1, = 𝑥, = 0.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
From which 𝜕𝑥 ≠ 𝜕𝑦 , 𝜕𝑦 ≠ − 𝜕𝑥
This implies that the Cauchy-Riemann equations are not satisfied.
⇒ 𝑓(𝑧) is not analytic.
EXAMPLE8: If 𝜙 and 𝜓 are functions of 𝑥 and 𝑦 satisfying Laplace’s
equation show that 𝑠 + 𝑖𝑡 is analytic, where
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
𝑠= − ,𝑡 = +
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
SOLUTION: Let us suppose 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑦) satisfy Laplace
equation
𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
Let 𝑠 = 𝜕𝑦 − 𝜕𝑥 , 𝑡 = 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦
Now to prove that 𝑠 + 𝑖𝑡 is analytic function, we obtain to show that
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
= , =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑖. 𝑒.,
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
− = 0, + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑥 , 𝑠𝑦 , 𝑡𝑥 , 𝑡𝑦 all are continuous.
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡 𝜕 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
− = ( − )− ( + )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2 𝜓
= − − − =0
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓
− ( 2 + 2) = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
∴ − =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡 𝜕 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
+ 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑦 ( 𝜕𝑦 − 𝜕𝑥 ) + 𝜕𝑥 ( 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 )
𝜕𝑦
𝜕2 𝜙 𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕 2𝜙 𝜕2 𝜓
− + + =0
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦

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𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙
( 2 + 2) = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Also
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
+ =0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
EXAMPLE9: Prove that the function 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 1
satisfies Laplace’s equation and determine corresponding analytic
function.
SOLUTION: 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 1
𝜕𝑢
𝜙1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = = 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 6𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
𝜙2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = = −6𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑦
𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝑢
= 6𝑥 + 6
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕2𝑢
= −6𝑥 − 6
𝜕𝑦 2
From the above equations
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
∴ 𝑢 is satisfies Laplace’s equation. Substituting 𝑥 = 𝑧, 𝑦 = 0 in above
equations
𝜙1 (𝑧, 0) = 3𝑧 2 + 6𝑧, 𝜙2 (𝑧, 0) = 0.
By Milne’s Thomson method
𝑓 (𝑧) = ∫[𝜙1 (𝑧, 0) − 𝑖𝜙2 (𝑧, 0)]𝑑𝑧

∫[3𝑧 2 + 6𝑧 − 𝑖. 0] 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑧 3 + 3𝑧 2 + 𝑐
EXAMPLE10: If 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 , show that there exists function 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
such that 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic in a finite region.
SOLUTION: Let given that 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= −6𝑥𝑦, = 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = − ( ) 𝑑𝑥 + ( ) 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
6𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + (3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
= 6𝑥 =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
∴ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 is exact. So that
∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 6𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + ∫ −3𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 + 𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖(3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 + 𝑐 )
= (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)3 + 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑧 3 + 𝑖𝑐
So that 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a finite domain.
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SELF CHECK QUESTIONS

1. What is an analytic function?

2. State the Cauchy-Riemann equations.
3. What is the significance of the Cauchy-Riemann equations?
4. What is the relationship between analyticity and harmonic
functions?
5. Explain the concept of analytic continuation.
6. What is the Milne-Thomson method used for?
7. How does the Milne-Thomson method work?
8. What is the advantage of using the Milne-Thomson method in
complex analysis?
9. The function 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑧 is
a. continuous everywhere
b. analytic in finite complex plane
c. analytic everywhere except the points where 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 = 0
d. none
10. A function of 𝑥 and 𝑦 possessing continuous partial derivatives
of first and second order is called harmonic function if it is
satisfied
a. Euler equation
b. Laplace equation
c. Homogenous equation
d. Lagrange equation
11. An analytic function with constant modulus is:
a. Variable
b. May be Variable and constant
c. Constant
d. None
12. Which of the following functions is not analytic
a. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
b. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧
c. 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑧 + 𝑐 = 0
1
d. 𝑧−1
13. True/False statements
(i). Cauchy Riemann equation is sufficient for a function to be
analytic.
(ii). The function 𝑤 = |𝑧|2 is continuous everywhere but
nowhere differentiable except at the origin.
(iii). An analytic function with constant modulus is constant.
(iv). If 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is an analytic function, then being given
one of u and v, the other can b determined.
(v). An analytic function cannot have a constant absolute value
without reducing to a constant.

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3.10 SUMMARY:-
An analytic function, or holomorphic function, is a complex function that
is differentiable at every point in its domain, meaning it can be represented
by a convergent power series around any point within its domain. These
functions satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations, ensuring their real and
imaginary parts are harmonic. Key properties include infinite
differentiability and the ability to be expressed in a power series.
Important theorems associated with analytic functions are Liouville's
theorem, the maximum modulus principle, and Cauchy's integral
theorems. Applications of analytic functions span across conformal
mappings, complex integration, and potential theory in physics and
engineering.

3.11 GLOSSARY:-
 Analytic Function: A complex function that is differentiable at
every point in its domain. Also known as a holomorphic function.
 Cauchy-Riemann Equations: A set of partial differential
equations that must be satisfied for a function to be analytic. For
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦), the equations are:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= , =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
 Harmonic Function: A function 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) or 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) that satisfies
Laplace's equation:
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
+ = 0, + =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
 Analytic Continuation: The process of extending the domain of
an analytic function beyond its original domain while maintaining
its analyticity.
 Complex Plane: A two-dimensional plane representing complex
numbers, with the horizontal axis as the real part and the vertical
axis as the imaginary part.
 Holomorphic: Another term for an analytic function, emphasizing
its differentiability properties.
 Potential Theory: A field of study using harmonic and analytic
functions to solve problems in physics and engineering related to
potentials, such as gravitational or electrostatic potentials.
 Complex Differentiability: A condition for a function 𝑓(𝑧) to be
differentiable with respect to 𝑧 in the complex plane. This requires
the existence of the limit:
𝑓 (𝑧 + ∆𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧)
lim
∆𝑧→0 ∆𝑧
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 Holomorphic: Another term for an analytic function, emphasizing

its differentiability and the satisfaction of the Cauchy-Riemann
equations.
 Necessary Condition: A condition that must be true for a function
to be analytic. The Cauchy-Riemann equations are necessary
conditions for complex differentiability.
 Sufficient Condition: A condition that, if true, guarantees a
function is analytic. If a function satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann
equations and its partial derivatives are continuous, it is analytic.
 Complex Plane: A two-dimensional plane used to represent
complex numbers, with the horizontal axis as the real part and the
vertical axis as the imaginary part.
 Partial Derivative: A derivative of a function with respect to one
variable, treating other variables as constants. In the context of the
Cauchy-Riemann equations, partial derivatives are taken with
respect to x and y.
 Continuity: A property of a function where small changes in the
input result in small changes in the output. For the Cauchy-
Riemann equations to imply analyticity, the partial derivatives
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
, , , must be continuous.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
 Complex Conjugate: For a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 , its
complex conjugate is 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦. The Cauchy-Riemann equations
involve differentiating with respect to 𝑥 and 𝑦, not 𝑧̅.
 Complex Potential: A complex function representing potential
flow in fluid dynamics, where the real part is the velocity potential
and the imaginary part is the stream function. The Cauchy-
Riemann equations ensure that the flow is irrotational and
incompressible.

3.12 REFERENCES:-
 Theodore W. Gamelin (2013, Springer), Complex Analysis.
 James Ward Brown and Ruel V. Churchill (9th Edition, 2013,
McGraw-Hill Education),Complex Variables and Applications.
 Tristan Needham (2nd Edition, 2021, Oxford University Press),
Visual Complex Analysis.
 Hilary A. Priestley (2nd Edition, 2019, Oxford University Press),
Introduction to Complex Analysis.

3.13 SUGGESTED READING:-

 Goyal and Gupta (Twenty first edition 2010), Function of complex
Variable.

Department of Mathematics
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 https://old.mu.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Paper-III-
Complex-Analysis.pdf
 Robert E. Greene and Steven G. Krantz (4th Edition, 2020),
Function Theory of One Complex Variable.

3.14 TERMINAL QUESTIONS:-

(TQ-1) Show that 𝑢 = (1/2)log(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2) s harmonic and find its
harmonic conjugate.
(TQ-2) Prove that an analytic function with constant real part is constant.
(TQ-3) If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic function with constant modulus, then it is
constant.
(TQ-4) If 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is an analytic function of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, and 𝜓 is a
function of 𝑥 and 𝑦 possessing partial differential coefficients of the first
two orders, show that
𝜕𝜓 2 𝜕𝜓 2 𝜕𝜓 2 𝜕𝜓 2
i. ( 𝜕𝑥 ) + ( 𝜕𝑦 ) = [( 𝜕𝑢 ) + ( 𝜕𝑣 ) ] |𝑓 ′ (𝑧)|2
𝜕2𝜓 𝜕 2𝜓 𝜕 2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓
ii. + = ( 𝜕𝑢2 + ) |𝑓 ′ (𝑧)|2
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑣 2
(TQ-5) An incompressible fluid flowing xy-plane has velocity potential
𝑥
𝜙 = 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 +
𝑥2 + 𝑦2
Find stream function 𝜓 so that 𝑤 = 𝜙 + 𝑖𝜓 is analytic.
(TQ-6) Prove that the function 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦) is holomorphic and
find its derivative.
(TQ-7) Find an analytic function whose real part is 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦.
(TQ-8) Show that the function 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑦 is harmonic and find the
harmonic conjugate.
(TQ-9) show that the function 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑥𝑦|1/2 is not regular at the origin,
although the Cauchy Riemann equations are satisfied at the point.
(TQ-10) the Explain the nature of the function 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 1/3
i. Show that 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧̅ is continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 but not analytic at 𝑧 =
𝑧0
ii. Prove that the function 𝑓 (𝑧) = cos(𝑧) is continuous at everywhere
analytic.
(TQ-11) Prove that continuity is necessary but not sufficient condition
for the existence of a finite derivative.
(TQ-12) Find the analytic function 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 if
i. 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2
ii. 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦

3.15 ANSWERS:-
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SELF CHECK ANSWERS

1. An analytic function, also known as a holomorphic function, is a

complex function that is differentiable at every point in its domain.
Furthermore, its derivative must also be continuous. This implies
that the function can be represented as a convergent power series
in some neighborhood around any point in its domain.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
2. 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑥 , 𝜕𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑥 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥
3. The Cauchy-Riemann equations provide necessary and sufficient
conditions for a function to be analytic. They ensure that the
function is differentiable in the complex sense. If a function
satisfies these equations and has continuous first partial
derivatives, it is guaranteed to be analytic.
4. Harmonic functions are twice continuously differentiable functions
that satisfy Laplace's equation, implying that they are solutions to
the heat equation in steady state.
5. Analytic continuation is a technique to extend the domain of a
given analytic function beyond its initial domain. This is done by
defining the function on a larger domain such that the new function
agrees with the original function on their common domain. The
extended function remains analytic in the new domain.
6. The Milne-Thomson method is used to find the real and imaginary
parts of a complex function, given its complex form. It is
particularly useful in fluid dynamics and conformal mapping
problems, where it helps to convert complex potential functions
into their real and imaginary components.
7. The Milne-Thomson method works by expressing a complex
function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) in terms of 𝑧 and its conjugate
𝑧̅ . The method involves writing the complex function 𝑓(𝑧) in
terms of 𝑧 and 𝑧̅, and then using the relationships between the real
and imaginary parts to separate them.
8. The advantage of using the Milne-Thomson method is that it
provides a systematic way to separate the real and imaginary parts
of a complex function, which is essential in many applications,
such as solving physical problems in fluid dynamics and
electromagnetic. It simplifies the process of finding these parts
without directly differentiating the function.
9. c 10. b 11. c 12. d
13. (i). F (ii).T (iii).T (iv). T (v). T

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UNIT 4:- Power Series

CONTENTS:
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Power Series
4.4 Absolute Convergence Of ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛
4.5 Some Special Test for Convergence of Series
4.6 Radius of Convergence of Power Series
4.7 Sum Function of a Power Series
4.8 Theorems
4.9 Summary
4.10 Glossary
4.11 References
4.12 Suggested Reading
4.13 Terminal questions
4.14 Answers

4.1 INTRODUCTION:-
A power series is an infinite series of the form ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑐 ) are
complex coefficients, 𝑧 is a complex variable, and 𝑐 is the center of the
series. Power series are fundamental in complex analysis because they
represent functions as sums of infinitely many terms that depend on the
distance from the center 𝑐. The series converges within a certain radius,
called the radius of convergence, which can be determined using various
convergence tests. Within this radius, a power series can be used to
represent analytic functions, providing a powerful tool for understanding
their properties and behavior.

4.2 OBJECTIVES:-
After studying this unit, learners will be able to

 Understand and identify the structure and components of power

series, including their terms, coefficients, and center. They will be
able to determine the radius and interval of convergence for power

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series and apply convergence tests to assess where a series

converges.
 Learners will also be able to represent analytic functions as power
series, use these series to approximate functions, and compute
derivatives and integrals of functions expressed in this form.

4.3 POWER SERIES:-

A power series is an infinite series of the form
∞

∑ 𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑛
𝑛=0
are complex coefficients, 𝑧 is a complex variable, and 𝑐 is a constant
known as the center of the series. It represents a function as a sum of terms
involving powers of (𝑧 − 𝑐). The power series converges within a certain
radius of convergence, 𝑅, and diverges outside of this radius. Within this
radius, the power series can be used to express analytic functions and
analyze their properties.
OR
A series of the form
∑∞𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧
𝑛
or ∑∞𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎 )
𝑛

is called a power series, where 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎 are a complex constant and 𝑧 is a

complex variable. The second form ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 ccan be simplified to the
first form by substituting 𝑧 = 𝜁 + 𝑎 yielding
∑ 𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑛 = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝜁 𝑛
The first form is simpler than the second form. Hence
∑∞𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧
𝑛
or simply ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛
in our discussion.
4.4 ABSOLUTE CONVERGENCE OF ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 :-
The concept of absolute convergence is crucial when dealing with power
series. A series ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 is said to be absolutely convergent if the series
formed by taking the absolute value of each term,

∑|𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 | = ∑|𝑎𝑛 ||𝑧 𝑛 |

converges.

The power series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 is said to be conditionally convergent if ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛

is convergent but ∑|𝑎𝑛 ||𝑧|𝑛 is not convergent.
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4.5 SOME SPECIAL TEST FOR CONVERGENCE

OF SERIES:-
Convergence tests are essential tools in mathematical analysis to
determine whether a series converges (i.e., approaches a finite limit) or
diverges. Here are some special tests commonly used to check for the
convergence of series:

1. If ∑ 𝑢𝑛 is convergent, then lim 𝑢𝑛 = 0.

𝑛→∞
𝑢𝑛
2. If lim = finite non-zero quantity, then the two series ∑ 𝑢𝑛 and
𝑛→∞ 𝑣𝑛
∑ 𝑣𝑛 have identical nature.
3. Comparison Test: ∑ 𝑢𝑛 is absolutely convergent if
|𝑢𝑛 | ≤ |𝑣𝑛 |
4. Root Test: For a series 𝑢𝑛 :
Compute 𝐿 = lim |𝑢𝑛 |1/𝑛
𝑛→∞
 If 𝐿 < 1, the series converges absolutely.
 If 𝐿 > 1, the series diverges.
 If L=1, the test is inconclusive.
5. Ratio Test: For a series 𝑢𝑛 :
𝑢𝑛+1
Compute 𝐿 = lim | |<1 or >1
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛
 If 𝐿 < 1, the series converges absolutely.
 If 𝐿 > 1or 𝐿 = ∞, the series diverges.
 If L=1, the test is inconclusive.
1
6. p-Series Test: For a series of the form 𝑛𝑝:
 The series converges if 𝑝 > 1
 The series diverges if 𝑝 ≤ 1
7. Dirichlet’s Test: The series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑢𝑛 is convergent if
i. |𝑆𝑛 | = |∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 | ≤ 𝑘∀𝑛, 𝑘 being a finite number.
ii. lim 𝑢𝑛 = 0
𝑛→∞
iii. ∑(𝑢𝑛 − 𝑢𝑛+1 ) is convergent.
8. Integral Test: If 𝑓(𝑥) is a continuous, positive, decreasing
function for 𝑥 ≥ 1 and 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑛), then the series ∑𝑎𝑛 converges
∞
if and only if the improper integral ∫1 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 converges.
9. Absolute Convergence Test: If the series ∑|𝑎𝑛 | converges, then
the series ∑𝑎𝑛 converges absolutely.
1
10. p-series test: For a series of the form ∑ 𝑛𝑝

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 The series converges if 𝑝 > 1.

 The series diverges if 𝑝 ≤ 1.

These tests are commonly used to determine the convergence or

divergence of series. Each test has its specific conditions and is useful in
different scenarios.

4.6 RADIUS OF CONVERGENCE OF POWER

SERIES:-
Let the power series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 = ∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑧),say, ∑ 𝑢𝑛 is convergent if

lim |𝑢𝑛 |1/𝑛 < 1

𝑛→∞

1 1
This⇒ lim |𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 |𝑛 < 1 ⇒ lim |𝑎𝑛 |𝑛 . |𝑧| < 1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞

1
1
Taking lim |𝑎𝑛 |𝑛 = 𝑅 , we obtain
𝑛→∞

|𝑧|
< 1 or |𝑧| < 𝑅.
𝑅

Thus ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 is convergent or divergent according as

|𝑧 | < 𝑅 or |𝑧| > 𝑅.

∴ For a given power series n, there exists a non-negative real number 𝑅,

known as the radius of convergence. This radius 𝑅 determines the region
in the complex plane where the series converges. Specifically, the series
converges absolutely for all complex numbers 𝑧 such that ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 𝑅 and
diverges for ∣ 𝑧 ∣> 𝑅.

Now if we draw a circle of radius R with centre at the origin, then define
in one paragraph

i. The power series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 is convergent for every 𝑧 within the

circle. (|𝑧| < 𝑅)
ii. The power series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 is divergent for every 𝑧 outside the
circle. (|𝑧| > 𝑅)

The circle of radius 𝑅, centered at the origin, is called the circle of

convergence for the power series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 , and the radius 𝑅 is referred to as
the radius of convergence. There are three possibilities for 𝑅:

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i. 𝑅=0
In case series in convergent only when 𝑧 = 0.
ii. 𝑅 is finite
In this case series is convergent at every point within this circle
and divergent at every point outside it.
iii. 𝑅 is infinite
iv. In this case series is convergent∀ 𝑧.

4.7 SUM FUNCTION OF A POWER SERIES:-

The sum function of a power series is a function that represents the value
to which the series converges for each point within its radius of
convergence. Given a power series of the form:
∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛
the sum function 𝑓(𝑧) is defined as:
∞

𝑓 ( 𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛
𝑛=0
where 𝑧 is a complex variable and 𝑎𝑛 are the coefficients of the series.

4.8 THEOREMS:-
Theorem1: The power series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 either
i. Converges for every 𝑧
ii. Converges only for 𝑧 = 0
iii. Converges for some values of 𝑧
Proof:
𝑧𝑛
i. Let the power series ∑ 𝑛! .
Comparing this with ∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑧), we find that
𝑢𝑛+1 𝑧 𝑛+1 𝑛! 𝑧
= . 𝑛=
𝑢𝑛 (𝑛 + 1 )! 𝑧 (𝑛 + 1)
𝑢𝑛+1 1
lim | | = lim . |𝑧 | = 0 < 1
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1
𝑧𝑛
Hence the power series ∑ is convergent for every 𝑧.
𝑛!
ii. Let the power series ∑ 𝑧 𝑛 𝑛! = ∑ 𝑢𝑛 , then lim |𝑢𝑛 | =
𝑛→∞
lim 𝑛!.|𝑧|𝑛
𝑛→∞
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 0
={
∞ 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 ≠ 0

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∴ ∑ 𝑢𝑛 , 𝑖. 𝑒. , ∑ 𝑛 ! 𝑧 𝑛 is convergent if 𝑧 = 0 and divergent if

𝑧 ≠ 0.
iii. The power series ∑ 𝑧 𝑛 is convergent if |𝑧| < 1 and is not
convergent if |𝑧| ≥ 1.
Theorem2: If the power series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 converges for a particular
value 𝑧0 of z, then it converges absolutely for every z for which|𝑧| <
|𝑧0 |.
Proof: Let the power series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 is convergent for 𝑧 = 𝑧0 so that
∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 is convergent. So
lim ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧0𝑛 = 0 …(1)
𝑛→∞
To prove that ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 is convergent ∀ 𝑧 for which |𝑧| < |𝑧0 |.
From (1), there exist a real positive constant 𝑀 > 0, we obtain
|𝑎𝑛 𝑧0𝑛 | ≤ 𝑀∀ 𝑛
Now
𝑧 𝑛
|𝑎𝑛 𝑧0𝑛 | ≤ 𝑀 | |
𝑧0

|𝑧|𝑛
But ∑ |𝑧 𝑛 is convergent ∀ 𝑧 s.t.,
0|
|𝑧 |
< 1, 𝑖. 𝑒., |𝑧| < |𝑧0 |
|𝑧0 |
∴ By comparison test, ∑|𝑎𝑛 𝑧0𝑛 | is convergent ∀ 𝑧 𝑠. 𝑡. |𝑧| < |𝑧0 |.
Consequently ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧0𝑛 is absolutely convergent ∀ 𝑧 𝑠. 𝑡. |𝑧| < |𝑧0 |.
Theorem3: For every power series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 , there exists a number R
such that 0 ≤ 𝑅 ≤ ∞ with the following properties:
i. The series converges absolutely for every z such that |𝑧| < 𝑅.
ii. The series diverges if |𝑧| > 𝑅.
Proof: Given the power series∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 , we need to find the radius of
convergence 𝑅 such that the series converges for ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 𝑅 and diverges
for ∣ 𝑧 ∣> 𝑅.
i. Convergence within the radius:
Let 𝑟 < 𝑅 and 𝑧 be such that ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 𝑟. By the definition of the limit
superior, for any 𝜖 > 0, there exists an integer 𝑁 such that for all 𝑛 >
𝑁,
1
|𝑎𝑛 |1/𝑛 < +∈
R
Thus, for ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 𝑟 < 𝑅, we have:
1
|𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 | = |𝑎𝑛 ||𝑧 𝑛 | = |𝑎𝑛 |𝑟 𝑛 < +∈𝑛 𝑟 𝑛
𝑅

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1
Since 𝑟 < 𝑅, there exists 𝜖 > 0 such that 𝑟 (𝑅 + 𝜖) < 1. Therefore, the
terms|𝑎𝑛 𝑧0𝑛 | are bounded above by a geometric series with a ratio less
than 1, ensuring the series converges absolutely.
ii. Divergence outside the radius:
Now, consider ∣ 𝑧 ∣> 𝑅. We want to show that the series ∑∞ 𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧
𝑛

diverges in this case. Assume∣ 𝑧 ∣= 𝑟 > 𝑅. By the definition of 𝑅, for

any 𝜖 > 0, there exists infinitely many 𝑛 such that:
1
|𝑎𝑛 |1/𝑛 < −∈
R
1
Choosing ∈= 2𝑅, we find
1 1 𝑛 1 𝑛
| 𝑎𝑛 | > ( − ) = ( )
𝑅 2𝑅 2𝑅
Thus, for sufficiently large 𝑛,

𝑛| 𝑛| 𝑛
1 𝑛 𝑛
|𝑎𝑛 𝑧 = |𝑎𝑛 ||𝑧 = |𝑎𝑛 |𝑟 > ( ) 𝑟
2𝑅
𝑟
Since 𝑟 > 𝑅 , the ratio 2𝑅 > 1 and the terms |𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 | grow without
bound, leading to the divergence of the series.
Theorem 4: To show that the power series ∑∞ 𝑛=0 𝑛𝑎𝑛 𝑧
𝑛−1
, obtained by
∑ 𝑛
differentiating power series 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 , has the same radius of convergence as
the original series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 .
Proof: Let the original power series be ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 , and let 𝑅 be its radius
of convergence. According to the Cauchy-Hadamard theorem, the radius
of convergence 𝑅 𝑖s given by:
1
= lim |𝑎 |1/𝑛
𝑅 𝑛→∞ 𝑛
Consider the differentiated series:
∞

𝑓 ( 𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛
𝑛=0
Differentiating term by term, we get:
∞

𝑓′(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑛𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛−1

𝑛=0
We aim to prove that the series ∑∞𝑛=0 𝑛𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛−1 has the same radius of
convergence 𝑅 as the original series.
The radius of convergence of the differentiated series is given by:
1
= lim |𝑛𝑎 |1/(𝑛−1)
𝑅′ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛
To find 𝑅′ , consider: lim |𝑛𝑎𝑛 |1/(𝑛−1) . Using above properties, we can
𝑛→∞
simplify the expression:

lim |𝑛𝑎𝑛 |1/(𝑛−1) = lim |𝑛|1/(𝑛−1) |𝑎𝑛 |1/(𝑛−1)

𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞

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Since, lim 𝑛1/𝑛 = 1, we get

𝑛→∞
lim 𝑛1/(𝑛−1) = 1
𝑛→∞
Thus, the radius of convergence 𝑅′ is:
1 1/𝑛
1
= lim | 𝑎 𝑛 | =
𝑅′ 𝑛→∞ 𝑅
Therefore, 𝑅′ = 𝑅 , and the differentiated series ∑∞𝑛=0 𝑛𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛−1 has the
same radius of convergence as the original series ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 .

SOLVED EXAMPLE

𝑎.𝑏 𝑎(𝑎+1)𝑏(𝑏+1)
EXAMPLE1: Prove that the series 1 + 1.𝑐 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 + ⋯ has
1.2.𝑐.(𝑐+1)
unit radius of convergent.
SOLUTION: The given series is
𝑎. 𝑏 𝑎 ( 𝑎 + 1 ) 𝑏( 𝑏 + 1 ) 2
1+ 𝑧+ 𝑧 +⋯
1. 𝑐 1.2. 𝑐. (𝑐 + 1)
We can write the general term 𝑎𝑛 as:
𝑎(𝑎 + 1) … (𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1)𝑏(𝑏 + 1) … (𝑏 + 𝑛 − 1)
𝑎𝑛 =
1.2 … 𝑛. 𝑐 (𝑐 + 1) … … (𝑐 + 𝑛 − 1)
𝑎(𝑎 + 1) … (𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1)(𝑎 + 𝑛)𝑏(𝑏 + 1) … (𝑏 + 𝑛 − 1)(𝑏 + 𝑛)
𝑎𝑛+1 =
1.2 … 𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)𝑐 (𝑐 + 1) … … (𝑐 + 𝑛 − 1)(𝑐 + 𝑛)
Simplifying, we get:
𝑎 𝑏
𝑎𝑛+1 (𝑛 + 𝑎)(𝑛 + 𝑏) (1 + 𝑛) (1 + 𝑛)
= =
𝑎𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)(𝑐 + 𝑛) 1 𝑐
(1 + 𝑛) (1 + 𝑛)
Now, taking the limit as 𝑛 → ∞:
1 𝑎𝑛+1 (1 + 0)(1 + 0)
= lim | | = lim | |=1
𝑅 𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ (1 + 0)(1 + 0)
𝑅=1
𝑧 1.3
EXAMPLE2: Find the radius of convergence of the series 2 + 2.5 𝑧 2 +
1.3.5 3
+⋯𝑧
2.5.8
SOLUTION: The coefficient of 𝑧 𝑛 of the given power series is given by
1.3.5 … (2𝑛 − 1)
𝑎𝑛 =
2.5.8 … (3𝑛 − 1)
1.3.5 … (2𝑛 − 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
𝑎𝑛+1 =
2.5.8 … (3𝑛 − 1)(3𝑛 + 2)
1
𝑎𝑛+1 2𝑛 + 1 2 (1 + 2𝑛)
= =
𝑎𝑛 3𝑛 − 1 3 (1 + 2 )
3𝑛
1 𝑎𝑛+1 2 (1 + 0) 2
= lim | |= =
𝑅 𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 3 (1 + 0) 3

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3
𝑅=
2
2 𝑛
2 𝑧 +1
EXAMPLE3: Find the convergence of the series∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑛 ( 1+𝑖 ) .
SOLUTION: Given the series:
∞ 𝑛
2
𝑧2 + 1
∑𝑛 ( )
1+𝑖
𝑛=0
To apply the ratio test, we find:
𝑛+1
𝑧2 + 1
(𝑛 + 1) 2 (
𝑎𝑛+1 1+𝑖 )
= 𝑛
𝑎𝑛 2 𝑧2 + 1
(𝑛 ) (
1+𝑖 )
(𝑛 + 1)2 𝑧 2 + 1
= | |
(𝑛 )2 1+𝑖
𝑛 + 1 2 𝑧2 + 1
=( ) | |
𝑛 1+𝑖
Now, we take the limit as 𝑛 → ∞:
𝑢𝑛+1 𝑛 + 1 2 𝑧2 + 1
lim | | = lim ( ) | |
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 1+𝑖
To express this condition in terms of𝑧, we calculate the modulus of the
denominator:
|1 + 𝑖 | = √12 + 12 = √2
So the inequality becomes:
𝑧2 + 1
| |<1
√2
|𝑧 2 + 1| < √2
This condition determines the region in the complex plane where the
series converges. Specifically, the series converges for all 𝑧 such that the
absolute value of 𝑧 2 + 1 is less than√2.
𝑧𝑛
EXAMPLE4: Examine the behavior of power series ∑∞𝑛=2 2 on the
𝑛(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛)
circle of convergence.
SOLUTION: The general term of the series is:
1
𝑎𝑛 =
𝑛(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛)2

𝑎𝑛+1 𝑛(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛)2
=
𝑎𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)[log(𝑛 + 1)]2

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1
=
1 2
log 𝑛 (1 +
1
(1 + ) [ 𝑛 )]
𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛
1
=
1 2
{1 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (1 +
1
(1 + 𝑛) [ 𝑛)}]
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛
1
= 2
1 1 1
(1 + 𝑛) [1 + 𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛 − + ⋯ ]
2𝑛2 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛
1 𝑎𝑛+1 1
= lim | | = .1 = 1
𝑅 𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 1
𝑅=1
The series converges inside the circle ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1 and diverges outside ∣ 𝑧 ∣>
1 . Now, we must examine the series' behavior on the circle of
convergence,∣ 𝑧 ∣= 1.
Behavior on the Circle∣ 𝒛 ∣= 𝟏:
𝑧𝑛
To analyze convergence on the circle ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 1 , also ∑∞𝑛=2 𝑛(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛)2 is
𝑧𝑛
convergent, by Cauchy’s condensation test. Hence ∑∞𝑛=2 𝑛(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛)2 is
absolutely convergent ∀ 𝑧 on the circle of convergence.
1
EXAMPLE5: For what value of z, does the series ∑ (𝑧 2+1)2 convergence,
and find its sum.
SOLUTION: The given series is
1 1
𝑢𝑛 = 2 2
, 𝑢𝑛+1 = 2
(𝑧 + 1) (𝑧 + 1)𝑛+1
Then
𝑢𝑛+1 1
lim | | = lim | 2 |
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑧 + 1
Since the series is convergent if
𝑢𝑛+1
lim | |<1
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛
1
or if |𝑧 2 +1| < 1 if 1 < |𝑧 2 + 1|.
Therefore, the series convergent for |𝑧 2 + 1| > 1.
Let 𝑆𝑛 (𝑧) be the sum of 𝑛 terms of given series.
𝑛
1 1 1
𝑆𝑛 = ∑ 2 𝑛
= 2 + 2 + ⋯ . . 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
(𝑧 + 1) 𝑧 + 1 (𝑧 + 1)2
1
1
[1− 𝑛]
1 (𝑧2 +1) 𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛)
= 1 as 𝑆𝑛 =
𝑧 2 +1 1− 2 1−𝑟
𝑧 +1

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1 1
𝑆𝑛 = 2
[1 − 2 ]
𝑧 (𝑧 + 1)𝑛
1 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑆𝑛 = 𝑧 2 𝑎𝑠 |𝑧 2+1| < 1.
EXAMPLE6: Find the domain of convergence of the power series
2𝑖 𝑛
∑( ) .
𝑧+𝑖+1
SOLUTION: The given series can be rewritten as:
𝑛
2𝑖
∑( )
𝑧+𝑖+1
2𝑖 𝑛 2𝑖 𝑛+1
We have 𝑢𝑛 = (𝑧+𝑖+1) , 𝑢𝑛+1 = (𝑧+𝑖+1)
Now
𝑢𝑛+1 2𝑖 2
lim | | = lim | |=
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑧 + 𝑖 + 1 |𝑧 + 𝑖 + 1 |
2
The given series is convergent if |𝑧+𝑖+1| < 1.

|𝑧 + 𝑖 + 1 | > 2
Thus the inequality |𝑧 + 𝑖 + 1| > 2 describes the set of all complex
numbers 𝑧 such that the distance between 𝑧 and −𝑖 − 1 is greater than 2.
This represents the exterior of a circle in the complex plane with center
−𝑖 − 1 and radius 2.
EXAMPLE7: For what values of z does the series ∑(−1)𝑛 (𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑧 𝑛+1 )
converge and find its sum.
SOLUTION: First, rewrite the series as follows:
𝑢𝑛 = (−1)𝑛 (𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑧 𝑛+1 )
𝑢𝑛+1 = (−1)𝑛+1 (𝑧 𝑛+1 + 𝑧 𝑛+2 )
= −(−1)𝑛 𝑧(𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑧 𝑛+1 ) = −𝑧𝑢𝑛
𝑢𝑛+1
lim | | = lim |−𝑧| = |𝑧|
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 𝑛→∞
𝑢𝑛+1
The series is convergent if lim | 𝑢 | < 1 or if |𝑧| < 1.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛
Hence the series is convergent inside the circle of radius one and centre at
𝑧 = 0.
Suppose 𝑆𝑛 (𝑧) = sum of n terms of the series.
Then
𝑆𝑛 = (1 − 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 3 + ⋯ 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠)
+ (𝑧 − 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 3 + ⋯ 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= (1 − 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 3 + ⋯ 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠)
+ 𝑧(1 − 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 3 + ⋯ 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= (1 + 𝑧)(1 − 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 3 + ⋯ 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠)
[1 − (−𝑧)𝑛 ]
= (1 + 𝑧 ) = 1 − (−𝑧)𝑛
1+𝑧
lim 𝑆𝑛 = lim [1 − (−𝑧)𝑛 ] = 1, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑧| < 1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
∴ Sum of series =1

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SELF CHECK QUESTIONS

𝑛!𝑧 𝑛
1. What is the radius of convergence for the power series∑∞
𝑛=0 ?
𝑛𝑛
𝑧𝑛
2. For which values of z does the series ∑∞
𝑛=0 3𝑛 ?
3. What kind of singularity does the function represented by
∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛! 𝑧 have at infinity?
(−1)𝑛
4. What is the interval of convergence of the series ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑧𝑛 ?
𝑛+1

4.9 SUMMARY:-
A power series is an infinite sum of the form ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 , where are
coefficients and 𝑧 is a variable. The radius of convergence 𝑅, defines the
interval where the series converges absolutely: it converges for ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 𝑅
and diverges for ∣ 𝑧 ∣> 𝑅, with boundary convergence needing separate
verification. The radius is determined by the formula
1 1/𝑛
= lim |𝑎𝑛 | . Power series can be differentiated and integrated term by
𝑅 𝑛→∞
term, retaining the same radius of convergence, and they are used to
represent analytic functions that are infinitely differentiable within their
interval of convergence.
Power series are fundamental in many areas of mathematics and
engineering, including calculus, differential equations, and complex
analysis. They provide a way to represent functions and can be used to
approximate functions over certain intervals.

4.10 GLOSSARY:-

 Power Series: An infinite series of the form ∑∞ 𝑛

𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 , where an
are coefficients, 𝑧 is a variable, and 𝑛 is a non-negative integer.
 Coefficient: The 𝑎𝑛 in a power series, representing the weight of
the 𝑛 −th term 𝑧 𝑛 .
 Variable: The 𝑧 in a power series, often representing a complex or
real number.
 Term: An individual component of the power series,𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 .
 Radius of Convergence (R): A non-negative number that
determines the interval in which the power series converges
absolutely. Calculated as
1
 = lim |𝑎𝑛 |1/𝑛 .
𝑅 𝑛→∞
 Convergence: The condition where the partial sums of a series
approach a finite limit as the number of terms increases.
 Absolute Convergence: When the series ∑|𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 | converges. This
implies the convergence of the original series.

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 Divergence: The condition where a series does not converge,

meaning the partial sums do not approach a finite limit.
 Analytic Function: A function that can be represented by a power
series within its radius of convergence. Such functions are
infinitely differentiable in this interval.
 Term-by-Term Differentiation: The process of differentiating a
power series term by term, resulting in a new series ∑∞n=0 nan z n−1
with the same radius of convergence as the original.
 Term-by-Term Integration: The process of integrating a power
𝑎𝑛 𝑛+1
series term by term, resulting in a new series ∑∞𝑛=0 𝑛+1 𝑧 plus a
constant, with the same radius of convergence as the original.
 Limit Superior (lim sup): The limit of the supremum (upper
bound) of the tail end of a sequence. Used in calculating the radius
of convergence.
 Interval of Convergence: The range of values of z for which the
power series converges. It includes all z for which ∣z∣<R and may
or may not include boundary points where ∣z∣=R.
 Analytic Function: A function defined by a power series within
its radius of convergence is called an analytic function. Such
functions are infinitely differentiable within the interval of
convergence.

4.11 REFERENCES:-

 Dennis G. Zill and Patrick D. Shanahan(2013 Third Edition),

Complex Analysis: A First Course with Applications.
 William F. Trench(2013), Introduction to Real Analysis.
 John B. Conway(2020), A First Course in Analysis.
 Hilary A. Priestley (2nd Edition, 2019, Oxford University Press),
Introduction to Complex Analysis.

4.12 SUGGESTED READING:-

 file:///C:/Users/user/Desktop/1468562409EText(Ch-6,M-
3%20(1).pdf
 Goyal and Gupta (Twenty first edition 2010), Function of complex
Variable.
 Igor Kriz and Ales Pultr(2013),Introduction to Mathematical
Analysis.

4.13 TERMINAL QUESTIONS:-

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(TQ-1)Prove that the sum function 𝑓(𝑧) of the power series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛

represents an analytic function inside the circle of convergence.
(TQ-2)If 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are the radii of convergence of the power series
∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 and ∑ 𝑏𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 respectively, then show that the radius of convergence
of the power series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 is 𝑅1 𝑅2 .
𝑖𝑧−1 𝑛
(TQ-3) Show that the domain of convergence of the series ∑ ( 2+𝑖 ) is
given by |𝑧 + 𝑖 | < √5.
(TQ-4) Find the domain of convergence of the following series:
(−1)𝑛−1 𝑧 2𝑛−1
∑
(2𝑛 − 1)!
(𝑛+1)𝑧 𝑛
(TQ-5)Find the radius of convergence of power series ∑∞
𝑛=1 (𝑛+2)(𝑛+3).
𝑧𝑛
(TQ-6)Discuss the behavior of power series ∑∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛
𝑛
on the circle
of convergence.
(TQ-7) Objectives types questions:
i. If the series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 is convergent but the series ∑|𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 | is not
convergent, then ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 is said to be
a. divergent
b. oscillatory
c. conditionally convergent
d. finite
ii. The radius of the convergence of the series ∑∞ 𝑛 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛 𝑧 is:
a. 0
b. 1
c. 2
d. 3
iii. The radius of the convergence of the series ∑∞ 𝑛!
𝑛=0 𝑧 is
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
iv. The radius of the convergence of the series ∑ 2𝑛 𝑧 𝑛! is
a. 1
b. 2
c. 0
d. N
v. The alternating series test guarantees convergence if:
a. The terms decrease and have a non-zero limit.
b. The terms decrease and have a limit of zero.
c. The terms increase and have a limit of zero.
d. The terms are positive and bounded.
(TQ-8) True/False type Questions

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a. A power series can converge conditionally at a point on its circle

of convergence. T
b. The radius of convergence of a power series can be zero. T
c. A power series can be used to represent a function that is not
differentiable. F
d. The power series ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑧 converges for all complex numbers z. F
e. If a power series converges at 𝑧 = 3, it must also converge at 𝑧 =
−3. F
(TQ-9) If ∑∞ ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 converges, then prove that 𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 tends
|1−𝑧|
to 𝑓(1) as 𝑧 → 1 in such a manner that 1−|𝑧| remains bounded.
(TQ-10) Find the radii of convergence of the following power series:
2+𝑖𝑛
a. ∑ 𝑧𝑛 b. ∑ 2√𝑛 𝑧 𝑛
2𝑛
2 𝑧𝑛
1 𝑛 d. ∑ 𝑛
c. ∑ (1 + 𝑛) 𝑧2 2 +1

𝑧𝑛 2−𝑛 𝑧 𝑛
𝑒. ∑ 𝑛𝑛 f. ∑ 1+𝑖𝑛2

(𝑛!)2 𝑛!
g. ∑ (2𝑛)! 𝑧 𝑛 h. ∑ 𝑛𝑛 𝑧 𝑛

𝑛
(TQ-11)Investigate the behavior of ∑ 𝑧𝑛 on the circle of convergence.
𝑧 4𝑛
(TQ-12) Examine the behavior of the power series ∑∞
𝑛=0 1+4𝑛 on the
circle of convergence.
(TQ-13) For what values of z does the series ∑(−1)𝑛 (𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑧 𝑛+1)
converge and find its sum.
(TQ-14) Prove that the series 1 + 𝑎.𝑏
1.𝑐
𝑧 +
𝑎(𝑎+1)𝑏(𝑏+1) 2
1.2.𝑐.(𝑐+1)
𝑧 + ⋯ has unit
radius of convergent.
𝑛
(TQ-15) Show that the domain of convergence of series ∑ (𝑖𝑧−1
2+𝑖
) is
given by |𝑧 + 𝑖 | < √5.
(TQ-16)If the radius of the convergence of power series ∑∞𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 is a
positive real number R, then prove that the function f(z) defined by
𝑓(𝑧) = ∑∞𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 is analytic in |𝑧| < 𝑅.

4.14 ANSWERS:-
SELF CHECK ANSWERS

1. 1
2. 3
3. Essential
4. |𝑧 | < 1
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TERMINAL ANSWERS

(TQ-4) The series is absolutely convergent for every finite value of z.

(TQ-5) 𝑅 = 1
(TQ-7) 1.(c) 2.(a) 3.(a) 4.(a) 5.(b)
(TQ-8) a.T b.T c.F d.F e.F

(TQ-10) a.𝑅 = 2 b.𝑅 = 1 c.𝑅 = 1/𝑒 d.𝑅 = 2

e. 𝑅 = ∞ f. 𝑅 = 2 g. 𝑅 = 4 h. 𝑅 = 𝑒

(TQ-13) 1

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BLOCK II
CONFORMAL MAPPING

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UNIT 5:-Conformal Mapping

CONTENTS:
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Conformal Mapping
5.4 Transformation of Conformal
5.5 Some General Transformations
5.6 Summary
5.7 Glossary
5.8 References
5.9 Suggested Reading
5.10 Terminal questions
5.11 Answers

5.1 INTRODUCTION:-
Conformal mapping is a fundamental concept in complex analysis
that focuses on functions which preserve angles between intersecting
curves. These mappings are characterized by being analytic functions with
non-zero derivatives in their domains, ensuring that small shapes are
mapped similarly, though their size may change. The key property of
conformal mappings is their ability to maintain the local geometry of
figures, specifically the angles and the orientation of intersections, making
them invaluable for simplifying and analyzing complex shapes and
patterns. The applications of conformal mapping extend across various
scientific and engineering fields. In fluid dynamics, for example,
conformal maps are used to transform complex flow patterns into simpler
ones, aiding in the analysis and solution of potential flow problems. In
electromagnetism, they help simplify the geometry of problems, making it
easier to solve Maxwell's equations in complex domains. Additionally,
conformal maps are crucial in cartography, where they preserve angles,
making them useful for navigation and map projections like the Mercator
projection, which represents the globe on a flat surface.

5.2 OBJECTIVES:-
After studying this unit, learners will be able to

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 To understand the fundamental concepts and transformation of

mapping.
 To identify and apply conformal transformation.
 To prove theoretical results.

These objectives make conformal mapping a versatile and powerful tool

across various disciplines, allowing for the transformation and analysis of
complex systems and shapes while preserving essential geometric
properties.

5.3 CONFORMAL MAPPING:-

A transformation or mapping defined by the equations 𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) and
𝑣 = 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) establishes a correspondence between points in the 𝑥𝑦 −plane
and the 𝑢𝑣 −plane. If each point in the 𝑥𝑦 −plane uniquely maps to a
point in the 𝑢𝑣 −plane and vice versa, this transformation is termed a one-
to-one (bijective) transformation. The points corresponding in the two
planes are considered images of each other. Through such a
transformation, regions or curves in the 𝑥𝑦 − plane are mapped onto
corresponding regions or curves in the 𝑢𝑣 −plane, effectively representing
one plane's features in terms of another.

Jacobian transformation:

Let's consider a transformation from coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦) to (𝑢, 𝑣) defined

by the functions:
𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑣 = 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦).
The Jacobian matrix 𝐽 for this transformation is given by derivatives of the
functions:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜕(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 |
𝐽= = ||
𝜕(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 |
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
The determinant of the Jacobian matrix, denoted as 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐽) or ∣ 𝐽 ∣, is:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 | 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑑𝑒𝑡 (𝐽 ) = || = −
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 | 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
By Cauchy –Riemann Equations: = , =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

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𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑣 2
𝑑𝑒𝑡 (𝐽 ) = − (− ) =( ) +( )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
2 2 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝜕𝑤
| + 𝑖 | = | | = | | = |𝑓 ′ (𝑧)|2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Thus
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦)
= |𝑓 ′ (𝑧)|2 , if f(z) is analytic.
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦)

5.4 TRANSFORMATION OF CONFORMAL:-

In complex analysis, a transformation 𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑣 = 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) that maps
two curves 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 , intersecting at a point 𝑃(𝑧0 ) in the z-plane, onto
curves 𝐶1 ′and 𝐶2 ′, intersecting at 𝑃′ (𝑧0 ) in the w-plane, is classified based
on how it preserves angles. If the angle between 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 at 𝑧0 is the same
as the angle between 𝐶1 ′and 𝐶2 ′at𝑤0 , the transformation is called isogonal.
An isogonal transformation maintains the magnitude of the angles but not
necessarily their orientation. If the transformation also preserves the sense
of rotation (i.e., the orientation), it is called conformal. This means that
conformal transformations maintain both the magnitude and the clockwise
or counterclockwise nature of the angles.
For example, the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧̅, where 𝑧̅ is the complex conjugate
of 𝑧 , is isogonal because it preserves the angles but reverses the
orientation (flipping clockwise to counterclockwise), distinguishing it
from conformal transformations which preserve both the angle magnitude
and orientation.

Fig.1

Fig.2
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5.5 SOME GENERAL TRANSFORMATIONS:-

Transformations involving complex numbers can perform various
geometric operations on figures in the complex plane. Here are
explanations of some common types of transformations:
1. Translation: The transformation of the form 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 𝑎, where 𝑎
is a complex constant, is known as a translation. This
transformation shifts all points in the 𝑧 −plane uniformly in the
direction and magnitude specified by a.
EXAMPLE: Let a rectangular domain R be bounded by 𝑥 =
0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 1 . Determine the region R’of w-plane into
which R is mapped under the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 + (1 − 2𝑖).
SOLUTION: Let the given transformation
𝑤 = 𝑧 + (1 − 2𝑖)
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + (1 − 2𝑖)

⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1, 𝑣 = 𝑦 − 2

By the map 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1, the line 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 2 are mapped respective

on the lines 𝑢 = 1, 𝑢 = 3.
Again the map 𝑣 = 𝑦 − 2, the lines 𝑦 = 0, 𝑦 = 1 are mapped on
𝑣 = −2, 𝑣 = −1 respectively.
Since the required image 𝑅′ bounded by 𝑢 = 1, 𝑢 = 3, 𝑣 =
−2, 𝑣 = −1 in w-plane as shown in figure.

Fig.3
2. Rotation: The transformation 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑧 , where 𝜃 is a real
constant, is known as a rotation. Here, iθ represents a complex
number on the unit circle (with modulus 1) corresponding to an
angle 𝜃 in radians. This transformation rotates figures in
the 𝑧 −plane by an angle 𝜃 around the origin. If 𝜃 > 0, the rotation
is anti-clockwise; if 𝜃 < 0, the rotation is clockwise.
EXAMPLE: Consider the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 and
determine the region 𝑅′ in 𝑤 −plane corresponding to triangular

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region R bounded by the lines 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 in z-

plane.
(1+𝑖)
SOLUTION: Let 𝑤 = 𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 gives 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
√2
1 1
⇒ 𝑢= (𝑥 − 𝑦 ), 𝑣 = (𝑥 + 𝑦 ) … (1)
√2 √2
Substituting 𝑥 = 0 in above equation
1 1
𝑢=− 𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑦
√2 √2
𝑣 = −𝑢
Again substituting 𝑦 = 0 in above equation
1 1
𝑢= 𝑥, 𝑣 = 𝑥
√2 √2
𝑣=𝑢
Substituting 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 in (1), we obtain
1
𝑣=
√2

Fig.4

3. Stretching (Magnification): The transformation 𝑤 = 𝑎𝑧, where 𝑎

is a real constant, is called stretching (or scaling). This
transformation stretches or contracts figures in the z-plane
depending on the value of 𝑎. If 𝑎 > 1, figures are stretched (scaled
up) away from the origin, and if 0 < 𝑎 < 1, figures are contracted
(scaled down) towards the origin. This transformation alters the
size but not the shape of the figures.
EXAMPLE: Consider the transformation 𝑤 = 2𝑧 and determine
the region 𝑅′ in 𝑤 − plane corresponding to triangular region R
bounded by the lines 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 in z-plane is
mapped under the map.
SOLUTION: Let 𝑤 = 2𝑧 gives 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 2𝑥 + 𝑖2𝑦
⇒ 𝑢 = 2𝑥, 𝑣 = 2𝑦
⇒ 𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 2𝑥 ⇒ 𝑢 = 0
⇒ 𝑦 = 0, 𝑣 = 2𝑦 ⇒ 𝑣 = 0
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⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1, 𝑢 = 2𝑥, 𝑣 = 2𝑦 ⇒ 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 2(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 2.1 =

2
⇒ 𝑢+𝑣 =2

Hence the required image 𝑅′ bounded by 𝑢 = 0, 𝑣 = 0, 𝑢 + 𝑣 =

2, 𝑣 = −1 as shown in figure.

Fig.5
1
4. Inversion: The mapping 𝑤 = is known as inversion. This
𝑧
transformation maps each point zzz in the complex plane to a new
point www such that the product of their magnitudes is 1
(i.e., |𝑧 ||𝑤| = 1 ) and the argument (angle) is preserved but
reversed in sign. The origin, however, is mapped to infinity, and
vice versa. Inversion changes the scale of figures based on their
distance from the origin, inverting them relative to the unit circle.
For example, points inside the unit circle are mapped outside and
vice versa.
1
EXAMPLE: Consider the map 𝑤 = and determine the region 𝑅′
𝑧
1 1
in w-plane of infinite strip R-bounded by < 𝑦 < .
4 2
1 𝑥−𝑖𝑦
SOLUTION: Let 𝑤 = gives 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 =
𝑧 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
𝑥 𝑦 𝑢 𝑥 𝑢𝑦
⇒ 𝑢= ,𝑣 = − ⇒ =− ⇒𝑥=−
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑣 𝑦 𝑣
𝑦 𝑦 𝑣2
⇒ 𝑣=− ⇒ 𝑣 = − 𝑦2 𝑢2 =−
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑦 2 𝑦(𝑢2+𝑣 2)
𝑣2
𝑣
⇒ 𝑦=−
𝑢2+𝑣 2

1 𝑣 1
⇒ 𝑦< ⇒ − 2 2< ⇒ −𝑣 < 𝑢 2 + 𝑣 2 ⇒ 𝑢 2 +
2 𝑢 +𝑣 2
(𝑣 + 1)2 > 1
1 𝑣 1
⇒ 𝑦< ⇒ − 2 2> ⇒ −4𝑣 < 𝑢 2 + 𝑣 2 ⇒ 𝑢 2 +
4 𝑢 +𝑣 4
(𝑣 + 2)2 > 22
So
1 1
<𝑦< ⇒ 𝑢 2 + (𝑣 + 2)2 > 22 and 𝑢 2 + (𝑣 + 1)2 > 1
2 4
𝑢 2 + (𝑣 + 2) 2 = 22 and 𝑢 2 + (𝑣 + 1)2 = 1

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Fig.6

Theorem1: To prove that at each point z of a domain where 𝑓(𝑧) is

analytic and 𝑓′(𝑧) ≠ 0,the mapping 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) is conformal.
Proof: Let 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧 ) be an analytic function in a domain 𝐷 on the
𝑧 −plane, and 𝑧0 be a point in the interior of 𝐷. Consider two curves 𝐶1
and 𝐶2 in the 𝑧 −plane that intersect at 𝑧0 ) . These curves are mapped to
the w- plane under the function 𝑓 , resulting in the curves 𝐶1′ and 𝐶2′
intersecting at 𝑤0 = 𝑓 (𝑧0 ). Let 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 be points on 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 ,
respectively, close to 𝑧0 . These points are mapped to 𝑤1 = 𝑓(𝑧1 ) and
𝑤2 = 𝑓(𝑧2 )on 𝐶1′ and 𝐶2′ , respectively.
distance between 𝑧1 and 𝑧0 = distance between 𝑧2 and 𝑧0 = 𝑟. So we can
write
𝑧1 − 𝑧0 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃1 , 𝑧2 − 𝑧0 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃2
The tangent at 𝑧0 to the curves 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 make angles 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 with real axis
to that 𝜃1 → 𝛼1 , 𝜃2 → 𝛼1 𝑎𝑠 𝑟 → 0.
Also the tangent at 𝑤0 to the curves 𝐶1 ′ and 𝐶2 ′ make angles 𝛽1 , 𝛽2 with
real axis and let
𝑤1 − 𝑤0 = 𝜌1 𝑒 𝑖𝜙1 , 𝑧2 − 𝑧0 = 𝜌2 𝑒 𝑖𝜙2
Where 𝜙1 → 𝛽1 𝑎𝑠𝜌1 → 0 , 𝜙2 → 𝛽2 𝑎𝑠 𝜌2 → 0
𝑓 (𝑧 ) − 𝑓(𝑧0 ) 𝑤1 − 𝑤0 𝜌1 𝑒 𝑖𝜙1
𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = lim = lim = lim
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑧1 →𝑧0 𝑧1 − 𝑧0 𝑧1 →𝑧0 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃1
𝜌1 𝑖(𝜙 −𝜃 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = lim 𝑒 1 1
𝑧1→𝑧0 𝑟

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Fig.7
So our assumption 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) ≠ 0. we write 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜆
𝜌1 𝑖(𝜙 −𝜃 )
𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜆 = lim 𝑒 1 1
𝑧1→𝑧0 𝑟
Now equating modulus and argument
𝜌1
𝑅 = lim , 𝜆 = lim (𝜙1 − 𝜃1 ) = 𝛽1 − 𝛼1
𝑧1→𝑧0 𝑟
𝛽1 = 𝜆 + 𝛼1
Similarly
𝛽2 = 𝜆 + 𝛼2
So
𝛽1 − 𝛽2 = 𝛼1 − 𝛼2
This proof demonstrates that the angle between the images of the curves
𝐶1 ′ and 𝐶2 ′ at the point 𝑤0 in the www-plane is both equal in magnitude
and identical in sign to the angle between the original curves 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 at
the point 𝑧0 in the 𝑧 − plane. Consequently, this shows that the
transformation 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧 ) preserves both the size and orientation of angles,
thus confirming that the transformation is conformal.
Theorem2: To the study of conformal property when 𝑓 ′ (𝑧 ) = 0 if 𝑓(𝑧) is
a regular function of 𝑧.
Solution: Let us consider the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) is conformal at
𝑧 = 𝑧0 if 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 and 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) ≠ 0. Let us examine the
case when 𝑓 ′ (𝑧 ) = 0. Suppose that 𝑓 ′ (𝑧 ) has a zero of order 𝑛 at 𝑧0 so
that
𝑓 ′ (𝑧 ) = (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑛 𝜙(𝑧)
where 𝜙(𝑧) is analytic and 𝜙(𝑧0 ) ) ≠ 0.
⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = 𝑓 ′′ (𝑧0 ) = ⋯ 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑧0 ) = 0, 𝑓 (𝑛+1) (𝑧0 ) ≠ 0 … (1)
Expending by Taylor theorem
𝑓(𝑧 ) = ∑∞ 𝑚=0 𝑎𝑚 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )
𝑚 … (2)
where
𝑓(𝑚) (𝑧0)
𝑎𝑚 = … (3)
𝑚!

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Now we apply (1) to (3)

𝑎𝑚 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = 1,2,3 … 𝑛
By (2)
∞

𝑓(𝑧 ) = 𝑎0 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )0 + ∑ 𝑎𝑚 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑚
𝑚=𝑛+1
𝑓(0) (𝑧0 )
Since 𝑎0 = = 𝑓 (𝑧0 )
𝑚!
∴ 𝑓(𝑧 ) − 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) = 𝑎𝑛+1 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑛+1 + ⋯
Where 𝑎𝑛+1 ≠ 0
⇒ 𝑤1 − 𝑤0 = 𝑎𝑛+1 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑛+1
Now we taking
𝑤1 − 𝑤0 = 𝜌1 𝑒 𝑖𝜙1 , 𝑧1 − 𝑧0 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃1 , 𝑎𝑛+1 = 𝛼𝑒 𝑖𝜆
We obtain
𝜌1 𝑒 𝑖𝜙1 = 𝛼𝑟1𝑛+1 𝑒 𝑖[(𝑛+1)𝜃1+𝜆]
⇒ 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝜙1 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 [(𝑛 + 1) 𝜃1 + 𝜆] = (𝑛 + 1)𝑎1 + 𝜆
Similarly
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝜙2 = (𝑛 + 1) 𝑎2 + 𝜆
The curves 𝐶1 ′ and 𝐶2 ′ intersect at 𝑤0 with an angle that is (𝑛 + 1) times
the angle between the curves 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 intersecting at 𝑧0 , then the
conformal property fails at 𝑧0 .
Theorem3: If the mapping 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) is conformal, then show that 𝑓(𝑧) is
an analytic function of 𝑧.
Proof: Given the conformal transformation 𝑤 = 𝑢 (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) =
𝑓(𝑧 )., where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are the real and imaginary parts of 𝑓(𝑧 ) , the line
elements 𝑑𝑠 in the 𝑧 −plane and 𝑑𝜎 in the w-plane respectively so that
𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑦 2 , 𝑑𝜎 2 = 𝑑𝑢 2 + 𝑑𝑣 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Squaring and adding
𝑑𝜎 2 = 𝑑𝑢 2 + 𝑑𝑣 2
𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑣 2 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑣 2
= (( ) + ( ) ) 𝑑𝑥 + (( ) + ( ) ) 𝑑𝑦 2
2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
+2[ + ] 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝜎 2
So the transformation is conformal and hence the ratio is of direction-
𝑑𝑠2
independent and Compare with

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𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑦 2
𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑣 2 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑣 2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 + 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
( ) +( ) ( ) +( )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
1 1 0
𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑣 2 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑣 2
⇒ ( ) +( ) = ( ) +( ) . . (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
and + =0 …(2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
From(2),
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑥 = − 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜆
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
=𝜆 , =− 𝜆 … (3)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Substituting these values in (1), we obtain
2
𝜕𝑣 2 2
𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑣 2
𝜆 ( ) +𝜆 ( ) =( ) +( )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
2 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
(𝜆2 − 1) [( ) − ( ) ] = 0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
⇒ 𝜆2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝜆 = ±1
Using in(3), we get
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
= , =− 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝜆 = 1) . . (4)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
=− , = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝜆 = −1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Hence the equations (4) are Cauchy Riemann equations.
SOLVED EXAMPLE

EXAMPLE1: Show that 𝑤 = 𝑖𝑧 + 𝑖 map half plane 𝑥 > 0 onto half

plane𝑣 > 1.

SOLUTION: Gives 𝑤 = 𝑖𝑧 + 𝑖

𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑖 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + 𝑖
𝑢 = −𝑦
⇒ } ⇒ 𝑥 =𝑣−1
𝑣 =𝑥+1
Using 𝑥 > 0

⇒ 𝑣−1 >0⇒𝑣 >1

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EXAMPLE2: Consider the map 𝑤 = 𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 √2 and determine the region

𝑅′ of w-plane into which the rectangular region R bounded by 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 =
0, 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 3 in z-plane is mapped under this map.

SOLUTION: Let 𝑤 = 𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 √2 gives

1+𝑖
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) ( ) √2
√2
⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 … (1)
Substituting 𝑥 = 0 in (1), 𝑢 = −𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑦 so that 𝑣 = −𝑢
Substituting 𝑦 = 0 in (1), 𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 = 𝑥 so that 𝑣 = 𝑢
Substituting 𝑦 = 3 in (1), 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 3, 𝑣 = 𝑥 + 3 so that 𝑣 − 3 = 𝑢 +
3 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 6
Substituting 𝑥 = 2 in (1), 𝑢 = 2 − 𝑦, 𝑣 = 2 + 𝑦 𝑜𝑟 2 − 𝑢 = 𝑣 − 2
𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 4 − 𝑢
The region 𝑅′ is a rectangle in the uv-plane bounded by the lines 𝑣 = 𝑢,
𝑣 = −𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 6 and 𝑣 = 4 − 𝑢, as depicted in the following figures.

Fig.8
This transformation performs a rotation of 𝑅 through an angle of 450 and
magnification of length of magnitude√2.
EXAMPLE3: A rectangle region 𝑅 in 𝑧 −plane is bounded by 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 =
0, 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 1, determine the region 𝑅′ of the w-plane into which 𝑅 is
mapped under the transformation: 𝑤 = 𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 √2. 𝑧 + (1 − 2𝑖)
SOLUTION:𝑤 = 𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 √2. 𝑧 + (1 − 2𝑖)
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (1 + 𝑖)(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + (1 − 2𝑖)
𝑢 = 𝑥−𝑦+1 … (1)
𝑣 =𝑥+𝑦−2 … (2)
Substituting 𝑦 = 0 in (1) & (2), we get
⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1, 𝑣 = 𝑥 − 2 ⇒ 𝑢 = (𝑣 + 2) + 1 ⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑣 + 3
𝑢 𝑣
⇒ + (−3) = 1
3
Substituting 𝑦 = 2 in (1) & (2), we obtain

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⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 = 𝑥 − 1 ⇒ 𝑢 =𝑣+1
𝑢 𝑣
⇒ + (−1) = 1
1
Substituting 𝑥 = 0 in (1) & (2), we have
⇒ 𝑢 = −𝑦 + 1, 𝑣 = 𝑦 − 2 ⇒ 𝑣 = (1 − 𝑢 ) − 2
𝑢 𝑣
⇒ (−1)
+ (−1) = 1
Substituting 𝑥 = 2 in (1) & (2), we have
⇒ 𝑢 = 3 − 𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑢 =3−𝑣
𝑢 𝑣
⇒ + =1
3 3

Fig.9
Where 𝑅 is rectangle OABC.
𝑅′ is rectangle PQRS. 𝑅′ Is image of 𝑅.

SELF CHECK QUESTIONS

1. What is a conformal mapping?

2. What is preserved under a conformal mapping?
3. What must be non-zero for a function to be conformal at a point?
Does a conformal mapping preserve the magnitude of angles or
their orientation? What type of function must f(z) be for it to be
conformal?
4. How does a conformal mapping affect the local distance between
points?
5. What happens to the angles between curves under a conformal
mapping?

5.6 SUMMARY:-

Conformal mapping is a mathematical technique in complex analysis

where a function preserves local angles and the shapes of infinitesimally
small figures, though it may alter their size and position. For a function
f(z) to be conformal, it must be holomorphic (complex differentiable) with

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a non-zero derivative throughout its domain. Common examples include

linear transformations, Möbius transformations, and exponential functions,
which map complex domains in ways that preserve angle relationships.
Conformal mappings are crucial in solving complex boundary value
problems and have applications in fields like fluid dynamics and
electromagnetic theory.

5.7 GLOSSARY:-

 Conformal Mapping: A function that locally preserves angles and

the shapes of infinitesimal figures between complex domains,
although it may alter their size and position.
 Holomorphic: A function that is complex differentiable at every
point in its domain.
 Derivative: In complex analysis, the derivative of a function 𝑓(𝑧)
at a point 𝑧 is given by 𝑓′(𝑧) . For a mapping to be conformal,
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) must be non-zero.
 Angle Preservation: The property of a conformal mapping where
the angle between two intersecting curves is preserved under the
transformation.
 Möbius Transformation: A specific type of conformal mapping
𝑐𝑧+𝑑
of the form 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = where 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0. It maps lines and
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
circles in the complex plane to other lines or circles.
 Unit Disk: The set of all complex numbers z such that ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1. It
is often used as a domain for conformal mappings.
 Upper Half-Plane: The set of all complex numbers 𝑧 such that
𝐼𝑚(𝑧) > 0. It is commonly mapped to other domains, such as the
unit disk.
 Branch Point: A point where a function (such as the logarithm)
fails to be single-valued and requires a branch cut to define it
properly.
 Branch Cut: A curve or line in the complex plane where a
multivalued function (like the logarithm) is discontinuous. It is
used to make a function single-valued.
 Exponential Function: The function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 , which is
conformal everywhere in the complex plane except at infinity.
 Logarithm Function: The complex function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑧),
which maps complex numbers to a strip in the complex plane and
introduces a branch cut for proper definition.

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 Linear Transformation: A function of the form 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏

where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants, and 𝑎 ≠ 0. This is a simple type of
conformal mapping involving translation and scaling.
 Fractional Linear Transformation: Also known as a Möbius
𝑐𝑧+𝑑
transformation, it is of the form 𝑓(𝑧 ) = , which transforms
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
circles and lines in the complex plane.
 Reflection: A type of conformal mapping that involves reflecting
points through a line or circle in the complex plane.
 Singularity: A point where a function ceases to be well-behaved,
such as where it is not holomorphic or where its derivative is zero.
Singularities affect conformality at those points.
 Domain: The set of all points in the complex plane where a
function is defined. The nature of the mapping often depends on
the domain being considered.

5.8 REFERENCES:-

 Barry Simon (2015),Complex Analysis: A Comprehensive Course

in Analysis, Part 2B
 Tristan Needham (2020 Edition), Visual Complex Analysis.
 Matthew A. P. Lambert (2019), A First Course in Complex
Analysis with Applications" by
 James Ward Brown and Ruel V. Churchill (2016), Complex
Variables and Applications.

5.9 SUGGESTED READING:-

 Goyal and Gupta (Twenty first edition 2010), Function of complex

Variable.
 file:///C:/Users/user/Desktop/1468564002EText(Ch-9,M-
1%20(1).pdf
 X. Zhang and J. Li (2017), Recent Advances in Conformal
Mapping Techniques.
 Y. Wang and S. Kumar (2019), Conformal Mapping and its
Applications in Fluid Dynamics.

5.10TERMINAL QUESTIONS:-

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𝑏
(TQ-1) Prove that if 𝑤 = 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑎 𝑦, 0 < 𝑎 < 𝑏 the inside of the circle
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 corresponds to the inside of an ellipse in the w-plane, but
that the transformation is not conformal.
(TQ-2) Consider the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 + (1 − 𝑖) and determine the
region 𝐷′ of w-plane corresponding to the rectangle D in z-plane bounded
by 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 2.
(TQ-3) What is the region of w-plane into which the rectangular region
in z-plane bounded by the lines 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 2 is mapped
under the map 𝑤 = 𝑧 + (2 − 𝑖) ?
(TQ-4) Find the image of rectangle 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 2 in z-
plane under the map 𝑤 = (1 + 𝑖)𝑧 + (2 − 𝑖)
(TQ-5) True/False type Questions
a. A conformal mapping always preserves distances between points
in the complex plane.
b. The function f(z)= (z+2)/(z−2) is a conformal mapping.
c. Conformal mappings are linear transformations of the complex
plane.
d. The complex logarithm function f(z)=log(z) is conformal
everywhere in the complex plane.
e. Conformal mappings can map the entire complex plane onto itself.
f. Conformal mappings preserve the orientation of angles between
intersecting curves.
g. The function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 is a conformal mapping.
h. In the case of an isogonal mapping, the magnitude of angles is
preserved but not necessarily the sense of angles.
i. The mapping 𝑤 = 𝑧̅ is isogonal but not conformal.
1
(TQ-6) Show that the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 transforms circles in z-plane
to circles of w-plane. What type of circles in z-plane will be transformed
into straight lines of w-plane?
(TQ-7) Show that the region |𝑧 − 𝑎| ≤ 𝑅 ia mapped conformally on 𝑤 ≤
𝑅(𝑧−𝑐)𝑒 𝑖𝛼
1 by the transformation𝑤 = , where 𝛼 is real and 𝑧 = 𝑐 is the
𝑅 2−(𝑧−𝑎)(𝑐̅−𝑎̅)
point which is transformed into the origin.

5.11 ANSWERS:-
SELF CHECK ANSWERS

1. A conformal mapping is a function that preserves angles locally

between curves. Mathematically, if 𝑓(𝑧) is a conformal mapping,
it means that 𝑓 is holomorphic (complex differentiable) and its
derivative 𝑓′ (𝑧) is non-zero. The property of preserving angles

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means that infinitesimally small shapes are preserved under the

transformation, though their sizes and positions might change.
2. Angles
3. Derivative
4. Mapping
5. Analytic
6. Scales
7. They are preserved
TERMINAL ANSWERS

(TQ-2) 𝐷′ is rectangle bounded by 𝑢 = 1, 𝑣 = −1, 𝑢 = 2 and 𝑣 = 1. It

leads to translation of 𝐷.
(TQ-3) Rectangle in w-plane bounded by lines 𝑢 = 2, 𝑣 = −1, 𝑢 = 3
and 𝑣 = 1.
(TQ-4) Re Image in w-plane is rectangle bounded by 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 1, 𝑢 −
𝑣 = 3, 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 3 and 𝑢 − 𝑣 = 1. It performs rotation and magnification.
(TQ-5)
a.F b.T c.F d.F e.F
f.T g.T h.T i.T

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UNIT 6:- Möbius transformations and other

Mapping
CONTENTS:
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Möbius transformations (Bilinear Transformation)
6.4 Critical points
6.5 Invariant and fixed points
6.6 Cross Ratio
6.7 Parabolic
6.8 Theorems
6.9 Summary
6.10 Glossary
6.11 References
6.12 Suggested Reading
6.13 Terminal questions
6.14 Answers

6.1 INTRODUCTION:-
Möbius transformations are a fundamental class of conformal mappings in
𝑐𝑧+𝑑
complex analysis, characterized by the formula 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎𝑧+𝑏 with complex
coefficients satisfying 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0. These transformations are notable for
their ability to map circles and lines in the complex plane to other circles
and lines while preserving angles and the cross ratio, making them
essential in geometry and mathematical physics. In addition to Möbius
transformations, complex analysis also encompasses a variety of other
mappings such as linear transformations, exponential functions, and more
general holomorphic functions. These mappings are crucial for modeling
and solving problems in various fields, including fluid dynamics,
electromagnetism, and conformal geometry, by maintaining essential
properties like angle preservation and local structure.

6.2 OBJECTIVES:-
After studying this unit, learners will be able to

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 To understand how Möbius transformations and other mappings

preserve angles and the structure of geometric figures, such as
lines and circles, which is crucial in conformal geometry and
various applications.
 To analyze how these transformations map different regions of the
complex plane to one another, providing insights into the
topological and analytic properties of these regions.

6.3 MÖBIUS TRANSFORMATION (BILINEAR

TRANSFORMATION:-
A Möbius transformation, also known as a bilinear transformation, is a
function defined on the extended complex plane (including the point at
infinity) of the form:
𝑐𝑧+𝑑
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎𝑧+𝑏 … (1)
where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 , and 𝑑 are complex numbers such that 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0. The
transformation (1) can be written as
𝑐𝑤𝑧 + 𝑤𝑑 − 𝑎𝑧 − 𝑏 = 0, 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0
The transformation 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 is called the determinant of the
transformation. The transformation (1) is said to be the normalized if 𝑎𝑑 −
𝑏𝑐 = 1.
Let 𝑤1 and 𝑤2 be the values of w corresponding to 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 in (1), then
𝑎𝑧2 + 𝑏 𝑎𝑧1 + 𝑏
𝑤2 − 𝑤1 = −
𝑐𝑧2 + 𝑑 𝑐𝑧1 + 𝑑
(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 )(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
= = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 = 0
(𝑐𝑧1 + 𝑑 )(𝑐𝑧2 + 𝑑 )
∴ 𝑤2 − 𝑤1 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 = 0.
This shows that 𝑤 is constant.

6.4 CRITICAL POINTS:-

Let 𝑓(𝑧) be a non-constant analytic function defined on a domain 𝐷. A
point 𝑧0 ∈ 𝐷 is called a critical point of the function 𝑓(𝑧) if the derivative
of 𝑓 at 𝑧0 , denoted by 𝑓′(𝑧0 ), is equal to zero, i.e., 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = 0.

This definition can be illustrated with the example function 𝑤 = 𝑓 (𝑧) =

2𝑧 3 − 1 .The derivative of 𝑓(𝑧) is 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 6𝑧 2 .Setting the derivative
equal to zero, 6𝑧 2 = 0, we find that 𝑧 = 0 is the only critical point in this
case. Thus, 𝑧 = 0 is a critical point of the transformation 𝑤 = 2𝑧 3 − 1.

It is also noted that a constant function f(z)=c for some constant c has no
critical points. This is because the derivative of a constant function is zero

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everywhere, and a critical point requires the function to be non-constant at

some point in the domain.
6.5 INVARIANT AND FIXED POINTS:-
Fixed points, or invariant points, of a transformation 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) are points
𝑧 in the domain of f that satisfy the condition 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑧). In other words, a
point 𝑧 is a fixed point if it remains unchanged under the transformation f;
that is, the output of the transformation is the point itself. These points are
obtained by solving the equation 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑧) and are crucial for
understanding the behavior and properties of the transformation, including
identifying equilibrium states and analyzing the stability of the system
described by the function 𝑓.
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
The invariant points of the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 … (1) is
𝑎𝑧+𝑏 √ (𝑎−𝑑)± 𝑀
given by 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 or 𝑐𝑧 2 − (𝑎 − 𝑑 )𝑧 − 𝑏 = 0 or 𝑧 = … (2)
2𝑐
where 𝑀 = (𝑎 − 𝑑 )2 + 4𝑏𝑐. According as 𝑀 = 0 or 𝑀 ≠ 0.
Case1: Suppose 𝑐 = 0 and 𝑑 ≠ 0. Then from (1), we get
𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
𝑤= = 𝑧+
𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
The fixed point is obtained by
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏
𝑧 = 𝑧 + or 𝑧 = … (3)
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑−𝑎

If 𝑎 − 𝑑 ≠ 0, the equation (2) has one fixed point at infinity and another
fixed point that is finite, while if 𝑎 − 𝑑 = 0, the transformation has only
one fixed point, which is at infinity. Thus we have the following results:
i. If 𝑐 ≠ 0 and 𝑀 ≠ 0, two finite fixed points.
ii. If 𝑐 ≠ 0 and 𝑀 = 0, one finite fixed point.
iii. If 𝑐 ≠ 0 and 𝑎 − 𝑑 = 0, only one fixed point i.e., infinity.
𝑏
In this case 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 𝑑
iv. If 𝑐 ≠ 0 and 𝑎 − 𝑑 ≠ 0, only one finite and other is infinity.

6.6 CROSS RATIO:-

The cross ratio of four distinct points 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , 𝑧4 is a complex number
defined as:
(𝑧 − 𝑧1 )(𝑧2 − 𝑧3 )
(𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , 𝑧4 ) = 4
(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )(𝑧4 − 𝑧3 )

Despite the 24 permutations of four points 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , 𝑧4 leading to different

arrangements of the cross ratio formula, there are actually only six distinct
cross ratios. This is because the cross ratio is invariant under permutations
of the four points and under Möbius transformations, which means many
permutations result in the same value. The six distinct cross ratios are:

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(𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , 𝑧4 ), (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧4 , 𝑧3 ), (𝑧1 , 𝑧3 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧4 )

(𝑧1 , 𝑧3 , 𝑧4 , 𝑧2 ), (𝑧1 , 𝑧4 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 ), (𝑧1 , 𝑧4 , 𝑧3 , 𝑧2 )

6.7 PARABOLIC:-
A linear fractional (bilinear) transformation with exactly one fixed point
𝑧0 is known as a parabolic transformation and can be expressed as
1 1
= 𝑧−𝑧 + ℎ if 𝑧0 ≠ ∞
𝑤−𝑧 0 0
𝑤 = 𝑧 + ℎ if 𝑧0 = ∞
A linear fractional (bilinear) transformation with two fixed points 𝑧1 and
𝑧2 can be expressed as
𝑤−𝑧1 𝑘(𝑧−𝑧1 )
= if 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ≠ ∞
𝑤−𝑧2 (𝑧−𝑧2)
If 𝑧2 = ∞, then it becomes 𝑤 − 𝑧1 = 𝑘(𝑧 − 𝑧1 ).

A transformation with two fixed points is known as hyperbolic if 𝑘 > 0,

and elliptic if 𝑘 = 𝑒 𝑖𝛼 and loxodromic if 𝑘 = 𝛼𝑒 𝑖𝛼 , where 𝛼 ≠ 1, 𝛼 ≠ 0;
𝛼 and 𝛼 both are real numbers and 𝛼 > 0.

6.8 THEOREMS:-
Theorem1: (Geometrical Inversion) Every bilinear transformation is the
resultant of bilinear transformations with simple geometric imports.
Proof: Let the bilinear transformation
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 … (1)
Where
𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0, 𝑐 ≠ 0
In equation (1), we obtain
𝑏 𝑏 𝑑
𝑎 𝑧 + (𝑎 ) 𝑎 −
𝑤= . = [1 + 𝑎 𝑐 ]
𝑐 𝑧 + (𝑑 ) 𝑐 𝑧+𝑐
𝑑
𝑐
𝑎 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑 1
𝑤= + .
𝑐 𝑐2 𝑑
𝑧+𝑐
Taking
𝑑 1 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑
𝑧1 = 𝑧 + , 𝑧2 = , 𝑧3 = . 𝑧2
𝑐 𝑧1 𝑐2
𝑎
we get 𝑤 = 𝑐 + 𝑧3 which is similar to
𝑑
𝑧1 = 𝑧 +
𝑐
Now 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 are of the form

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1
𝑤 = 𝑧 + 𝛼, 𝑤 = , 𝑤 = 𝛽𝑧
𝑧
Where
1. 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 𝛼 represents translation.
1
2. 𝑤 = 𝑧 represents inversion.
3. 𝑤 = 𝛽𝑧 represents dilation.

This proves that every bilinear transformation is the resultant of bilinear

transformations.
Theorem2: To show that the resultant (or product) of two bilinear
transformations is a bilinear transformation.
Solution: Let the bilinear transformation
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 … (1)
and
𝑎 𝑤+𝑏
𝜁 = 𝑐 1𝑤+𝑑 1 … (2)
1 1
where
𝑎1 𝑑1 − 𝑏1 𝑐1 ≠ 0
Substituting the value of 𝑤 in (2), we get
𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏
𝑎1 (𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 ) + 𝑏1
𝜁=
𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏
𝑐1 (𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 ) + 𝑑1
𝑧(𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑏1 𝑐 ) + (𝑏1 𝑑 + 𝑎1 𝑏)
𝜁=
𝑧(𝑐1 𝑎 + 𝑑1 𝑐 ) + (𝑑1 𝑑 + 𝑐1 𝑏)
Now we can write
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑏1 𝑐, 𝐵 = 𝑏1 𝑑 + 𝑎1 𝑏
𝐶 = 𝑐1 𝑎 + 𝑑1 𝑐, 𝐷 = 𝑑1 𝑑 + 𝑐1 𝑏

𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵
𝜁=
𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷
Here
𝐴𝐷 − 𝐵𝐶 = (𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑏1 𝑐 )(𝑑1 𝑑 + 𝑐1 𝑏) − (𝑐1 𝑎 + 𝑑1 𝑐 )(𝑐1 𝑎 + 𝑑1 𝑐 )
= (𝑎1 𝑑1 − 𝑏1 𝑐1 )(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ) ≠ 0
Thus
𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵
𝜁= 𝑠. 𝑡. 𝐴𝐷 − 𝐵𝐶 ≠ 0
𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷
This is bilinear transformation and is called resultant (or product) of
transformation.
Theorem3: (Preservance of cross ratio) To prove that the cross ratio
remains invariant under a bilinear transformation.
Solution: Suppose 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 , 𝑤3 , 𝑤4 be the images of 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , 𝑧4
respectively
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 … (1)

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Where
𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0, 𝑐 ≠ 0
If we prove that
(𝑤4 − 𝑤1 )(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧4 − 𝑧1 )(𝑧2 − 𝑧3 )
=
(𝑤2 − 𝑤1 )(𝑤4 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )(𝑧4 − 𝑧3 )

From (1), we get

𝑎𝑧𝑟 + 𝑏 𝑎𝑧𝑠 + 𝑏𝑐
𝑤𝑟 − 𝑤𝑠 = −
𝑐𝑧𝑟 + 𝑑 𝑐𝑧𝑠 + 𝑑
(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 )(𝑧𝑟 − 𝑧𝑠 )
𝑤𝑟 − 𝑤𝑠 =
(𝑐𝑧𝑟 + 𝑑 )(𝑐𝑧𝑠 + 𝑑 )

⇒
(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 )(𝑧4 − 𝑧1 ) (𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 )(𝑧2 − 𝑧3 )
(𝑤4 − 𝑤1 )(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) = .
(𝑐𝑧4 + 𝑑 )(𝑐𝑧1 + 𝑑 ) (𝑐𝑧2 + 𝑑 )(𝑐𝑧3 + 𝑑 )

(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 )2 (𝑧4 − 𝑧1 )(𝑧2 − 𝑧3 )

(𝑤4 − 𝑤1 )(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) =
(𝑐𝑧4 + 𝑑 )(𝑐𝑧1 + 𝑑 )(𝑐𝑧2 + 𝑑 )(𝑐𝑧3 + 𝑑 )
Similarly,
(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 )2 (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )(𝑧4 − 𝑧3 )
(𝑤2 − 𝑤1 )(𝑤4 − 𝑤3 ) =
(𝑐𝑧1 + 𝑑 )(𝑐𝑧2 + 𝑑 )(𝑐𝑧3 + 𝑑 )(𝑐𝑧4 + 𝑑 )
Dividing last two equations, we obtain
(𝑤4 − 𝑤1 )(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧4 − 𝑧1 )(𝑧2 − 𝑧3 )
=
(𝑤2 − 𝑤1 )(𝑤4 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )(𝑧4 − 𝑧3 )
which is proves that.
Theorem4: (Fixed points of a bilinear transformation) To prove that in
general there are two values of z (invariant points) for which w=z, but
there is only one if
(𝑎 − 𝑑)2 + 4𝑏𝑐 = 0
Show that if there are distinct invariant points p and q, the transformation
may be put in the form (normal form)
(𝑤 − 𝑝) (𝑧 − 𝑝)
=𝑘
(𝑤 − 𝑞) (𝑧 − 𝑞)
and that, if there is only one invariant point p, the transformation may be
put in the form(normal form)
1 1
= +𝐾
𝑤−𝑝 𝑧−𝑝
Proof: Let the bilinear transformation
𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏
𝑤= … (1)
𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑
i. The invariant points are
𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏
𝑤=𝑧 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑧=
𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑
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This gives 𝑐𝑧 2 − (𝑎 − 𝑑 )𝑧 − 𝑏 = 0 … (2)

Solving
(𝑎 − 𝑑) ± √(𝑎 − 𝑑)2 + 4𝑏𝑐
𝑧=
2𝑐
Taking
(𝑎 − 𝑑 ) + √(𝑎 − 𝑑)2 + 4𝑏𝑐
𝑝=
2𝑐
(𝑎 − 𝑑 ) − √(𝑎 − 𝑑)2 + 4𝑏𝑐
𝑞=
2𝑐
If (𝑎 − 𝑑)2 + 4𝑏𝑐 = 0, then
𝑎−𝑑
𝑝=𝑞=
2𝑐
Hence there is only one invariant point namely
𝑎−𝑑
𝑝= if (𝑎 − 𝑑 )2 + 4𝑏𝑐 = 0.
2𝑐
ii. Let p and q are distinct invariant points of the transformation(1) So
from (2), we get
𝑐𝑝2 − (𝑎 − 𝑑 )𝑝 − 𝑏 = 0
𝑐𝑞 2 − (𝑎 − 𝑑 )𝑞 − 𝑏 = 0
From above equations
𝑐𝑝2 — 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑏 − 𝑝𝑑
𝑐𝑞 2 — 𝑎𝑞 = 𝑏 − 𝑞𝑑
𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏
(𝑤 − 𝑝) ( 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 ) − 𝑝
=
(𝑤 − 𝑞) (𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏 ) − 𝑞
𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑

(𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏) − 𝑝𝑐𝑧 − 𝑝𝑑 (𝑎 − 𝑝𝑐 )𝑧 + 𝑏 − 𝑝𝑑
= =
(𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 ) − 𝑐𝑞𝑧 − 𝑞𝑑 (𝑐 − 𝑐𝑞 ) + 𝑏 − 𝑞𝑑

(𝑎 − 𝑝𝑐 )𝑧 + 𝑐𝑝2 — 𝑎𝑝
=
(𝑐 − 𝑐𝑞 ) + 𝑐𝑞 2 — 𝑎𝑞
(𝑎 − 𝑝𝑐 )(𝑧 − 𝑝)
=
(𝑐 − 𝑐𝑞 )(𝑧 − 𝑞 )
(𝑎−𝑝𝑐)
Taking 𝑘 = (𝑐−𝑐𝑞)
, we obtain
(𝑤 − 𝑝) (𝑧 − 𝑝 )
=𝑘
(𝑤 − 𝑞) (𝑧 − 𝑞 )
iii. Suppose there be only one variant p so that
𝑎−𝑑
𝑝= , 𝑐𝑝2 — 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑏 − 𝑝𝑑
2𝑐
Now,
1 1 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑
= =
𝑤 − 𝑝 (𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏 ) − 𝑝 (𝑎 − 𝑝𝑐 )𝑧 + 𝑏 − 𝑝𝑑
𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑

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Solving this equation

1 𝑐 1
= +
𝑤 − 𝑝 𝑎 − 𝑐𝑝 𝑧 − 𝑝
𝑐
Taking 𝐾 = 𝑎−𝑐𝑝, we obtain
1 1
= +𝐾
𝑤−𝑝 𝑧−𝑝
Theorem5: If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are two given points and 𝑘 is a constant, show that
the equation
𝑧−𝛼
| |=𝑘
𝑧−𝛽
represent the circle.
Proof: The given equation is
𝑧−𝛼
| |=𝑘 … (1 )
𝑧−𝛽
From (1), we obtain
|𝑧 − 𝛼 |2 (𝑧 − 𝛼 )(𝑧̅ − 𝛼̅ )
= 𝑘 2 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑘2
|𝑧 − 𝛽 | 2 (𝑧 − 𝛽 )(𝑧̅ − 𝛽̅ )
(𝑧𝑧̅ − 𝛼𝑧̅ − 𝛼𝑧̅ + 𝛼𝛼̅ ) = 𝑘 2 (𝑧𝑧̅ − 𝛽𝑧̅ − 𝛽𝑧̅ + 𝛽𝛽̅ )
(1 − 𝑘 2 )𝑧𝑧̅ − (𝛼 − 𝛽𝑘 2 )𝑧̅ − (𝛼̅ − 𝛽̅ 𝑘 2 )𝑧 = 𝛽𝛽̅ 𝑘 2 − 𝛼𝛼̅
𝛼 − 𝛽𝑘 2 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝛼 − 𝛽𝑘 2 |𝛼 |2 − 𝑘 2 |𝛽 |2
𝑧𝑧̅ − ( ) 𝑧̅ − ( ) 𝑧 + = 0 … (2)
1 − 𝑘2 1 − 𝑘2 1 − 𝑘2
It is the form
𝑧𝑧̅ + 𝑏𝑧̅ + 𝑧𝑏̅ + 𝑐 = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙
The equation (2) express a circle if 𝑘 ≠ 1.
Consequently (1) express a circle if 𝑘 ≠ 1.

SOLVED EXAMPLE

EXAMPLE 1: Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points

𝑧1 = 2, 𝑧2 = 𝑖, 𝑧3 = −2 into the points 𝑤1 = 1, 𝑤2 = 𝑖, 𝑤3 = −1.
SOLUTION: The transformation is given by
(𝑤4 − 𝑤1 )(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧4 − 𝑧1 )(𝑧2 − 𝑧3 )
=
(𝑤2 − 𝑤1 )(𝑤4 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )(𝑧4 − 𝑧3 )
Substituting values in above equation are
(𝑤 − 1)(𝑖 + 1) (𝑧 − 2)(𝑖 + 2)
=
(1 − 𝑖 )(−1 − 𝑤) (2 − 𝑖 )(−2 − 𝑧)
𝑧 − 2 4 − 1 + 4𝑖 1 − 1 − 2𝑖
=( )( )( )
𝑧+2 4+1 1+1
𝑤−1 4 − 3𝑖 𝑧 − 2
=( )( )
𝑤+1 5 𝑧+2
𝑤−1+𝑤+1 (4 − 3𝑖 )(𝑧 − 2) + 5(𝑧 + 2)
=
(𝑤 − 1) − (𝑤 + 1) (4 − 3𝑖 )(𝑧 − 2) − 5(𝑧 + 2)

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𝑤 3𝑧(3 − 𝑖 ) + 2(1 + 3𝑖) −(3𝑧 + 2𝑖 )(3 − 𝑖 )

= =
−1 −𝑖𝑧(3 − 𝑖 ) − 6(3 − 𝑖) (𝑖𝑧 + 6)(3 − 𝑖 )
3𝑧 + 2𝑖
𝑤=
𝑖𝑧 − 6
EXAMPLE 2: Find the bilinear transformation which transforms the unit
circle |𝑧| = 1 into real axis in such a way that the points 1, 𝑖, −𝑖 are
mapped into 0,1, ∞ respectively. Into what regions the interior and exterior
of the circle are mapped.
SOLUTION: The given values are
𝑧1 = 1, 𝑧2 = 𝑖, 𝑧3 = −𝑖
𝑤1 = 0, 𝑤2 = 1, 𝑤3 = −∞
Now the required transformation is:
(𝑤4 − 𝑤1 )(𝑤2 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧4 − 𝑧1 )(𝑧2 − 𝑧3 )
=
(𝑤2 − 𝑤1 )(𝑤4 − 𝑤3 ) (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )(𝑧4 − 𝑧3 )
(𝑤 − 0)(1 − ∞) (𝑧 − 1)(𝑖 + 𝑖 ) (1 − ∞ ) 1−𝑛
= . 𝑏𝑢𝑡 = lim ( )=1
(𝑤 − ∞)(1 − 0) (𝑧 + 𝑖 )(𝑖 − 1) (𝑤 − ∞) 𝑛→∞ 𝑤 − 𝑛
(𝑧 − 1)2𝑖 (𝑧 − 1)2 (𝑧 − 1)(1 − 𝑖 )2
𝑤= = =
(𝑧 + 𝑖 )(𝑖 − 1) (𝑧 + 𝑖 )(1 + 𝑖) (𝑧 + 𝑖 )(1 − 𝑖 2 )
(𝑧 − 1)(1 − 𝑖 )
=
(𝑧 + 𝑖 )
(𝑧 − 1)(1 − 𝑖 )
𝑤= … (1)
(𝑧 + 𝑖 )
Now from (1) for 𝑧, we obtain
[𝑤 + (−𝑖 − 1)]𝑖
𝑤𝑧 + 𝑤𝑖 = 𝑧(1 − 𝑖 ) − (1 − 𝑖 ) ⇒ 𝑧 = −
𝑤 − (1 − 𝑖)
𝑤 − (1 + 𝑖)
𝑖𝑧 = … (2)
𝑤 − (1 − 𝑖)
So |𝑧| = 1 ⇒ |𝑖𝑧| = 1.
From (2), we get
𝑤 − (1 + 𝑖 )
| |=1
𝑤 − (1 − 𝑖 )
|𝑤 − (1 + 𝑖)|2 = |𝑤 − (1 − 𝑖)|2
⇒ (𝑢 − 1) + (𝑣 − 1)2 = (𝑢 − 1)2 + (𝑣 + 1)2 … (3)
2

⇒ −4𝑣 = 0 ⇒ 𝑣 = 0 ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

∴ |𝑧| = 1 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
Now for interior of |𝑧| = 1 , we obtain |𝑧| < 1.
From (3), we have
(𝑢 − 1)2 + (𝑣 − 1)2
<1
(𝑢 − 1)2 + (𝑣 + 1)2
(𝑢 − 1)2 + (𝑣 − 1)2 < (𝑢 − 1)2 + ( 𝑣 + 1)2
⇒ −4𝑣 < 0 ⇒ 𝑣 > 0 ⇒ 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.
Similarly 𝑧 = 1 and |𝑧| < 1 corresponds to lower half of 𝑤 −plane.
| |

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EXAMPLE 3: If 𝑧 = 2𝑤 + 𝑤 2 , then show that |𝑤| = 1 corresponds to a

cardioids of 𝑧 −plane.
SOLUTION: The given equation
𝑧 = 2𝑤 + 𝑤 2 … (1)
|𝑤| = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 … (2)
2 𝑖𝜙 2 𝑖𝜙/2 2
⇒ 𝑧 + 1 = (𝑤 + 1) = (1 + 𝑒 ) = [𝑒 (𝑒 −𝑖𝜙/2 + 𝑒 𝑖𝜙/2 )]
𝜙 2 𝜙
⇒ = 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 (2𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2 ) ) ⇒ 𝑧 + 1 = (4𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 2 )) 𝑒 𝑖𝜙
Taking 𝑧 + 1 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = −1, we obtain
𝜙 𝜙
𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 ⇒ 𝑟 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) , 𝜃 = 𝜙
2 2
𝜙
𝑟 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) = 2(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
2
𝑟 = 2(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
EXAMPLE 4: Find the image of the circle |𝑧 − 2| = 2 under the Mobius
𝑧
transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧+1.
𝑧
SOLUTION: 𝑤 = 𝑧+1 gives 𝑤𝑧 + 𝑤 = 𝑧
𝑧(𝑤 − 1) = −𝑤
𝑤
𝑧= … (1)
1−𝑤
Now |𝑧 − 2| = 2 gives (𝑧 − 2)(𝑧̅ − 2) = 22 … (2)
From (1), we have
𝑤 3𝑤 − 2
𝑧−2 = −2 =
1−𝑤 1−𝑤
𝑤̅ 3𝑤
̅−2
𝑧̅ − 2 = −2 =
1−𝑤 ̅ 1−𝑤 ̅
Substituting these values in (2), we get
(3𝑤 − 2)(3𝑤 ̅ − 2)
=4
(1 − 𝑤)(1 − 𝑤 ̅)
9𝑤𝑤 ̅ + 4 − 6(𝑤 + 𝑤 ̅ ) = 4[1 + 𝑤𝑤 ̅ − (𝑤 + 𝑤
̅ )]
5𝑤𝑤 ̅ − 2(𝑤 + 𝑤 ̅) = 0
2 2)
5 𝑢 + 𝑣 − 2 2𝑢) = 0
( (
4
𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 − 𝑢 = 0
5
2
So the circle of centre (−𝑔, −𝑓) = (5 , 0)
2
Radius = (𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐 )1/2 = 5
5−4𝑧
EXAMPLE 5: Show that the transformation 𝑤 = 4𝑧−2 transform the
circle |𝑧| = 1 into a circle of radius unity in 𝑤 −plane and find the centre
of the circle.
SOLUTION: the given transformation is
5 − 4𝑧
𝑤=
4𝑧 − 2

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2𝑤 + 5
4𝑧𝑤 − 2𝑤 = 5 − 4𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 =
4𝑤 + 4
2𝑤+5 2𝑤
̅ +5
|𝑧| = 𝑧𝑧̅ = 1 Corresponds to [ ][ ]=1
4(𝑤+1) 4(𝑤̅ +1)
4𝑤𝑤̅ + 25 + 10(𝑤 + 𝑤 ̅ ) = 16(𝑤𝑤 ̅ +1+𝑤+𝑤 ̅ ) … (1)
But 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣, 𝑤̅ = 𝑢 − 𝑖𝑣, 𝑤𝑤 ̅ = 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 , 𝑤 + 𝑤
̅ = 2𝑢 … (2)
Hence from (1), we get
3
𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 − = 0
4
Now comparing with 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 2𝑔𝑢 + 2𝑓𝑣 + 𝑐 = 0, we obtain centre =
1
(−𝑔, −𝑓) = (− , 0) and radius [𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐 ]1/2 i.e.,
2
1 3 1/2
= ( +0+ ) = 1
4 4
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
EXAMPLE 6: Find the condition that the transformation 𝑤 =
𝑐𝑧+𝑑
transforms a straight line 𝑧 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 into the unit circle 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.
SOLUTION: The transforms a straight line of 𝑧 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 is
𝑧−𝑝
| |=1 … (1)
𝑧−𝑞
The unit circle in w-plane is |𝑤| = 1 … (2)
So
𝑏
𝑎 (𝑧 + 𝑎)
𝑤=
𝑑
𝑐 (𝑧 + 𝑐 )
𝑏 𝑑
Taking 𝑝 = − 𝑎 , 𝑞 − 𝑐 , we have
𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑝 )
𝑤=
𝑐 (𝑧 − 𝑞 )
𝑎 𝑧−𝑝 𝑎
Hence |𝑤| = | | | | = | | = 1, if |𝑎| = |𝑐 |
𝑐 𝑧−𝑐 𝑐

SELF CHECK QUESTIONS

1. Define the cross ratio for four complex numbers.

2. Why is the cross ratio invariant under Möbius transformations?
3. How many distinct cross ratios can be formed from four points?
4. What is a fixed point in the context of a transformation?
5. Differentiate between elliptic, hyperbolic, and loxodromic
transformations in terms of their fixed points and behavior.
6. In what contexts or fields are Möbius transformations particularly
useful?
7. Give an example of how Möbius transformations can be applied in
geometry or physics.

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6.9 SUMMARY:-
A Möbius transformation, also known as a linear fractional
transformation, is a complex function of the form 𝑤 = (𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑)/(𝑎𝑧 +
𝑏), where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, and 𝑑 are complex numbers with 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0. These
transformations map the extended complex plane, including the point at
infinity, onto itself and are conformal, meaning they preserve angles.
Möbius transformations can transform circles and lines into other circles
or lines and are characterized by their fixed points, which can be one, two,
or sometimes none on the finite plane, depending on the nature of the
transformation. They are classified into parabolic, elliptic, hyperbolic, and
loxodromic types based on the configuration of their fixed points and the
𝑎 𝑏
trace of the transformation matrix | |. The cross ratio, a key invariant
𝑐 𝑑
under Möbius transformations, plays a crucial role in understanding the
relative geometry of four points in the complex plane. These
transformations have significant applications in complex analysis,
geometry, and theoretical physics.

6.10 GLOSSARY:-

 Möbius transformation: A Möbius transformation, also known as

a bilinear transformation, is a function defined on the extended
complex plane (including the point at infinity) of the form:
𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = … (1)
𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏
where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, and 𝑑 are complex numbers such that 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0
 Conformal: A property of transformations that preserve angles
locally, meaning the shape of infinitesimally small figures is
preserved, though their size may not be.
 Fixed Point: A point z that remains unchanged under a
transformation, i.e., 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 . In Möbius transformations, fixed
𝑎𝑧+𝑏
points are solutions to the equation (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑧+𝑑 .
 Extended Complex Plane: Also known as the Riemann sphere, it
is the complex plane plus the point at infinity. Möbius
transformations naturally act on this extended plane.
 Cross Ratio: An invariant under Mobius transformation, defined
for four distinct points 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , 𝑧4 as (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , 𝑧4 ) =
(𝑧4−𝑧1 )(𝑧2−𝑧3)
(𝑧 −𝑧 )(𝑧 −𝑧 )
. It uniquely determines the relative positions of the
2 1 4 3
four points.

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 Parabolic Transformation: A type of Möbius transformation

with exactly one fixed point, characterized by the condition
𝑧−𝑧0
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 4(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐) and typically represented as 𝑇(𝑧) =
1−𝑐𝑧
.where c is a constant.
 Elliptic Transformation: A Möbius transformation with two
fixed points and associated with rotations. It occurs when ∣ 𝑎 + 𝑑 ∣
< 2.
 Hyperbolic Transformation: A Möbius transformation with two
fixed points, characterized by real eigenvalues and associated with
stretching along one direction. It occurs when ∣ 𝑎 + 𝑑 ∣> 2.
 Loxodromic Transformation: A transformation with two fixed
points, involving a combination of rotation and dilation. It occurs
when ∣ 𝑎 + 𝑑 ∣≠ 2 and the transformation is neither purely elliptic
nor hyperbolic.
 Invariance: A property where certain aspects of a geometric
configuration, such as the cross ratio in Möbius transformations,
remain unchanged under specific transformations.
 Bilinear Transformation: Another name for Möbius
transformation, emphasizing its representation as a ratio of two
linear functions.
 Riemann Sphere: A model of the extended complex plane where
every point on the complex plane corresponds to a point on the
sphere, and the point at infinity is represented by the north pole of
the sphere.
 Angle Preservation: A key property of Möbius transformations,
which maintain the angles between intersecting curves after
transformation.
𝑎 𝑏|
 Transformation Matrix: The matrix | associated with a
𝑐 𝑑
Möbius transformation, encapsulating the coefficients that define
the transformation.
 Identity Transformation: The Möbius transformation 𝑇(𝑧) = 𝑧,
which leaves every point unchanged. It serves as the identity
element in the group of Möbius transformations.

These terms are fundamental to understanding Möbius transformations

and their applications in complex analysis and geometry.

6.11 REFERENCES:-

 Tristan Needham (2020 Edition), Visual Complex Analysis.

 Matthew A. P. Lambert (2019), A First Course in Complex
Analysis with Applications" by

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 James Ward Brown and Ruel V. Churchill (2016), Complex

Variables and Applications.

6.12 SUGGESTED READING:-

 Goyal and Gupta (Twenty first edition 2010), Function of complex

Variable.
 file:///C:/Users/user/Desktop/1468564049EText(Ch-9,M-
2%20(1).pdf
 file:///C:/Users/user/Desktop/1468564084EText(Ch-9,M-
3%20(1).pdf
 file:///C:/Users/user/Desktop/1468564124EText(Ch-9,M-
4%20(1).pdf
 Y. Wang and S. Kumar (2019), Conformal Mapping and its
Applications in Fluid Dynamics.

6.13 TERMINAL QUESTIONS:-

(TQ-1) To show that the set of all bilinear transformations forms a non-
abelian group under the product of transformations.
(TQ-2) To prove that the cross ratio (𝑧1, 𝑧2, 𝑧3, 𝑧4 ) is real iff the four
points 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , 𝑧4 lie on a circle or on a straight line.
(TQ-3) To prove that the every bilinear transformation with two finite
fixed points 𝛼, 𝛽 can be put in the form:
𝑤−𝛼 𝑧−𝛼
= 𝜆( )
𝑤−𝛽 𝑧−𝛽
(TQ-4) If 𝛼, 𝛽 are the inverse points of a circle, then prove that the
𝑧−𝛼
equation of a circle can be written as |𝑧−𝛽 | = 𝑘, 𝑘 ≠ 1 and 𝑘 is real
constant.
(TQ-5) To prove that the every bilinear transformation maps circles or
straight lines into circles or straight lines.
Or
𝑐𝑧+𝑑
Find the condition that the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑎𝑧+𝑏 transforms the unit
circle in 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 into straight line of 𝑧 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.
(TQ-6) To prove that the general linear transformation of a circle |𝑧| ≤ 𝜌
into a circle |𝑤| ≤ 𝜌′ is
𝑖𝜆 (𝑧−𝛼)
𝑤 = 𝜌𝜌′𝑒 2′
𝑠. 𝑡. |𝛼 | < 𝜌.
(𝛼
̅ 𝑧−𝜌 )

(TQ-7) To prove that the region |𝑧 − 𝑎| ≤ 𝑅 is mapped conformally on

|𝑤| ≤ 1 by the transformation

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𝑅(𝑧 − 𝑐)𝑒 𝑖𝛼
𝑤= 2
𝑅 − (𝑧 − 𝑎)(𝑐̅ − 𝑎̅)
where 𝛼 is real and 𝑧 = 𝑐 is the point which is transformed into the origin.
(TQ-8) If the transformation 𝑧 = 𝑖−𝑤 𝑖+𝑤
, show that half of 𝑤 −plane given
by 𝑣 ≥ 0 corresponds to the circle |𝑧| ≤ 1 in 𝑧 − plane.
(TQ-9) Discuss the application of the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑖𝑧+1 𝑧+𝑖
to the
areas in the z-plane which are respectively inside and outside the unit
circle with its centre at the origin.
5−4𝑧
(TQ-10) Show that the transformation 𝑤 = 4𝑧−2 transforms the circle
|𝑧| = 1 into a circle of radius unity in 𝑤 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 and find the centre of
circle.
(TQ-11) Find the linear maps for 𝑧 = 0, −𝑖, −1 and corresponding
values of w are 𝑤 = 𝑖, 1,0.
(TQ-12) Find bilinear transformation which maps 0, 𝑖, −𝑖 of z-plane to
1, −1,0 of w-plane.
(TQ-13) True/False Type questions.
a. A Möbius transformation maps circles and lines in the complex
plane to circles and lines.
b. A Möbius transformation can always be written in the form of a
linear fractional transformation.
c. Two Möbius transformations are considered equivalent if they
differ by a scaling factor.
d. The composition of two Möbius transformations is itself a
Möbius transformation.
e. The coefficients a,b,c, and d in a Möbius transformation are
allowed to be zero, as long as 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0.
𝑧−1
f. The Möbius transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧+1 maps the real axis to itself.
(TQ-14) Objectives Type Questions.
1. A transformation of type 𝑤 = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝛽, where 𝛼 and 𝛽 are complex
constants is the resultant of
a. Magnification and translation
b. Magnification, rotation and translation
c. Rotation and translation
d. None
𝛼𝑧+𝛽
2. Critical points of 𝑤 = 𝛾𝑧+𝛿 , 𝛼𝛿 − 𝛽𝛾 ≠ 0 are
𝛿
a. –
𝛾
𝛿
b. – 𝛾 and ∞
𝛿
c. – 𝛾 and 0
d. None

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3. If 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) represents a conformal mapping of a domain D, then

f(z) is
a. continuous in D
b. analytic in D
c. not analytic in D
d. none
4. The transformation 𝑤 = 𝑖𝑧 + 𝑖 maps the half plane 𝑥 > 0 into
a. half plane 𝑢 > 0
b. half plane 𝑣 < 1
c. the half plane 𝑣 > 1
d. none
5. The set of all bilinear transformations under the product of
transformations form 𝑎:
a. Semi-group
b. Non-abelian group
c. Abelian group
d. None
(TQ-15) If (𝑎 − 𝑑)2 + 4𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0, then for transformation 𝑤 = 𝑎𝑧+𝑏 𝑐𝑧+𝑑
there
exist unequal numbers 𝛼, 𝛽 such that
𝑤−𝛼 𝑧−𝛼
= 𝑘( )
𝑤−𝛽 𝑧−𝛽
where 𝑘 is constant. Show also the radius of the circle in the w-plane
corresponding to the circle in the z-plane whose diameter is the line
𝛼−𝛽
joining the points 𝑧 = 𝛼, 𝑧 = 𝛽 is |2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 |, where 𝜃 is the argument of 𝑘.

6.14 ANSWERS:-
SELF CHECK ANSWERS
(𝑧4−𝑧1 )(𝑧2−𝑧3 )
1. The cross ratio of four points (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ; 𝑧3 , 𝑧4 ) = (𝑧2−𝑧1 )(𝑧4−𝑧3 )
2. The cross ratio is invariant under Möbius transformations because
such transformations preserve the projective properties of points,
meaning they maintain the relative geometry of the configuration.
3. Despite 24 permutations, only six distinct cross ratios can be formed
from four points, due to the symmetries and invariances in the
definition of the cross ratio.
4. A fixed point of a transformation is a point that remains unchanged
under the transformation, i.e., 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧.
5. Elliptic: Has two fixed points with a rotation around them.
Hyperbolic: Has two fixed points with one attracting and the other
repelling, characterized by dilation or contraction along a line.
Loxodromic: Has two fixed points, and the transformation involves
a combination of rotation and dilation/contraction.

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6. Möbius transformations are used in complex analysis, geometric

function theory, hyperbolic geometry, computer graphics, and in the
study of conformal mappings.
7. In geometry, Möbius transformations can map the upper half-plane
onto the unit disk, facilitating the study of hyperbolic geometry. In
physics, they are used in relativity theory to model transformations
in space-time.

TERMINAL ANSWERS

(TQ-11) 𝑤 = − 𝑖(𝑧+1)
𝑧−1
𝑖(𝑧+𝑖)
(TQ-12) 𝑤 = − (3𝑧−𝑖)
(TQ-13) a.T b.T c.F d.T e.F f.T

(TQ-14) 1.a 2.b 3.b 4.c 5.c

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BLOCK III
COMPLEX INTEGRATION

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UNIT 7:- Complex Line Integral

CONTENTS:
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Connected Set, Open and Closed Domain (Region):-
7.4 Jordan Arc
7.5 Rectifiable and Regular Curves
7.6 Contour
7.7 Simply and Multi Connected Domains
7.8 Weierstrass M-Test
7.9 Complex Line Integral
7.10 Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus
7.11 Summary
7.12 Glossary
7.13 References
7.14 Suggested Reading
7.15 Terminal questions
7.16 Answers
7.1 INTRODUCTION:-
Complex integration involves integrating functions of a complex variable
along a path or contour in the complex plane. The integral of a complex
function 𝑓(𝑧) along a contour 𝛾 is computed using a parameterization of
𝛾, transforming the problem into a standard real integral. Key results in
complex integration include Cauchy's Theorem, which states that the
integral of a holomorphic function over a closed contour is zero, and
Cauchy's Integral Formula, which relates function values to contour
integrals. The Residue Theorem further simplifies the evaluation of
integrals by relating them to residues at singularities within the contour.
These principles not only facilitate the evaluation of integrals but also
provide insights into the analytic properties of complex functions.

7.2 OBJECTIVES:-
In this unit we will study about the Compute line integrals of complex-
valued functions along curves in the complex plane, integration along

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piecewise smooth path, including using parameterizations and contour

integration techniques.

7.3 CONNECTED SET, OPEN AND CLOSED

DOMAIN (REGION):-
Connected Set: A set S in the Argand plane (complex plane) is said to be
connected if for any two points within the set, there exists a continuous
curve (or path) that lies entirely within S and connects these two points.

Open Domain: An open domain is a specific type of connected set that is

also open. A set D is an open domain if it is connected and, additionally,
every point in D has a neighborhood completely contained within D. In
other words, D is open and does not include its boundary points.

Closed Domain: If a set D is an open domain and you include all its
boundary points, the resulting set is called a closed domain. In other
words, a closed domain includes both the open domain and its boundary,
making it closed and still connected.

7.4 JORDAN ARC:-

The equation 𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑖𝑦(𝑡)

where 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑦(𝑡) are real-valued continuous functions of the real
variable t, with t in the interval [𝑎, 𝑏], defines a set of points in the
complex plane known as a continuous curve. This curve is called a simple
curve if 𝑡1 ≠ 𝑡2 implies 𝑧(𝑡1 ) ≠ 𝑧(𝑡2 )meaning the curve does not intersect
itself. If the curve is such that 𝑡1 < 𝑡2 and 𝑧(𝑡1 ) = 𝑧(𝑡2 ) implies 𝑡1 =
𝑎 and 𝑡2 = 𝑏, then it is a simple closed curve, which means the curve
starts and ends at the same point, forming a loop without self-intersections
except at the endpoints. Simple curves are often referred to as Jordan
curves. A common example of a Jordan curve is a polygon formed by
joining a finite number of line segments end to end.

An important property of a bounded infinite set in the complex plane is

that it must have at least one limit point within the complex plane. This
property is derived from the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem, which states
that every bounded sequence in C has a convergent subsequence. This
implies that any bounded infinite set in the complex plane cannot be
composed entirely of isolated points; instead, it must contain points
arbitrarily close to each other, leading to the presence of limit points. This

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property is fundamental in understanding the structure and behavior of sets

in the complex plane.

Theorem 1. (Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem)

If a set 𝑆 ⊆ ℂ is bounded and contains an infinite number of points, then it

must have at least one limit point.

Theorem 2. (Jordan Curve Theorem)

It states that a simple closed Jordan curve divides the Argand plane into
two open domains which have the curve as the common boundary. One of
these domains is bounded and is known as interior domain, while the other
is bounded and is called exterior domain.

7.5 RECTIFIABLE AND REGULAR CURVES:-

A rectifiable curve is a curve whose length can be measured and is finite.
In mathematical terms, a curve is rectifiable if its total length is finite.
Here’s a detailed breakdown of the concept:

Rectifiable Curve: A curve γ in the complex plane (or in Euclidean

space) is called rectifiable if its length is finite. This means that if γ is
parameterized by a continuous function γ:[a,b]→ℂ (or more generally in
ℝ𝑛 ), the length of the curve can be computed and is finite.

The length L of a rectifiable curve parameterized by γ(t) from t=a to t=b is

given by:
𝑏
𝐿 = ∫ |𝛾 ′ (𝑡)|𝑑𝑡
𝑎

Here,𝛾 ′(𝑡) denotes the derivative of 𝛾(𝑡) with respect to 𝑡, and |∙| denotes
the modulus (or absolute value) in the complex plane or Euclidean space.

Regular Curve: A regular curve is a smooth curve where the tangent

vector is never zero. Formally, if a curve is parameterized by 𝛾(𝑡) with
𝑡 in some interval[𝑎, 𝑏], then 𝛾(𝑡) is a regular curve if its derivative 𝛾 ′(𝑡)
is never zero for 𝑡 in [𝑎, 𝑏]. This means that:

𝛾 ′(𝑡) ≠ 0∀ 𝑡 𝑖𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏]

This condition ensures that the curve does not have any sharp corners or
cusps and is smooth throughout.
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7.6 CONTOUR:-
Contour: A simple curve in the complex plane is called a contour if it is
piecewise smooth, meaning it can be broken down into a finite number of
smooth (regular) segments, where each segment is smooth and has a finite
length. A contour is a curve that can be traversed in a specific direction,
and it is always rectifiable, meaning its length is finite.

Closed Contour: A simple closed curve, often referred to as a closed

contour, is a contour that forms a closed loop. It returns to its starting
point, and like any contour, it is piecewise smooth with a finite number of
smooth segments. Since it is a closed loop, it also has a finite length. An
example of a closed contour is the curve is

𝑧(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

7.7 SIMPLY AND MULTI CONNECTED

DOMAINS:-
A domain is called simply connected if every closed curve within it can
be continuously contracted to a single point without leaving the domain,
implying that the domain has no holes or obstructions. Conversely, a
domain is multiply connected if it is not simply connected, meaning it
contains one or more holes, which prevents certain closed curves from
being shrunk to a point without crossing these holes.

7.8 WEIERSTRASS M-TEST:-

If |𝑢𝑛 (𝑧)| ≤ 𝑀𝑛 for each 𝑧 in a domain 𝐷 , where 𝑀𝑛 is a sequence of
constants independent of 𝑧, and the series ∑ 𝑀𝑛 is uniformly convergent,
then the series ∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑧) converges uniformly on 𝐷 . This result follows
from the Weierstrass M-test, which states that if a series of functions is
bounded by a uniformly convergent series of constants, then the original
series converges uniformly.

7.9 COMPLEX LINE INTEGRAL:-

Let 𝑓(𝑧) be a complex-valued function defined on a smooth curve 𝛾 in the
complex plane, parameterized by 𝑧(𝑡) where 𝑡 varies over an interval
[𝑎, 𝑏], the complex line integral of 𝑓(𝑧) along 𝛾 is defined as:
𝑏 𝑛−1 𝑗+1
′(
∫𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧(𝑡)) . 𝑧 𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∑ ∫ 𝑓(𝑧(𝑡)). 𝑧 ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝛾 𝑎 𝑗=1 𝑖

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𝑑𝑧
Where 𝑧(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑖𝑦(𝑡) and 𝑧 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 ′ (𝑡) + 𝑖𝑦 ′ (𝑡).
The limit 𝑎 = 𝑡0 < 𝑡1 < 𝑡 … < 𝑡𝑛−1 = 𝑏 is called the complex line
integral of 𝑓 over 𝑥.

Fig.1
Suppose 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous at every point of a closed curve 𝐶 having a
finite length, i.e., 𝐶 is rectifiable curve.
Divide C into n parts by means of points
𝑧0 , 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … . , 𝑧𝑛
Suppose 𝑎 = 𝑧0 , 𝑏 = 𝑧𝑛
We choose a point 𝜉𝑘 on each arc joining 𝑧𝑘−1 to 𝑧𝑘 .
Now from the sum
𝑛

𝑆𝑛 = ∑ 𝑓(𝜉) (𝑧𝑟 − 𝑧𝑟−1 )

𝑟=1
When the sum 𝑆𝑛 of the integrals of 𝑓(𝑧) over subdivisions of the
rectifiable curve 𝐶 converges to a fixed limit that is independent of the
mode of subdivision, this limit is denoted by
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝑎 𝐶
which is called the complex line integral, or line integral of 𝑓(𝑧) along the
curve 𝐶.
Connection between Real and Complex line integral: If 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑧) +
𝑖𝑣(𝑧) then the complex line integral ∫𝑥 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 can be expressed as
∫𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ∫𝑢 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑣𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

The connection between real and complex line integrals can be expressed
through the decomposition of the complex line integral into real and
imaginary components. If 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑧) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑧) where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are real-
valued functions representing the real and imaginary parts of

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𝑓 respectively, then the complex line integral ∫𝛾 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 along a curve

𝛾 can be expressed as:
∫𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫(𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦) + 𝑖 ∫(𝑢 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑣𝑑𝑥 )
𝛾 𝛾 𝛾
Here:
 ∫𝛾(𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦) Represents the real part of the complex line
integral.
 ∫𝛾(𝑢 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑣𝑑𝑥) Represents the imaginary part of the complex line
integral.

7.10 FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF INTEGRAL

CALCULUS:-
If 𝑓(𝑧) be a single valued function in a simple connected domain 𝐷. If
𝑏
𝑎, 𝑏𝜖𝐷, then ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹 (𝑎), where 𝐹(𝑧) is an infinite integral
of 𝑓(𝑧).
Proof: By the definition of infinite integral, we get
𝑏
𝐹 (𝑧) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑎
𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑧0
𝐹 (𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 − ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑧0 𝑧0 𝑧0 𝑎
𝑏
= ∫ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑎
Or
𝑏
𝐹 (𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
𝑎

SOLVED EXAMPLE
1
EXAMPLE1: Evaluate ∫𝑥 𝑧 𝑑𝑧, where 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑖𝑡 , 𝑡 ∈ [0,2𝜋].
SOLUTION: By complex line integral
𝑏
1
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 (𝑡)) . 𝑥 ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑥𝑧 𝑎
1
Here, 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 , 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑖𝑡 , 𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 2𝜋
1
∴ 𝑓 [(𝑥(𝑡))] = 𝑒 𝑖𝑡 , 𝑥 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑡
2𝜋 2𝜋
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑖𝑡
. 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑡
𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖 [𝑡]2𝜋
0 = 2𝜋𝑖
𝑥 𝑧 0 𝑒 0

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EXAMPLE2: Find the length of the curve 𝑥(𝑡) = 4𝑒 𝑖𝑡 , 𝑡 ∈ [0,2𝜋].

SOLUTION: The length of
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑥 = 𝐿(𝑥 ) = ∫ |4𝑖 𝑒 𝑖𝑡 | 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ |4||𝑖 ||𝑒 𝑖𝑡 |𝑑𝑡
0 0
2𝜋
2𝜋
= ∫ 4 𝑑𝑡 = 4 ∫ = 8𝜋
0 0 𝑑𝑡
EXAMPLE3: Find the length of the curve 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑖(1 + 𝑖)𝑡, 𝑡 ∈ [0,4].
SOLUTION: The given curve is
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑖(1 + 𝑖)𝑡
𝑥′(𝑡) = 𝑖(1 + 𝑖)
∴ Length
4
𝑥 = 𝐿(𝑥) = ∫ |(1 + 𝑖 )| 𝑑𝑡
0
4
= ∫ √12 + 12 𝑑𝑡
0
4
= ∫ √2 𝑑𝑡 = √2 [𝑡]40 = 4√2
0
EXAMPLE4: Find the value of integral
1+𝑖
∫ (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑧
0
a. along the straight line from 𝑧 = 0 to 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖.
b. Along the real axis from 𝑧 = 0 to 𝑧 = 1 and then along a line
parallel to imaginary axis from 𝑧 = 0 to 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖.
SOLUTION: Suppose 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦

Fig.2

a. Let OA is straight line joining 𝑧 = 0 to 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖.

So 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑜𝑛 𝑂𝐴
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
1
∫ (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥 2 )(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑥)
𝑂𝐴 0
1
𝑖(1 + 𝑖) 𝑖 − 1
= 𝑖 (1 + 𝑖 ) ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = = .
0 3 3
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𝑏. The real axis from 𝑧 = 0 to 𝑧 = 1 is the line OB, 𝑦 = 0 on 𝑂𝐵

and so 𝑧 = 𝑥, 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥.
1
2)
∫ (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑥 − 0 + 𝑖𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
𝑂𝐵 0
1
1 𝑖
= ∫ (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 = +
0 2 3
Now 𝐵𝐴 is the line parallel to imaginary axis from 𝑧 = 0 to 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖.
𝑥 = 1 on 𝐵𝐴 so that 𝑑𝑥 = 0, 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑑𝑦 on 𝐵𝐴.
1
∫ (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥 2)
𝑑𝑧 = ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑖 )𝑑𝑦
𝐵𝐴 0
1 𝑖
= [(1 + 𝑖 ) − ] 𝑖 = −1 +
2 2
∫ (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑧
𝑂𝐵𝐴

= ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑧
𝑂𝐵 𝐵𝐴
1 𝑖 𝑖 1 5𝑖
= ( + ) + ( − 1) = − +
2 3 2 2 6

EXAMPLE5: Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧̅𝑑𝑧 from 𝑧 = 0 to 𝑧 = 4 + 2𝑖 along the curve

C given by 𝑧 = 𝑡 2 + 𝑖𝑡.
SOLUTION:
4+2𝑖
𝐼 = ∫0 𝑧̅ 𝑑𝑧 … (1)
2
along the curve C given curve by 𝑧 = 𝑡 + 𝑖𝑡
𝑑𝑧 = (2𝑡 + 𝑖 )𝑑𝑡, 𝑧̅ = (𝑡 2 − 𝑖𝑡)
𝑧̅𝑑𝑧 = (𝑡 2 − 𝑖𝑡)(2𝑡 + 𝑖 )𝑑𝑡 = (2𝑡 3 − 𝑖𝑡 2 + 𝑡)𝑑𝑡 … (2)
𝑧 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑧 = 4 + 2𝑖 ⇒ 𝑡 2 = 4, 𝑡 = 2 ⇒ 𝑡 = 2
From (1) and (2) ,we get
2 4 𝑖 3 1 2 2 8𝑖 8
𝐼 = ( 𝑡 − 𝑡 + 𝑡 ) = 8 − + 2 = 10 − 𝑖
4 3 2 0 3 3

SELF CHECK QUESTIONS

1. What is a complex line integral, and how is it defined for a complex

function 𝑓(𝑧) along a curve 𝐶?
2. How can the complex line integral ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 be expressed in terms of
real and imaginary components?
3. Under what conditions is the complex line integral independent of the
path taken between two points?
4. Explain the physical or geometric interpretation of the real and
imaginary parts of a complex line integral.

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7.11 SUMMARY:-
A complex line integral is an integral of a complex-valued function 𝑓(𝑧)
along a path or contour 𝐶 in the complex plane, defined as ∫𝐶 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧. It is
computed by parameterizing the contour 𝐶 with 𝑧(𝑡) and integrating
𝑓(𝑧(𝑡)) ⋅ 𝑧 ′(𝑡) with respect to t over the interval of the parameter. This
integral can be expressed in terms of real and imaginary parts, and it plays
a crucial role in complex analysis by connecting the evaluation of integrals
to the properties of analytic functions and their singularities. Key results
such as the Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals and the Residue
Theorem are often used to simplify and compute these integrals.

7.12 GLOSSARY:-
 Complex Line Integral: An integral of a complex-valued function
along a contour in the complex plane, defined as ∫𝐶 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧, where
𝐶 is the path or curve and 𝑓(𝑧) is a complex function.
 Contour (or Path): A continuous and differentiable curve in the
complex plane along which the complex line integral is computed.
 Parameterization: A representation of the contour 𝐶 by a
continuous function 𝑧(𝑡) where t varies over an interval[𝑎, 𝑏]. The
integral is then evaluated using this parameterization.
 Complex Function: A function 𝑓(𝑧) where 𝑧 is a complex
variable and 𝑓(𝑧) maps 𝑧 to another complex number. It can be
expressed as 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦), where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are real-
valued functions.
 Differential𝒅𝒛: The differential element of the complex variable
𝑧 , representing an infinitesimal change along the contour. In
parameterized form, 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑧 ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡.
 Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals: A theorem stating that
if 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic and 𝐹(𝑧) is an antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑧) , then
∫𝐶 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 𝐹 (𝑧1 ) − 𝐹 (𝑧2 ), where C is a path from 𝑧0 to 𝑧1 .
 Analytic (or Holomorphic) Function: A function f(z) that is
complex differentiable at every point in its domain, meaning it has
a derivative at every point in an open set.
 Simply Connected Domain: A domain in which any closed
contour can be continuously shrunk to a point without leaving the
domain. It ensures that the integral of an analytic function around
any closed curve is zero.
 Real and Imaginary Parts: For a complex function f (𝑧) =
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) are the real and imaginary
parts of 𝑓(𝑧), respectively. The complex line integral can be split
into integrals involving these parts.

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7.13 REFERENCES:-

 Jerry R. Muir Jr., and Michael J. Kallaher(2019), Complex

Analysis: A Modern First Course in Function Theory.
 Boris Makarov and Anatolii Podkorytov(2014), Complex
Analysis: Fundamentals of the Classical Theory of Functions.
 Steven G. Krantz (2018), Complex Variables: A Physical
Approach with Applications and MATLAB Tutorials.
 Barry Simon (2015), Complex Analysis: A Comprehensive Course
in Analysis, Part 2B.

7.14 SUGGESTED READING:-

 Goyal and Gupta (Twenty first edition 2010), Function of complex

Variable.
 file:///C:/Users/user/Downloads/Paper-III-Complex-Analysis.pdf
 file:///C:/Users/user/Desktop/Unit-3_Complex-Integration.pdf
 file:///C:/Users/user/Desktop/1468564049EText(Ch-9,M-
2%20(2).pdf
 A.I. Markushevich 2005 (Dover Reprint of 1977 Edition),Theory
of Functions of a Complex Variable.

7.15 TERMINAL QUESTIONS:-

(TQ-1) Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧 2𝑑𝑧, where 𝐶 is the straight line joining the origin 𝑂
to the point 𝑃(2,1) in the complex plane.
(TQ-2) Evaluate ∮𝐶 𝐼𝑛 𝑧𝑑𝑧 , where C is unit circle |𝑧| = 1 taken is
countor clockwise sense.
(TQ-3) Evaluate ∮𝐶 |𝑧|2𝑑𝑧 around the square with vertices at
(0,0), (1,0), (1,1), (0,1)
(TQ-4) Evaluate ∮𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 𝑑𝑧, where 𝑎 is a given complex number, 𝑛
is any integer and 𝐶 is a circle of radius 𝑅 centered at a and oriented
anticlockwise.
(TQ-5) Find the integral of the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 1𝑧, taken over a circle of
Radius 𝑅.
(TQ-6) Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧𝑑𝑧 (𝑎𝑏 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜)
(TQ-7) Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 (𝑎𝑏 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜)
1+𝑖
(TQ-8) Evaluate ∫0 𝑧𝑑𝑧 along the line 𝑧 = 0 to 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖.

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(TQ-9) Evaluate the integral ∫𝐶 𝑧̅𝑑𝑧 , where 𝐶 is the straight line from
(1,0) to (1,1).
1+𝑖
(TQ-10) Evaluate ∫0 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧.
(TQ-11)True/False Questions
a. The circle 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋 is a simple closed
Jordan curve.
b. If 𝑓(𝑧) is conformally continuous in a domain 𝐷, then it is not
necessarily continuous in 𝐷,.
c. If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is differentiable at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 , then it is necessarily
continuous there.
d. A contour is continuous chain of a finite number of regular arcs. T
e. If 𝑓(𝑧) be continuous in a simply connected domain 𝐷 and
∫Γ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0, where Γ is any rectifiable closed Jordan curve in 𝐷,
then 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in 𝐷.T
f. For the indefinite integral of a function 𝑓(𝑧) to exist in a simply
connected domain 𝐷, it is not necessary that 𝑓(𝑧) be analytic in 𝐷.
g. Let 𝐺 be the simply connected domain, and let 𝑓(𝑧) be a single
valued analytic function such that ∫C 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0, where 𝐿 is any
closed rectifiable curve continuous in 𝐺.
h. A function 𝑓(𝑧) possesses a indefinite integral in a simply closed
connected domain 𝐺 iff the function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in 𝐺.
i. A function 𝑓(𝑧) is called an integral function or entire function if it
is analytic in finite complex integral.
j. Zeros of an analytic function are isolated.
1
k. The integral ∫C 𝑧−𝑎 𝑑𝑧over a closed contour C that does not enclose
a is zero.
1
(TQ-12)Prove that the function [𝑐 (1 + 𝑧 )] can be expended in series of
the type ∑∞ 𝑛 ∞
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 + ∑𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 𝑧
−𝑛
in which the coefficients of both of 𝑧 𝑛
1 2𝜋
and 𝑧 −𝑛 , are 2𝜋 ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃.
(TQ-13) Objectives type Questions:
1. A simple closed Jordan curve divides the argand plane into…..
open domain which have the curve as common boundary.
a. two
b. three
c. four
d. eight
𝑏
2. The path of the definite integral ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 is:
a. the line segment joining the points 𝑧 = 𝑎 and 𝑧 = 𝑏.
b. any curve joining the points 𝑧 = 𝑎 and 𝑧 = 𝑏.
c. any circle such that the points 𝑧 = 𝑎 and 𝑧 = 𝑏.
d. any rectangle whose two vertices are the points 𝑧 = 𝑎 and 𝑧 =
𝑏.

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3. ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧, where L is any rectifiable arc joining the points 𝑧 = 𝑎 and

𝑧 = 𝑏 is equal to :
a. 𝑧
b. 𝑧 − 𝑎 − 𝑏
c. 𝑎 − 𝑏 − 𝑧
d. 𝑏 − 𝑎
4. ∫𝐶 |𝑑𝑧|, where L is any rectifiable arc joining the points 𝑧 = 𝑎 and
𝑧 = 𝑏 is equal to :
a. |𝑏 − 𝑎|
b. b-a
c. arc length of L
d. 0
5. If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in simply connected domain D and C is any
closed continuous rectifiable curve in D, then ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 is equal
to:
a. 0
b. 1
c. C
d. D
6. Let 𝑓(𝑧) be a continuous on a contour L of length l and let
|𝑓(𝑧)| ≤ 𝑀 on L, then |∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧| = 𝐴 where
a. 𝐴 ≤ 𝑀𝑙
b. 𝐴 > 𝑀𝑙
c. 𝐴 ≥ 𝑀𝑙
d. None
7. If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in simply connected domain Genclosed by a
rectifiable Jordan CurveL and Let 𝑓 (𝑧) be continuous on L. Then
𝑓(𝑧)
∫𝐿 𝑧−𝑧 𝑑𝑧 is:
0
a. 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓 (𝑧0 )
b. 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓′(𝑧0 )
c. 2𝜋𝑓(𝑧0 )
d. None

7.16 ANSWERS:-
SELF CHECK ANSWERS

1. A complex line integral is an integral of a complex-valued function

𝑓(𝑧) along a curve 𝐶 in the complex plane. It is defined as
𝑏
∫𝐶 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑧(𝑡)) . 𝑧 ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡, where 𝑧(𝑡) is a parameterization
of 𝐶 and 𝑡 varies over an interval [𝑎, 𝑏].
2. If 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦), where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are real-valued
functions, and the curve 𝐶 is parameterized by 𝑧(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) +

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𝑖𝑦(𝑡), then the complex line integral can be expressed as

𝑏
∫𝐶 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑢(𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡)) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡))(𝑥 ′ (𝑡) +
𝑦 ′ (𝑡))𝑑𝑡.This separates into the real part ∫𝐶 (𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦) and the
imaginary part 𝑖 ∫𝐶 (𝑢𝑑𝑦 + 𝑣𝑑𝑥).
3. The complex line integral is independent of the path if f(z) is
analytic (holomorphic) in a simply connected domain that includes
the paths and the endpoints. This is a consequence of the Cauchy-
Goursat theorem, which states that the integral around any closed
contour in such a domain is zero.
4. The real part of a complex line integral can be interpreted as the
work done by a vector field with components u and −v along the
path C, while the imaginary part corresponds to the work done by a
vector field with components v and u along the same path. This
duality arises from treating the complex function f(z) as
comprising two interrelated real-valued functions.

TERMINAL ANSWERS
1
(TQ-1) 3 (2 + 11𝑖 ) (TQ-2) 2𝜋𝑖
(TQ-3) – 1 + 𝑖 (TQ-4) 2𝜋𝑖
𝑏2 −𝑎 2
(TQ-5) 2𝜋𝑖 (TQ-6) 2
(TQ-7) 0 (TQ-8) 𝑖
1 1
(TQ-9) 𝑖 + 2 (TQ-10) 2 (1 + 𝑖 )3
(TQ-11) a.T b.F c.T d.T e.T f.F
g.T h.T i.T j.T k.T

(TQ-13) 1.a 2.b 3.d 4.a 5.a 6.a

7.a

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UNIT 8:- Cauchy’s Theorem and Cauchy’s

Integral Formula
CONTENTS:
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Green’s Theorem
8.4 Cauchy Theorem
8.5 Extension of Cauchy’s Theorem
8.6 An Upper Bound for Complex Integral
8.7 Cauchy Integral Formulas
8.8 Higher Order Derivatives
8.9 Poisson’s Integral Formula
8.10 Summary
8.11 Glossary
8.12 References
8.13 Suggested Reading
8.14 Terminal questions
8.15 Answers

8.1 INTRODUCTION:-
Cauchy's Theorem is a fundamental result in complex analysis, stating that
if a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic (holomorphic) within and on a simple closed
curve 𝐶 in a simply connected domain, then the contour integral of 𝑓(𝑧)
over 𝐶 is zero. This theorem highlights the profound property of analytic
functions, ensuring that the value of an integral around a closed path
depends solely on the function's behavior within the path, leading to
significant results like Cauchy's Integral Formula and the development of
residue theory.

Overall, Cauchy's Theorem is a powerful result that not only facilitates the
evaluation of complex integrals but also provides deep insights into the
nature of analytic functions.

8.2 OBJECTIVES:-

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The objectives of Cauchy's Theorem and Cauchy's Integral Formula in

complex analysis are to establish the fundamental property that the
contour integral of an analytic function over a closed curve in a simply
connected domain is zero, and to provide a method for determining the
function's value and its derivatives inside the contour using the values on
the contour. These results serve as foundational tools for further study,
enabling the development of series representations, the calculation of
residues, and the exploration of the relationship between the analytic and
geometric properties of functions and their domains.

8.3 GREEN’S THEOREM:-

Let 𝐶 be a positively oriented, simple closed curve in the plane, and let
𝐷 be the region enclosed by 𝐶. Suppose 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦) are functions
with continuous partial derivatives on an open region containing 𝐷. Then
Green's Theorem states:

𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑃
∫(𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦) = ∬ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝐶 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐷

Here: 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦) are the components of a vector field 𝐹 =

(𝑃, 𝑄).

Theorem: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic with 𝑓′(𝑧)continuous within and on a simple

closed contour 𝐶, then

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0 … (1)
𝐶

Proof: Let 𝐶: [𝑎, 𝑏] → 𝐺 is a smooth curve.

Now we assume 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝐶 = 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑖𝑦(𝑡), 𝑎 ≤

𝑡 ≤ 𝑏. Then

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫(𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦))(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)𝑑𝑧

𝐶 𝐶
𝑏 𝑏
= ∫ (𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦) + 𝑖 ∫ (𝑢𝑑𝑦 + 𝑣𝑑𝑥 ) … (2)
𝑎 𝑎

Given that 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) is an analytic function with 𝑓′(𝑧)

continuous, the first order partial derivative and v are continuous.

Now from (2), we get

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∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∬ (−𝑣𝑥 − 𝑢𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ∬ (𝑢𝑥 − 𝑣𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

𝐶 𝐷 𝐷

Where 𝐷 is the region enclosed by 𝐶. By Cauchy Riemann Equations i.e.,

𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 , we get

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∬ (𝑢𝑦 − 𝑢𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ∬ (𝑢𝑥 − 𝑢𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

𝐶 𝐷 𝐷

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∬ (0) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ∬ (0) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

𝐶 𝐷 𝐷

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝐶

8.4 CAUCHY’S THEOREM:-

If the function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic and single valued inside and a simple
closed contour C, then

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝐶

Proof:
Lemma: Given 𝜖 > 0, it is possible to divide the region inside a simple
closed contour 𝐶 into a finite number of smaller regions, either complete
squares 𝐶𝑛 or partial squares 𝐷𝑛 , such that within each mesh there exists a
point 𝑧0 , where the following conditions are satisfied:

𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
| − 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 )| < 𝜀 ∀𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑠ℎ … (1)
𝑧 − 𝑧0

Proof the Lemma:

Gourset’s Lemma: Suppose the lemma is not true. It means that the
lemma fails at least one mesh. Subdivide this mesh by means of line
joining the middle points of the opposite sides. If there is still at least one
part which does not satisfy the condition (1). Again subdivide that part in
the same way. This process comes to an end after a finite number of steps,
when the condition (1) is satisfied for every subdivision, or the process
may go on indefinitely. In the second case, we obtain the sequence of
squares (each contained the proceeding ones) which has 𝑧0 as it limit point
at which the condition (1) is not satisfied. Of course, 𝑧0 is an interior point
of C. Since the condition (1) is not satisfied at 𝑧0 and so

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𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
| − 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 )| ≮ 𝜀𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿
𝑧 − 𝑧0

𝛿 being a small number of depending upon 𝜀.

Given that 𝑓(𝑧) is not differentiable at 𝑧0 , and 𝑧0 is an interior point of 𝐶,

you can conclude that 𝑓(𝑧) is not analytic at 𝑧0 . This contradicts the initial
assumption that 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at every interior point of 𝐶. Therefore, the
lemma must be true. From the lemma, we get
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
− 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = 𝜂 < 𝜀
𝑧 − 𝑧0

And 𝜂 → ∞ as 𝑧 → 𝑧0
So

𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝜂 (𝑧) + 𝑓(𝑧0 ) + (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑓 ′(𝑧0 ) … (2)

Fig.1

Proof of this theorem. Divide the interior of C into complete squares

𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , … … … … , 𝐶𝑛 and partial squares 𝐷1 , 𝐷2 , … … … … , 𝐷𝑛 , where 𝐷𝑖 part
of its boundary along the boundary of has 𝐶.
Consider the integral
𝑛 𝑛

∑ ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∑ ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝑟=1 𝐶𝑟 𝑟=1 𝐷𝑟

where the path of every integral being in anti-clockwise direction.

In the complete sum, integration along each straight side of each square
(whether complete or partial) is taken twice in opposite directions, causing
all such integrals to cancel out; thus, only the integrals along the curved
boundaries of the partial squares remain, as these are described only once.
The integrals which are left behind sum equal to

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∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝐶
𝑛 𝑛

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∑ ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∑ ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 … (3 )

𝐶 𝑟=1 𝐶𝑟 𝑟=1 𝐷𝑟

From(2), we get

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ [𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝜂 + (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 )] 𝑑𝑧

𝐶 𝐶𝑟

= [𝑓 (𝑧0 ) − 𝑧0 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 )] ∫ 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) ∫ 𝑧𝑑𝑧 + ∫ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝜂𝑑𝑧

𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝑟

Now using

∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 0 = ∫ 𝑧𝑑𝑧
𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝑟

We express as

∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0 = ∫ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝜂𝑑𝑧
𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝑟

Now from (3), we have

𝑛 𝑚

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∑ ∫ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝜂𝑑𝑧 + ∑ ∫ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝜂𝑑𝑧

𝐶 𝑟=1 𝐶𝑟 𝑟=1 𝐷𝑟
𝑛 𝑚

|∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧| ≤ ∑ |∫ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝜂𝑑𝑧| + ∑ |∫ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝜂𝑑𝑧|

𝐶 𝑟=1 𝐶𝑟 𝑟=1 𝐷𝑟

𝑛 𝑚

≤ ∑ ∫ |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | |𝜂| |𝑑𝑧| + ∑ ∫ |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | |𝜂| |𝑑𝑧|

𝑟=1 𝐶𝑟 𝑟=1 𝐷𝑟
𝑛 𝑚

< ∑ 𝜀 ∫ |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | |𝑑𝑧| + 𝜀 ∑ ∫ |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | |𝑑𝑧| … (4)

𝑟=1 𝐶𝑟 𝑟=1 𝐷𝑟

as |𝜂| < 𝜀.

Let 𝑙𝑛 , 𝐴𝑛 denote the length of the side and the area of the complete square
𝐶𝑛 , respectively. Similarly, let 𝑙′𝑛 and 𝐴′𝑛 denote the length of the side and
the area of the partial square 𝐷𝑛 , respectively.Then from the equation (4),

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𝑛 𝑚

|∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧| < ∑ 𝜀𝑙𝑟 √2 ∫ |𝑑𝑧| + ∑ 𝜀𝑙′𝑟 √2 ∫ |𝑑𝑧|

𝐶 𝑟=1 𝐶𝑟 𝑟=1 𝐷𝑟

[𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | ≤ 𝑙𝑟 √2 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑟 ]

𝑛 𝑚

= ∑ 𝜀𝑙𝑟 √2 .4 𝑙𝑟 + ∑ 𝜀𝑙′𝑟 √2 . (4 𝑙𝑟 + 𝑠𝑟 )
𝑟=1 𝑟=1

[𝐹𝑜𝑟 ∫ |𝑑𝑧| = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑟 ]

𝐶𝑟

𝑛 𝑚 𝑚

= 4𝜀√2 [∑ 𝐴2𝑟 + ∑ 𝐴′ 𝑟 ] + 𝜀√2 ∑ 𝑙 ′ 𝑟 𝑠𝑟

𝑟=1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1
𝑚

= 4𝜀√2. 𝐴 + 𝜀√2 ∑ 𝑙 ′ 𝑟 𝑠𝑟
𝑟=1

where 𝐴 = total area of square of side 𝑙 with which the region was
originally covered. Also let 𝑙 be total length of boundary of C. then

|∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧| < 4𝜀√2. 𝐴 + 𝜀√2 ∑ 𝑙 𝑠𝑟

𝐶 𝑟=1

= 4𝜀√2. 𝐴 + 4𝜀𝑙𝐿√2

|∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧| < 𝜀[4𝜀√2. 𝐴 + 4𝜀𝑙𝐿√2]

𝐶

Since 𝜀 → 0, we obtain

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0.
𝐶

8.5 EXTENSION OF CAUCHY’S THEOREM:-

Corollary1: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a simply connected domain 𝐷, then the
integral of 𝑓(𝑧) along any rectifiable curve joining two points 𝑧1 and
𝑧2 within 𝐷 is independent of the path taken between 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 .

Proof: If 𝐴(𝑧1 ) and 𝐵(𝑧2 ) are two points in a simply connected domain D,
and they are joined by two curves 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 the integral of an analytic

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function 𝑓(𝑧) along these curves is independent of the specific path

taken,then by Cauchy’s theorem

Fig.2

∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝐴𝐿𝐵𝑀𝐴

∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝐴𝐿𝐵 𝐵𝑀𝐴

∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝐴𝐿𝐵 𝐴𝑀𝐵

∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝐶1 𝐶2

∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝐶1 𝐶2

Corollary2: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in the annular region 𝐷 bounded by 𝐶 and

𝐶1 , then the integral of 𝑓(𝑧) around 𝐶 and 𝐶1 is related by:

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝐶 𝐶1

Proof: If we join a point 𝐴 on the contour 𝐶 to a point 𝐸 on the contour

𝐶1 , then by Cauchy’s theorem, we get

∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐴𝐸𝐹𝐺𝐸𝐴

Or
∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐴 𝐴𝐸 𝐸𝐹𝐺𝐸 𝐸𝐴

But ∫𝐴𝐸 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = − ∫𝐸𝐴 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 and ∫𝐴𝐸 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐸𝐴 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
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Fig.3
So

∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐴 𝐸𝐹𝐺𝐸

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝐶 𝐸𝐹𝐺𝐸

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝐶 𝐸𝐺𝐹𝐸

Hence

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝐶 𝐶1

If the contour C contains non-intersecting 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 … … . 𝐶𝑛 , then

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ⋯ ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧

𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑛

8.6 AN UPPER BOUND FOR COMPLEX

INTEGRAL:-
If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous on a contour 𝐶 of length 𝑙 and if 𝑀 be the
upper bound of |𝑓(𝑧)| on 𝐶, then |∫𝐶 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧| ≤ 𝑀𝑙.

Proof: Given that divide the contour C into n parts by means of points
𝑧0 , 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … … 𝑧𝑛 . we choose a point 𝜉𝑟 on each arc joining 𝑧𝑟−1 to 𝑧𝑟 .
From the sum

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𝑆𝑛 = ∑ 𝑓 (𝜉𝑟 ) (𝑧𝑟 − 𝑧𝑟−1 )

𝑟=1

Also (𝑧𝑟 − 𝑧𝑟−1 ) → 0𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞.

Now we define ∫𝐶 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = lim 𝑆𝑛

𝑛→∞
𝑛 𝑛

|𝑆𝑛 | = |∑ 𝑓 (𝜉𝑟 ) (𝑧𝑟 − 𝑧𝑟−1 )| ≤ ∑|𝑓(𝜉𝑟 )| |(𝑧𝑟 − 𝑧𝑟−1 )|

𝑟=1 𝑟=1
𝑛

≤ ∑ 𝑀 |(𝑧𝑟 − 𝑧𝑟−1 )|
𝑟=1

Let 𝑛 → ∞ and noting (1), we obtain

𝑛

|∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧| ≤ lim 𝑀 ∑|(𝑧𝑟 − 𝑧𝑟−1 )| … (2)

𝐶 𝑛→∞
𝑟=1

But
𝑛

lim 𝑀 ∑|(𝑧𝑟 − 𝑧𝑟−1 )|

𝑛→∞
𝑟=1

= lim [|𝑧1 − 𝑧0 | + |𝑧2 − 𝑧1 | + ⋯ + |𝑧𝑛 − 𝑧𝑛+1 |]

𝑛→∞

= lim [𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝑧1 𝑧0 + 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝑧2 𝑧1 + ⋯ + 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝑧𝑛 𝑧𝑛−1 ]

𝑛→∞

= lim [𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑧1 𝑧0 + 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑧2 𝑧1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑧𝑛 𝑧𝑛−1 ]

𝑛→∞

= arc length of contour 𝐶 = 𝑙

Using (2), we get

|∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧| ≤ 𝑀𝑙
𝐶

8.7 CAUCHY INTEGRAL FORMULA:-

If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within and on a closed contour 𝐶, and if 𝑎 is any point
within 𝐶, then
1 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑎

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Proof: Let 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within and on a closed contour 𝐶 and 𝑎 is

interior point of 𝐶.
To prove that
1 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑎

Fig.4

Let the circle 𝛾 about the centre 𝑧 = 𝑎 of small radius 𝑟 𝑠. 𝑡., |𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑟

does not intersect the curve C. Hence by the corollary to Cauchy’s
theorem, we have
𝑓 (𝑧 ) 𝑓 (𝑧 )
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 … (1)
𝐶𝑧−𝑎 𝛾𝑧−𝑎

𝑓 (𝑧 ) 𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓 (𝑧 )
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑑𝑧 … (2)
𝐶𝑧−𝑎 𝛾 𝑧−𝑎 𝛾𝑧−𝑎

Since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within the contour 𝐶, it is also continuous at any

point 𝑧 = 𝑎. This means that for any given 𝜀 > 0, there exists a 𝛿 > 0
such that |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑎)| < 𝜀 … (3) whenever ∣ |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 … . . (4) . We
can choose a radius 𝑟 less than 𝛿 so that for all points 𝑧 on a circle 𝛾
centered at a with radius 𝑟 , the condition ∣ 𝑧 − 𝑎 ∣< 𝛿 is satisfied,
ensuring ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑎) ∣< 𝜖 for all 𝑧 on 𝛾. For any point 𝑧 on 𝛾, 𝑧 can be
expressed as 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , where 𝜃 ranges from 0 to 2𝜋.
2𝜋
𝑓 (𝑧 ) 𝑓(𝑎)𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝑑𝜃
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(𝑎)
𝛾𝑧−𝑎 0 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃

In view of (2), we have

𝑓 (𝑧 ) 𝑓 (𝑧 ) − 𝑓 (𝑎 )
|∫ 𝑑𝑧 − 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(𝑎)| = |∫ 𝑑𝑧|
𝐶𝑧−𝑎 𝛾 𝑧−𝑎

|𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑓 (𝑎)| 𝜀 𝜀
≤∫ |𝑑𝑧| < ∫|𝑑𝑧| = . 2𝜋𝑟
𝛾 |𝑧 − 𝑎 | 𝑟 𝛾 𝑟
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𝑓 (𝑧 )
|∫ 𝑑𝑧 − 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(𝑎)| < 2𝜋𝜀
𝐶𝑧−𝑎

Since 𝜀 → 0, we obtain
𝑓 (𝑧 )
∫ 𝑑𝑧 − 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(𝑎) = 0
𝐶𝑧−𝑎

1 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑎

Remarks:

1. |𝑎 − 𝑏| < 𝜀 ⇒ 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 0
2. ∫𝛾|𝑑𝑧| = 2𝜋. 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
3. From equation(1) and (2), we get
1 𝑓 (𝑧 ) 1 𝑓 (𝑧 )
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑎) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 … (5)
2𝜋𝑖 𝛾 𝑧 − 𝑎 2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑎

Corollary1: (Gauss Mean Value Theorem) If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a

Domain 𝐷 and if the circular domain |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | ≤ 𝜌 is contained in 𝐷, then
the value of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧0 is given by the average of its values of the
boundary of the circle |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | = 𝜌.Mathematically, this is expressed as

1 2𝜋
𝑓(𝑧0 ) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧0 + 𝜌𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0

Proof: From the equation (1) and (5), we get

1 𝑓 (𝑧 ) 1 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓(𝑧0 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑧0 2𝜋𝑖 𝛾 𝑧 − 𝑧0

|𝑧 − 𝑧0 | = 𝜌 ⇒ 𝑧 − 𝑧0 = 𝜌𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃

1 𝑓 (𝑧 ) 1 2𝜋 𝑓(𝑧0 + 𝜌𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )𝜌𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑓(𝑧0 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑧0 2𝜋𝑖 0 𝜌𝑒 𝑖𝜃

1 2𝜋
𝑓 (𝑧0 ) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧0 + 𝜌𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0

Theorem1: (Extension of Cauchy’s Integral formula to multiply

connected regions): If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a ring shaped region bounded
by two closed curves 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 and 𝑎 is a point in the region between 𝐶1
and 𝐶2 .

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1 𝑓 (𝑧 ) 1 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶2 𝑧 − 𝑎 2𝜋𝑖 𝐶1 𝑧 − 𝑎

where 𝐶2 is outer curve.

Proof: The circle 𝛾 centered at 𝑧 = 𝑎 with radius 𝑟 is chosen such that it

lies entirely within the annular region bounded by the closed curves 𝐶1
𝑓(𝑧)
and 𝐶2 , ensuring that the function 𝑧−𝑎 is analytic in the region enclosed by
𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and 𝛾.

Fig.5
By corollary Cauchy’s theorem
𝑓 (𝑧 ) 𝑓 (𝑧 ) 𝑓 (𝑧 )
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝐶2 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝐶1 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝛾𝑧−𝑎

Where the integral along each curve is taken in anti-clockwise direction.

Using Cauchy’s integral formula,
𝑓 (𝑧 ) 𝑓 (𝑧 )
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 + 2𝜋𝑖 𝑓(𝑎)
𝐶2 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝐶1 𝑧 − 𝑎

1 𝑓 (𝑧 ) 1 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶2 𝑧 − 𝑎 2𝜋𝑖 𝐶1 𝑧 − 𝑎

Theorem2: (Cauchy’s Integral formula for the derivative of an

analytic function): If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within and on a closed contour C
and a is any lying in it, then
1 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓′(𝑎) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶2 (𝑧 − 𝑎)2

Or
Using Cauchy’s integral formula to find first derivative of an analytic
function 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 .

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Proof: Let 𝑎 + ℎ be a point in the neighborhood of a point a, then by

Cauchy’s integral formula,
1 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑎

1 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑎 + ℎ ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧 − (𝑎 + ℎ)

Now
𝑓 (𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎) 1 𝑓 (𝑧 ) 1 1
= ∫ [ − ] 𝑑𝑧
ℎ 2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 ℎ 𝑧 − 𝑎 − ℎ 𝑧 − 𝑎

1 𝑓 (𝑧 ) ℎ −1
= ∫ [(1 − ) − 1] 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)ℎ 𝑧−𝑎

1 𝑓 (𝑧 ) ℎ ℎ 2 ℎ 3
= ∫ [ +( ) +( ) + ⋯ ] 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)ℎ 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑧−𝑎 𝑧−𝑎

1 𝑓 (𝑧 ) 1 ℎ ℎ2
= ∫ [ + + + ⋯ ] 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎) 𝑧 − 𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎)2 (𝑧 − 𝑎)3

Taking ℎ → 0, we obtain
𝑓 (𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎) 1 𝑓 (𝑧 ) 1
lim = ∫ [ + 0 + 0 … ] 𝑑𝑧
ℎ→0 ℎ 2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎) 𝑧 − 𝑎

1 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓′(𝑎) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶2 (𝑧 − 𝑎)2

8.8 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES:-

If 𝑓(𝑧) is a function of analysis within and on a closed contour 𝐶 and 𝑎 is
any point within 𝐶 then derivatives of all orders are analytic and are given
by
𝑛! 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶2 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛+1

Proof: From the previous theorem 2, we obtain

1 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (1) (𝑎) = 𝑓′(𝑎) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶2 (𝑧 − 𝑎)2

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This proves that the result is true for 𝑛 = 1. Let us consider the result is
true for 𝑛 = 𝑚 so that
𝑚! 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑚) (𝑎) = 𝑓′(𝑎) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶2 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚+1

Let 𝑎 + ℎ be the point in neighborhood of 𝑎, then

𝑓 (𝑚) (𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓 (𝑚) (𝑎)

ℎ
𝑚! 1 1
= ∫ 𝑓 (𝑧 ) [ 𝑚+1
− ] 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎 − ℎ ) (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚+1

𝑚! 𝑓 (𝑧 ) 1 −(𝑚+1)
= ∫ [(1 − ) − 1] 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖ℎ 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚+1 𝑧−𝑎

𝑚! 𝑓 (𝑧 ) ℎ(𝑚 + 1) (𝑚 + 1)(𝑚 + 2) ℎ 2
= ∫ [ + ( ) + ⋯ ] 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖ℎ 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚+1 𝑧−𝑎 2! 𝑧−𝑎

Taking ℎ → 0

𝑓 (𝑚) (𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓 (𝑚) (𝑎) 𝑚! 𝑓 (𝑧 ) (𝑚 + 1)

lim == ∫ [ + 0] 𝑑𝑧
ℎ→0 ℎ 2𝜋𝑖ℎ 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚+1 𝑧 − 𝑎
+⋯
(𝑚 + 1)𝑚! 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑚+1) (𝑎) = ∫ 𝑚+2
𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎 )

(𝑚 + 1)! 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑚+1) (𝑎) = ∫ 𝑚+2
𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎 )

This proves that we have already seen that the result is true for 𝑛 = 1 and
shown that it being true for 𝑛 = 𝑚 implies it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑚 + 1, it
follows that the result is true for all positive integers 𝑛.

Since 𝑓 (1) (𝑎), 𝑓 (2) (𝑎), 𝑓 (3) (𝑎) … … … … . . 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡

Consequently 𝑓 (1) (𝑎), 𝑓 (1) (𝑎) … … … 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝐶.

8.9 POISSON’S INTEGRAL FORMULA:-

If 𝑓(𝑧) is analysis within and on a circle 𝐶 defined by |𝑧| = 𝑅 and if 𝑎 is
any point within C, then

1 (𝑅2 − 𝑎𝑎̅)𝑓 (𝑧)

𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)(𝑅2 − 𝑧𝑎̅)

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Hence deduce the Poisson’s formula

𝑖𝜃 )
1 (𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 )𝑓(𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜙 )𝑑𝜙
𝑓(𝑟𝑒 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋 𝐶 (𝑅2 − 2𝑅𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 − 𝜙) + 𝑟 2 )

where 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 is any point inside the circle |𝑧| = 𝑅.

Proof: Let us suppose 𝑓(𝑧) is analysis within and on a circle 𝐶 defined by

|𝑧| = 𝑅 and 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 is any point 𝐴 inside 𝐶 so that 0 < 𝑟 < 𝑅

Fig.6
𝑅2
Let 𝐴′ (𝑎′ ) of 𝐴(𝑎) w.r.t. the circle C is given by 𝑎′ = which outside
𝑎̅
the circle C, by Cauchy’s integral formula
1 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 … (1)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑎
𝑓(𝑧)
Since 𝑓(𝑧) is analysis within and upon the circle 𝐶 and so 𝑧−𝑎′ is within
and on a circle 𝐶, by Cauchy’s theorem
𝑓 (𝑧 )
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 0 … (2)
𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑎′

From (1) and (2), we obtain

1 𝑓 (𝑧 ) 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑎 ) − 0 = ∫[ − ] 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑎′

1 (𝑎 − 𝑎′)𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)(𝑧 − 𝑎′)

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𝑅2
(𝑎 −
1 𝑎̅ ) 𝑓(𝑧)
= ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑅2
(𝑧 − 𝑎) (𝑧 − )
𝑎̅

1 (𝑎𝑎̅ − 𝑅2 )𝑓(𝑧)
= ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)(𝑎̅𝑧 − 𝑅2 )

1 (𝑎𝑎̅ − 𝑅2 )𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 … (3)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)(𝑎̅𝑧 − 𝑅2 )

This proves first result.

Let |𝑧| = 𝑅 is expressible as 𝑧 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜙 .

Also 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 so that 𝑎̅ = 𝑟𝑒 −𝑖𝜃

Now 𝑅2 − 𝑎𝑎̅ = 𝑅2 − 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 . 𝑟𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = 𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 … (4)

(𝑧 − 𝑎)(𝑅2 − 𝑧𝑎̅) = (𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜙 − 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )(𝑅2 − 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜙 𝑟𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )

= 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜙 (𝑅 − 𝑟𝑒 𝑖(𝜃−𝜙) )(𝑅 − 𝑟𝑒 −𝑖(𝜃−𝜙) )

= 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜙 [𝑅2 + 𝑟 2 − 𝑟𝑅(𝑒 𝑖(𝜃−𝜙) − 𝑒 −𝑖(𝜃−𝜙) )]

= 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜙 [𝑅2 + 𝑟 2 − 2𝑟𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 − 𝜙)] … (5)

𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑(𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜙 ) = 𝑅𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜙 𝑑𝜙 … (6)

Putting the value of (4), (5) and (6) in (3), we get

1 (𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 )𝑓(𝑧)(𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜙 )𝑖𝑑𝜙

𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑅 − 2𝑅𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 − 𝜙) + 𝑟 2 )𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜙

1 (𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 )𝑓(𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜙 )𝑑𝜙

𝑓(𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋 𝐶 (𝑅 − 2𝑅𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 − 𝜙) + 𝑟 2 )

SOLVED EXAMPLE
𝑒 2𝑧 𝑑𝑧
EXAMPLE1: Evaluate ∫𝐶 (𝑧+1)4 , where C is |𝑧| = 3.

SOLUTION: Suppose
𝑛! 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶2 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛+1

Put 𝑎 = −1, 𝑛 = 3

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3! 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 3 (−1) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶2 (𝑧 − 𝑎)4

Taking 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 2𝑧 , then 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑧) = 2𝑛 𝑒 2𝑧

8
𝑓 3 (−1) = 23 𝑒 −2 =
𝑒2
8 3! 𝑒 2𝑧
= ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝑒 2 2𝜋𝑖 𝐶2 (𝑧 − 𝑎)4

8𝜋𝑖 𝑒 2𝑧
=∫ 𝑑𝑧
3𝑒 2 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎 )
4

EXAMPLE2: Using Cauchy’s integral Formula, Calculate the following

integrals.
𝑧
i. ∫𝐶 (9−𝑧 2 )(𝑧+𝑖) 𝑑𝑧 , where C is the circle |𝑧| = 2 described in
positive sense.
1
ii. ∫𝐶 𝑧(𝑧+𝜋𝑖) 𝑑𝑧, where C is the circle |𝑧 + 3𝑖 | = 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝜋𝑧)𝑑𝑧
iii. ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧, where C is the circle |𝑧| = 2
𝑧(𝑧 2+1)
𝑒 𝑎𝑧
iv. ∫𝐶 𝑧(𝑧−𝜋𝑖) 𝑑𝑧, where C is the ellipse |𝑧 − 2| + |𝑧 + 2| = 6
𝑑𝑧
v. Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧−2, where C is |𝑧| = 3.

SOLUTION: By Cauchy’s integral Formula,

1 𝑓 (𝑧 ) 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 ⇒ ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(𝑎) … (1)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝐶𝑧−𝑎

where 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a point inside contour 𝐶 and 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within and

upon 𝐶.
i.

Fig.7
Suppose
𝑧
𝐼=∫ 2
𝑑𝑧
𝐶 (9 − 𝑧 )(𝑧 + 𝑖 )

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Now we
𝑧
𝐼=∫ 2
𝑑𝑧
𝐶 (9 − 𝑧 )
Then
𝑓(𝑧) 2𝜋 𝜋
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(−𝑖 ) = =
𝐶 (𝑧 − (−𝑖)) 9+1 5
Hence 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within and upon C s.t. |𝑧| = 2 and
𝑧 = −𝑖 lies inside C.
ii. Let
1
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 𝑧(𝑧 + 𝜋𝑖 )
1
Take 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧

Fig.8
1
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 𝑧(𝑧 − (−𝜋𝑖 ))

= 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(−𝜋𝑖)
1
= 2𝜋𝑖 ( ) = −2
−𝜋𝑖
Hence 𝑧 = −𝑖𝜋 lies inside C and 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within 𝐶.
iii. Let
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝜋𝑧)𝑑𝑧
∫ 2
𝑑𝑧
𝐶 𝑧 (𝑧 + 1)
Take 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝜋𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑖𝜋𝑧) and C is |𝑧| = 2.
Then

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Fig.9
𝑓(𝑧)
𝐼=∫ 2
𝑑𝑧
𝐶 𝑧 (𝑧 + 1)

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐼=∫[ + + ] 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 … (2)
𝐶 𝑧 𝑧−𝑖 𝑧+𝑖
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑧(𝑧 − 𝑖 )(𝑧 + 𝑖 ) 𝑧 𝑧 − 𝑖 𝑧 + 𝑖
1
𝐴= = 1 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 0
(𝑧 − 𝑖 )(𝑧 + 𝑖 )
1 1
𝐵= = − 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑖
𝑧 (𝑧 + 𝑖 ) 2
1 1
𝐶= = − 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = −𝑖
𝑧 (𝑧 − 𝑖 ) 2
when 𝑧 = 0, 𝑖, −𝑖 are the points inside C.
From the equation (1) + (2), we obtain
𝐼 = 2𝜋𝑖[𝐴𝑓(0) + 𝐵𝑓(𝑖 ) + 𝐶𝑓(−𝑖)]
1 1
= 2𝜋𝑖 [𝑓 (0) − 𝑓(𝑖 ) − 𝑓(−𝑖)]
2 2
1 1
= 2𝜋𝑖 [𝑐𝑜𝑠(0) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑖 2 𝜋) − 𝑓(−𝑖 2 𝜋)]
2 2
1 1
= 2𝜋𝑖 [1 + − ] = 2𝜋𝑖
2 2
iv. Let

𝑒 𝑎𝑧
∫𝐶 𝑧(𝑧−𝜋𝑖) 𝑑𝑧,
C is the ellipse |𝑧 − 2| + |𝑧 + 2| = 6
[(𝑥 − 2)2 + 𝑦 2 ]1/2 = 6 − [(𝑥 + 2)2 + 𝑦 2 ]1/2

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Fig.10

Squaring both sides,

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4 − 4𝑥 = 36 + (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4 + 4𝑥) − 12[(𝑥 + 2)2 + 𝑦 2 ]1/2

12[(𝑥 + 2)2 + 𝑦 2 ]1/2 = 36 + 8𝑥

3(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4 + 4𝑥 )1/2 = 9 + 2𝑥
Again squaring

9(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4 + 4𝑥)1/2 = 81 + 36𝑥 + 4𝑥 2

5𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 = 45

𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
9 5
𝑥2 𝑦2
Comparing 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 1, we have 𝑎2 = 9, 𝑏2 = 5 ⇒ 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 2.2𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑥
𝑒 𝑎𝑧
So is analytic within and upon 𝐶.
𝑧(𝑧−𝜋𝑖)
∴ 𝐼 = 0, by Cuchy’s theorem
v. Suppose
𝑑𝑧 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
∫ =∫
𝐶𝑧−2 𝐶 𝑧−2

Then 𝑎 = 2, 𝑓 (𝑧) = 1. C is circle |𝑧| = 3 whose centre is at 𝑧 = 0 and

radius 𝑅 = 3.
Since 𝑎 = 2 lies inside 𝐶.
Now from (1) and (2) ,we get
𝐼 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(2) = 2𝜋𝑖(1) = 2𝜋𝑖
For 𝑓 (𝑧) = 1 ⇒ 𝑓(2) = 1.

EXAMPLE3: Evaluate by Cauchy’s integral formula

𝑑𝑧
∫
𝐶 𝑧(𝑧 − 𝑖𝜋)

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where 𝐶 is |𝑧 + 3𝑖 | = 1.
SOLUTION: Let

𝑑𝑧 1 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
∫ = [∫ −∫ ]
𝐶 𝑧(𝑧 + 𝑖𝜋) 𝑖𝜋 𝐶 𝑧 𝐶 (𝑧 + 𝑖𝜋)

Also

The distance from 𝑧 = 0 to the center of the circle −3𝑖 is ∣ 0 + 3𝑖 ∣= 3.

Since 3 > 1, 𝑧 = 0 is not inside the circle.

The distance from 𝑧 = 𝑖𝜋 to the center of the circle −3𝑖 is ∣ 𝑖𝜋 + 3𝑖 ∣=∣

𝜋 + 3 ∣ 𝑖 ∣= 𝜋 + 3. Since 𝜋 ≈ 3.14 > 1𝜋 ≈ 3.14 > 1, 𝑧 = 𝑖𝜋 is also not
inside the circle.
1
Since neither of the poles is inside the contour C, the function is
𝑧(𝑧−𝑖𝜋)
analytic inside and on C.
Therefore, the integral of this function over the closed contour C is zero by
Cauchy's Theorem:
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
∫𝐶 𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(0) = 2𝜋𝑖 and ∫𝐶 (𝑧+𝑖𝜋) = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(−𝜋𝑖 ) = 2𝜋𝑖
∴
𝑑𝑧 2𝜋𝑖 − 2𝜋𝑖
∫ = =0
𝐶 𝑧(𝑧 + 𝑖𝜋) 𝜋𝑖
1
EXAMPLE4: Find the value of ∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 where C is circle = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤
2𝜋 .
SOLUTION: The circle 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 represents a unit circle in the complex
plane, parameterized by 𝜃 ranging from 0 to 2𝜋. The parameterization is:
 𝑧(𝜃) = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝑑𝑧
 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
The integral becomes:
2𝜋
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑖𝜃
. 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝐶 𝑧 0 𝑒
Simplifying the expression inside the integral:
2𝜋
= ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝜃
0
Since i is a constant, the integral simplifies to:
2𝜋
= ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑖[𝜃]2𝜋
0 = 𝑖 (2𝜋 − 0) = 2𝜋𝑖
0
1
Therefore, the value of the integral ∫𝐶 𝑧 𝑑𝑧, where 𝐶 is the circle 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.
tan (𝑧/2)
EXAMPLE5: Evaluate ∫𝐶 (𝑧−𝑥 )2 𝑑𝑧
0

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where 𝐶 is the boundary of square whose sides lie along the lines 𝑥 =
±2, 𝑦 = ±2 and it is described in positive sense, where |𝑥0 | < 2.
SOLUTION: By Cauchy’s integral formula
1 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑎

and
𝑛! 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛+1
This ⇒
𝑓 (𝑧 )
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(𝑎)
𝐶𝑧−𝑎
and
𝑓 (𝑧 ) 2𝜋𝑖 𝑛
∫ 𝑛+1
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 (𝑎 )
𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑛!
where 𝑧 = 𝑎 lies inside 𝐶 and 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within and upon 𝐶.

SELF CHECK QUESTIONS

1. How does Cauchy's Theorem relate to the concept of an analytic
function?
2. What is the significance of the domain being "simply connected"
in Cauchy's Theorem?
3. Can Cauchy's Theorem be applied if the function is not analytic on
the contour?
4. What are the conditions for applying Cauchy's Theorem?
5. How does Cauchy's Theorem lead to Cauchy's Integral Formula?

8.10 SUMMARY:-
In this unit we have studied the Cauchy's Theorem and Cauchy's Integral
Formula are foundational results in complex analysis. Cauchy's Theorem
states that if a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a simply connected domain 𝐷
and on a simple closed contour 𝐶 within 𝐷 , then the integral of 𝑓(𝑧)
around 𝐶 is zero, emphasizing the independence of path in analytic
regions. Building on this, Cauchy's Integral Formula provides a specific
value for the function at any point 𝑧0 inside 𝐶 by expressing it as 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) =
1 𝑓(𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 , showing that the value of an analytic function inside a
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧−𝑧 0
contour can be determined entirely by its values on the contour. Together,
these results highlight the deep connections between the values of an
analytic function within a region and on its boundary, enabling further
theorems and applications in complex analysis.

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8.11 GLOSSARY:-
 Analytic Function (Holomorphic Function): A function 𝑓(𝑧)
that is complex differentiable at every point in its domain.
 Simply Connected Domain: A region in the complex plane
without holes, where any closed curve can be continuously
contracted to a point within the region.
 Contour (Path): A directed curve in the complex plane often used
in the context of integrating functions along its length.
 Simple Closed Contour: A contour that does not intersect itself
and encloses a well-defined region.
 Cauchy's Theorem: A fundamental theorem stating that if a
function is analytic within and on a simple closed contour in a
simply connected domain, then the integral of the function over
that contour is zero.
 Cauchy's Integral Formula: A powerful result in complex
analysis that expresses the value of an analytic function inside a
contour in terms of an integral over the contour. It is given
1 𝑓(𝑧)
by𝑓 (𝑧0 ) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 𝑧−𝑧 𝑑𝑧, where 𝑧0 is a point inside the contour 𝐶.
0
 Residue: The coefficient of (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )−1 in the Laurent series
expansion of a function around a point 𝑧0 , significant in evaluating
integrals around singularities.
 Laurent Series: A representation of a complex function that
generalizes the Taylor series, allowing terms with negative powers
of(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ).
1
 Pole: A type of singularity where a function behaves like (𝑧−𝑧 )𝑛
0
near 𝑧 = 𝑧0 , causing the function to go to infinity.
 Singularity: A point at which a function is not analytic, which can
be a pole, essential singularity, or removable singularity.
 Integral Path Independence: A property in simply connected
domains where the integral of an analytic function depends only on
the endpoints, not the path taken.
 Integral along a Contour: The sum (integral) of the values of a
function along a contour in the complex plane, taking into account
the direction of traversal.
 Winding Number: The number of times a contour wraps around a
point, relevant in calculating residues and applying the argument
principle.
 Argument Principle: A theorem relating the number of zeros and
poles of a meromorphic function inside a contour to the integral of
the function's logarithmic derivative around the contour.

8.12 REFERENCES:-
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 Elias M. Stein and Rami Shakarchi(2014), Complex Analysis" (4th

Edition)
 Steven G. Krantz (2013), Complex Analysis: A Modern
Introduction.
 Tristan Needham (2018), Visual Complex Analysis.
 G. M. Fikhtengol'ts (2016),Complex Analysis: Theory and
Applications.

8.13 SUGGESTED READING:-

 R. A. Adams and J. J. Fournier (2014),Introduction to Complex

Analysis.
 John H. Hubbard and Barbara Burke Hubbard (2016),Advanced
Complex Analysis: Theory and Practice.
 Goyal and Gupta (Twenty first edition 2010), Function of complex
Variable.
 https://old.mu.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Paper-III-
Complex-Analysis.pdf
 file:///C:/Users/user/Desktop/1468561942EText(Ch-5,M-
2%20(1).pdf
 file:///C:/Users/user/Desktop/1468561978EText(Ch-5,M-3.pdf

8.14 TERMINAL QUESTIONS:-

(TQ-1) Prove Cauchy's Theorem for a simple closed contour in a simply

connected domain.
(TQ-2)Derive and prove Cauchy's Integral Formula for an analytic
function.
(TQ-3)Derive Cauchy's Integral Formula for higher-order derivatives.
(TQ-4)Prove the generalized version of Cauchy's Theorem for multiple
contours within a simply connected domain.
(TQ-5) Prove the generalized Cauchy Integral Formula for a multi-
connected domain with multiple singularities.
(TQ-6)State Cauchy’s theorem.
(TQ-7) If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic with 𝑓′(𝑧)continuous within and on a simple
closed contour 𝐶, then prove that

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝐶
(TQ-8) If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a simply connected domain 𝐷, then prove
that the integral of 𝑓(𝑧) along any rectifiable curve joining two points
𝑧1 and 𝑧2 within 𝐷 is independent of the path taken between 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 .
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(TQ-9) If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous on a contour 𝐶 of length 𝑙 and if

𝑀 be the upper bound of |𝑓(𝑧)| on 𝐶, then prove that

|∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧| ≤ 𝑀𝑙.

(TQ-10) If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within and on a closed contour 𝐶, and if 𝑎 is

any point within 𝐶, then prove that
1 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑎

(TQ-11)Using Cauchy’s integral formula to find first derivative of an

analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 .
3! 𝑓(𝑧)
(TQ-12)Prove that 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)4, where C is contour containing
𝑧 = 𝑎.

8.15 ANSWERS:-
SELF CHECK ANSWERS
1. Cauchy's Theorem highlights that if a function is analytic within a
simply connected domain, the line integral of the function along
any closed contour within that domain is zero. This property shows
the independence of the integral from the specific path taken,
illustrating that the integral depends only on the endpoints, which
are the same for a closed contour, thus resulting in zero.
2. The domain being simply connected ensures that there are no holes
or isolated singularities within the domain. This is important
because if the domain were not simply connected, a function might
have singularities that could affect the value of the integral. In a
simply connected domain, any two paths between the same points
can be continuously deformed into each other without leaving the
domain, ensuring that the integral around a closed loop is zero if
the function is analytic.
3. No, Cauchy's Theorem cannot be directly applied if the function
has singularities on the contour C. The theorem requires the
function to be analytic on and inside the contour C. If there are
singularities on the contour, the integral might not even be defined
in 1. the usual sense, and different techniques or theorems like the
residue.
4. Answer: The key conditions for applying Cauchy's Theorem are:
a. The function 𝑓(𝑧) must be analytic (holomorphic) in a domain
𝐷.
b. The domain 𝐷 must be simply connected.

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c. The contour 𝐶 must be a simple closed contour (a loop without

self-intersections) within 𝐷.
5. Cauchy's Integral Formula is a consequence of Cauchy's Theorem.
It provides a way to evaluate the value of an analytic function
inside a contour using an integral over the contour itself.
Specifically, for 𝑓(𝑧) analytic in a domain 𝐷 containing a closed
contour 𝐶 and 𝑧0 inside 𝐶, Cauchy's Integral Formula states:
1 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑧0 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑧0

This formula is derived using Cauchy's Theorem, where the

𝑓(𝑧)
function 𝑧−𝑧 is analytic inside C except at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 , where it has a
0
simple pole.

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UNIT 9:- Cauchy’s Inequalities and other

Theorem
CONTENTS:
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objectives
9.3 Morera’s Theorem
9.4 Cauchy’s inequality
9.5 Lioville’s theorem
9.6 Taylor’s Theorem
9.7 Laurent’s Theorem
9.8 Uniqueness of Laurent Expansion
9.9 Summary
9.10 Glossary
9.11 References
9.12 Suggested Reading
9.13 Terminal questions
9.14 Answers
9.1 INTRODUCTION:-
In this previous unit, we have studied about Cauchy's Theorems and
Inequalities, are foundational concepts in complex analysis, providing key
insights into the behavior of analytic functions. Cauchy's Theorem states
that the integral of an analytic function over a closed contour is zero,
highlighting the independence of the path in such integrals. Cauchy's
Integral Formula further extends this by expressing the value of a function
at a point inside the contour in terms of an integral around the contour,
also allowing the calculation of derivatives.

In this Unit we will study about Cauchy's Inequalities give upper bounds
for the derivatives of an analytic function based on the maximum value of
the function on a surrounding contour. These results collectively help in
understanding the properties of analytic functions, such as growth,
smoothness, and the nature of singularities, and have broad applications in
mathematics and physics.Morera's Theorem, Liouville's Theorem, Taylor's
Theorem, and Laurent's Series are pivotal results in complex analysis that
extend our understanding of analytic and meromorphic functions. Morera's
Theorem provides a converse to Cauchy's Theorem, stating that if a
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function is continuous on a domain and its integral over every closed

contour within that domain is zero, then the function is analytic.
Liouville's Theorem asserts that any bounded entire function (analytic on
the entire complex plane) must be constant, a fundamental result with
implications in complex function theory and number theory. Taylor's
Theorem in complex analysis expresses an analytic function as an infinite
power series centered at a point, detailing the function's behavior in a
neighborhood of that point. Laurent's Series generalizes this concept,
representing functions with singularities in terms of both positive and
negative powers, providing a powerful tool for analyzing functions with
isolated singularities. Together, these theorems and series offer deep
insights into the structure and properties of complex functions.

9.2 OBJECTIVES:-
The objectives of Cauchy's Inequalities, Morera's Theorem, Liouville's
Theorem, Taylor's Theorem, and Laurent's Series are to provide
foundational tools and insights in complex analysis: Cauchy's Inequalities
aim to bound the derivatives of analytic functions within a region,
highlighting their growth constraints; Morera's Theorem serves to confirm
the analyticity of functions based on contour integrals, acting as a
converse to Cauchy's Theorem; Liouville's Theorem establishes that any
bounded entire function must be constant, offering critical insights into the
behavior of complex functions; Taylor's Theorem provides a method to
represent analytic functions as power series, facilitating local analysis and
approximation; and Laurent's Series extends this representation to
functions with isolated singularities, allowing detailed study of their
behavior near such points.

9.3 MORERA’S THEOREM:-

If 𝑓(𝑧) is a continuous function in a domain 𝐷 and if for every closed
Contour 𝐶 in the domain 𝐷,
∫𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝐶
Then 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within 𝐷.
Proof: Let 𝑧0 be the fixed point in D and 𝑧 a variable point inside the
𝑧
domain D. the value of the integral ∫𝑧 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 is independent of the curve
0
joining 𝑧0 to 𝑧 and depends only 𝑧.

Now we write

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𝑧
𝐹 (𝑧) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑧0
Let 𝑧 + ℎ be a point in the neighborhood of 𝑧. Consider the difference
quotient:
𝑧+ℎ 𝑧
𝐹 (𝑧 + ℎ ) − 𝐹 (𝑧 ) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 − ∫ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑧0 𝑧0
𝑧+ℎ 𝑧0 𝑧+ℎ
=∫ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑧0 𝑧 𝑧
By the continuity of 𝑓, for ∣ ℎ ∣ small enough, 𝑓(𝑡) is close to 𝑓(𝑧) for
𝑡 between 𝑧 and 𝑧 + ℎ. Specifically, for any 𝜖 > 0, there exists 𝛿 > 0 such
that if ∣ ℎ ∣< 𝛿, then ∣ 𝑓(𝑡) − 𝑓(𝑧) ∣< 𝜖 for all 𝑡 between 𝑧 and 𝑧 +
ℎ. Therefore
𝐹 (𝑧 + ℎ ) − 𝐹 (𝑧 ) 1 𝑧+ℎ
| − 𝑓(𝑧)| = | ∫ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 − 𝑓(𝑧)|
ℎ ℎ 𝑧
𝑧+ℎ
1
= |∫ [𝑓(𝑡) − 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑑𝑡|
|ℎ | 𝑧
This can be bounded by:
1 𝑧+ℎ 𝜀
≤ ∫ |𝑓(𝑡) − 𝑓(𝑧)||𝑑𝑡| < |ℎ |
|ℎ | 𝑧 |ℎ |
Since
[|𝑓(𝑡) − 𝑓(𝑧)| < 𝜀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑡 − 𝑧| < 𝛿 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]
𝐹 (𝑧 + ℎ ) − 𝐹 (𝑧 )
| − 𝑓 (𝑧)| < 𝜀 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝜀 → 0
ℎ
𝐹(𝑧+ℎ)−𝐹(𝑧)
Thus lim − 𝑓 (𝑧) = 0 or 𝐹 ′ (𝑧) = 𝐹(𝑧).
ℎ→0 ℎ
Since 𝐹(𝑧) is the antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝐹(𝑧) is analytic (as it is
defined by an integral of a continuous function), 𝑓(𝑧), being the derivative
of an analytic function, is also analytic.
There 𝐹′(𝑧) i.e., 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in 𝐷.
Thus, we have shown that if 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous in 𝐷 and the integral of
𝑓(𝑧) over every closed contour in 𝐷 is zero, then 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in 𝐷.
This completes the proof of Morera's Theorem.

Remark: If 𝒇(𝒛) is analytic in a simply connected region 𝑫 of the

complex plane, show that there exists a function 𝑭′(𝒙) analytic in 𝑫,
and such that 𝑭′(𝒛) = 𝒇(𝒛) for 𝒛 in 𝑫.

9.4 CAUCHY'S INEQUALITY:-

If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within and on a circle 𝐶, given by |𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑅 and if
|𝑓(𝑧)| ≤ 𝑀 for every 𝑧 on 𝐶, then the magnitude of the 𝑛 −th derivative
of 𝑓 at 𝑎 is bounded by

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𝑀𝑛!
|𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)| ≤
𝑅𝑛
Proof: Let |𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑅𝑒 ⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ⇒ |𝑑𝑧| = 𝑅𝑑𝜃
𝑖𝜃

According to Cauchy's Integral Formula, the 𝑛 −th derivative of 𝑓 at a can

be expressed as:
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎 ) = ∫
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛+1
|𝑓(𝑧)||𝑑𝑧| 𝑅
𝑛
𝑛! 𝑀𝑛!
|𝑓 (𝑎)| ≤ ∫ ≤ ∫ 𝑅𝑑𝜃
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 |𝑧 − 𝑎|𝑛+1 2𝜋𝑅𝑛+1 0
𝑀𝑛!
= 2𝜋𝑅
2𝜋𝑅𝑛+1
𝑀𝑛!
|𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)| ≤ 𝑛
𝑅
𝑓𝑛 (𝑎) 𝑀
Remark: If we take 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛! , then |𝑎𝑛 | ≤ 𝑅𝑛

Integral Function: A function 𝑓(𝑧) is called an integral function or entire

function if it is analytic in every finite region.

9.5 LIOVILLE’S THEOREM:-

State and prove Liouvlille’s theorem.
or
If 𝑓(𝑧) is an entire function is bounded for all values of z, then it is
constant.
or
If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic for a finite value of 𝑧, and is bounded, then
𝑓(𝑧) is constant.
or
If 𝑓 is regular in hole 𝑧 −plane and if |𝑓(𝑧)| < 𝑘∀𝑧, then 𝑓(𝑧) must be
constant.
Proof: Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be two arbitrary distinct points in the complex plane.
Consider a large circle 𝐶 centered at the origin with radius 𝑅 such that 𝐶
encloses both 𝑎 and 𝑏 . The equation of 𝐶 is |𝑧| = 𝑅 so that 𝑧 =
𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , |𝑑𝑧| = 𝑅𝑑𝜃.
𝐹(𝑧) is bounded ∀𝑧 ⇒ |𝑓(𝑧)| < 𝑀∀𝑧 where 𝑀 > 0.
By Cauchy’s integral formula for 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏),
1 𝑓(𝑧) 1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧, 𝑓(𝑏) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑎 2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑏
Simplify the integrand:
1 1 1
𝑓 (𝑎 ) − 𝑓 (𝑏 ) = ∫( − ) 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑏
𝑎−𝑏 𝑓(𝑧)
=( )∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎 )(𝑧 − 𝑏 )

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The modulus of the integral can be bounded as follows:

|𝑎 − 𝑏 | |𝑓(𝑧)|
|𝑓 (𝑎) − 𝑓 (𝑏)| ≤ ∫ |𝑑𝑧|
2𝜋 𝐶 (|𝑧| − |𝑎 |)(|𝑧| − |𝑏|)
The length of the contour C is 2πR:
𝑀|𝑎 − 𝑏|. 2𝜋𝑅
≤
2𝜋(𝑅 − |𝑎|)(𝑅 − |𝑏|)
Simplifying, we get:
𝑀 |𝑎 − 𝑏 |. 𝑅
|𝑓 (𝑎) − 𝑓 (𝑏)| ≤ → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑅 → ∞.
(𝑅 − |𝑎|)(𝑅 − |𝑏|)
This implies that 𝑓 (𝑎) − 𝑓 (𝑏) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓 (𝑏), Since 𝑎 and 𝑏
were arbitrary points in the complex plane, this means that 𝑓(𝑧) is
constant everywhere in 𝐶.
[∫|𝑑𝑧| = 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑅]
𝐶

Thus, we have proved that if an entire function 𝑓(𝑧) is bounded for all 𝑧,
then 𝑓(𝑧) must be constant. This completes the proof of Liouville's
Theorem.
Example: If |𝑓(𝜁)| has maximum (𝑟)𝑜𝑛 |𝜉 − 𝑎| = 𝑟 < 𝜌 , then if 𝑎𝑛 =
𝑓𝑛 (𝑎) 𝑀(𝑟)
, show that |𝑎𝑛 | ≤ 𝑛 and from it deduce Liouville’s theorem.
𝑛! 𝑟
𝑀
Solution: To prove |𝑎𝑛 | ≤ 𝑟 𝑛 (Refer the remark of Cauchy inequality)
Let 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic and bounded ∀𝑧.
To prove that 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝑀𝑛!
|𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)| ≤ 𝑛
𝑅
Where |𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑅, by (𝑖) part
𝑀
Taking 𝑛 = 1, |𝑓 ′ (𝑎)| < 𝑅 . R is given to be large. Hence making 𝑅 →
∞, |𝑓 ′ (𝑎)| ≤ 0. But |𝑓 ′ (𝑎)| ≥ 0.
This ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 0. Also a is arbitrary.
𝑑𝑓
Hence 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 0∀𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑧 = 0, integrating, 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.

9.6 TAYLOR’S THEOREM:-

If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within a circle 𝐶 with its centre 𝑧 = 𝑎 and
radius 𝑅, then at every point 𝑧 inside 𝐶,
∞ ∞
𝑛
(𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑓 ( 𝑎 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 ,
𝑛!
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛 𝑓𝑛 (𝑎)
where 𝑎 = 𝑛!
.
Proof: Let 𝑓(𝑡) be analytic within a circle 𝐶 whose equation is |𝑡 − 𝑎| =
𝑅. Let 𝑧 be any point within C s.t. |𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑟 < 𝑅.
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By Cauchy integral formula,

1 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑓 (𝑡 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑡 − 𝑧
Notice that 𝑡 − 𝑧 = (𝑡 − 𝑎) − (𝑧 − 𝑎). So,
1 𝑓(𝑡)
= ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑡 − 𝑎) − (𝑧 − 𝑎)
1 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑧 − 𝑎 −1
= ∫ [1 − ( )] 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑡 − 𝑎) 𝑡−𝑎
1 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑧−𝑎 𝑧−𝑎 2 𝑧−𝑎 𝑛
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∫ [1 + +( ) +⋯+( )
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑡 − 𝑎) 𝑡−𝑎 𝑡−𝑎 𝑡−𝑎
𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑛+1 𝑧 − 𝑎 −1
+( ) (1 − ) ] 𝑑𝑡
𝑡−𝑎 𝑡−𝑎
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
Using the formula, 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛+1 ,we have
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) 2
𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) 𝑛
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 𝑓 ( 𝑎 ) + (𝑧 − 𝑎 ) (
+ 𝑧−𝑎 ) (
+ ⋯+ 𝑧 − 𝑎 )
1! 1! 𝑛!
+ 𝑈𝑛+1 … (1)

(𝑧−𝑎)1+𝑛 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
Where 𝑈𝑛+1 = ∫𝐶 (𝑡−𝑧)(𝑡−𝑎)𝑛+1
2𝜋𝑖
∴
|𝑧 − 𝑎|1+𝑛 |𝑓(𝑡)||𝑑𝑡|
|𝑈𝑛+1 | = ∫ 𝑛+1
2𝜋 𝐶 (|𝑡 − 𝑎 | − |𝑧 − 𝑎 |)|𝑡 − 𝑎 |
𝑀 𝑟 𝑛+1 1
≤ ( ) . . 2𝜋𝑅
2𝜋 𝑅 (𝑅 − 𝑟 )
where 𝑀 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥. |𝑓(𝑡)| on 𝐶.
Or
𝑟 𝑛+1 1
|𝑈𝑛+1 | ≤ 𝑀. ( ) . 𝑟 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞.
𝑅 1 − (𝑅 )

For
𝑟 𝑛+1 𝑟
𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( ) = 0 𝑎𝑠 < 1.
𝑛→∞ 𝑅 𝑅
∴
lim 𝑈𝑛+1 = 0
𝑛→∞
𝑓 ′′ (𝑎)
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 [𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑧 − 𝑎) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) + (𝑧 − 𝑎)2 +⋯
𝑛→∞ 1!
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)
+ ( 𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛 )]
𝑛!
Or
∞ ∞
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∑ (𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛 = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑛 … (2)
𝑛!
𝑛=0 𝑛=0

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𝑓𝑛 (𝑎)
Where 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛! .
This is the Taylor series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) around the point 𝑧 = 𝑎.

Note:
The above theorem can also be related as:
Let 𝑓(𝑧) be analytic at all points within a circle 𝐶0 with its centre at 𝑧0 and
radius 𝑅. Let z any point inside 𝐶0 . Then prove that
∞
(𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛 𝑛
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 ) + ∑ 𝑓 (𝑧0 )
𝑛!
𝑛=1
Deduction:
i. Since z is a point within the circle |𝑡 − 𝑎| = 𝑅 such that |𝑧 − 𝑎| =
𝑟 < 𝑅 so that we can take 𝑧 = 𝑎 + ℎ, ℎ = 𝑧 − 𝑎. Substituting in
(2), we obtain
∞
ℎ𝑛
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = ∑ 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑧0 )
𝑛!
𝑛=1
ℎ2 ′′
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑎) + ℎ𝑓 ′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎 ) + ⋯
2!
This is alternative form to Taylor’s Series.
ii. If we write 𝑎 = 0 in (2), then we obtain
∞ ∞

𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 )𝑛 𝑓 ( 𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=0

This is known as Maclaurin’s Series.

iii. The series converges for |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝑅, where RRR is the radius of
convergence, defined as the distance from 𝑎 to the nearest
singularity of the function 𝑓(𝑧). The convergence of the series on
the circle|𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑅, may or may not occur.

9.7 LAURENT’S THEOREM:-

Suppose a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in the closed ring bounded by two
concentric circles 𝐶 and 𝐶’ of centre a and radii 𝑅 and 𝑅’ (𝑅 > 𝑅’). If 𝑧 is
any point of annulus, then
∞ ∞

𝑓 ( 𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛 + ∑ 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)−𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=1
where

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1 𝑓(𝑡) 1 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑛+1
, 𝑏𝑛 = ∫
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑡 − 𝑎) 2𝜋𝑖 𝐶′ (𝑡 − 𝑎)−𝑛+1
Proof: Let 𝑓(𝑡) be analytic in the closed ring bounded by two concentric
circles 𝐶 and 𝐶’ of the centre 𝑎 and radii 𝑅 and 𝑅’ (𝑅 > 𝑅’). Then if z is
any point within the ring space, then
𝑅′ < |𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑟 < 𝑅.
Here we shall make the following facts:
1 𝑏𝑛+1
i. = (1 − 𝑏)−1 = 1 + 𝑏 + 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛 +
1−𝑏 1−𝑏
𝑡−𝑎 −1 1 𝑧−𝑎
ii. [1 − 𝑧−𝑎] = 𝑡−𝑎 =
1−[ ] 𝑧−𝑡
𝑧−𝑎
𝑟 𝑛 𝑅′ 𝑛 𝑟 𝑅′
iii. lim (𝑅) = 0 = lim ( 𝑟 ) 𝑎𝑠 𝑅 < 1, <1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑟
iv. ∫𝐶 |𝑑𝑡| = 2𝜋. Radius of a circleC=circumference.
By extension to Cauchy’s integral formula
1 𝑓(𝑡) 1 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∫ − ∫
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑡 − 𝑧 2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 ′ 𝑡 − 𝑧
1 𝑓(𝑡) 1 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∫ − ∫
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑡 − 𝑎) − (𝑧 − 𝑎) 2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 ′ (𝑧 − 𝑎) − (𝑡 − 𝑎)
1 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑧 − 𝑎 −1 1 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑡 − 𝑎 −1
( )
𝑓 𝑧 = ∫ [1 − ] 𝑑𝑡 − ∫ [1 − ] 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑡−𝑎 2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 ′ 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑧−𝑎

1 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑧−𝑎 𝑧−𝑎 2 𝑧−𝑎 𝑛

= ∫ [1 + ( )+( ) + ⋯+( )
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑡−𝑎 𝑡−𝑎 𝑡−𝑎
𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑛+1 𝑧 − 𝑎 −1
+( ) [1 − ] ] 𝑑𝑡
𝑡−𝑎 𝑡−𝑎
1 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑡−𝑎 𝑡−𝑎 2 𝑡−𝑎 𝑛
+ ∫ [1 + ( )+( ) + ⋯+ ( )
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 ′ 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑧−𝑎 𝑧−𝑎 𝑧−𝑎
𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑛+1 𝑡 − 𝑎 −1
+( ) [1 − ] ]
𝑧−𝑎 𝑧−𝑎
Taking

1 𝑓(𝑡) 1 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ , 𝑏𝑛 = ∫ = −𝑎𝑛
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑛+1 2𝜋𝑖 𝐶′ (𝑡 − 𝑎)−𝑛+1

𝑓(𝑧) = [𝑎0 + (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑎1 + (𝑧 − 𝑎)2 𝑎2 + ⋯ + (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑈𝑛+1 ]

𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏𝑛
+[ + + ⋯ + + 𝑉𝑛+1 ] … (1)
𝑧 − 𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 2 (𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛
where

1 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑛+1
𝑈𝑛+1 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑡 − 𝑧) 𝑡 − 𝑎

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1 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑛+1
𝑉𝑛+1 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑡) 𝑧 − 𝑎
Let 𝑀 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥. |𝑓(𝑡)| on C, 𝑀′ = 𝑚𝑎𝑥. |𝑓(𝑡)| on 𝐶′
1 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑛+1 |𝑑𝑡|
|𝑈𝑛+1 | ≤ ∫|𝑓(𝑡)| ⌈ ⌉
2𝜋 𝐶 𝑡−𝑎 (|𝑡 − 𝑎| − |𝑧 − 𝑎|)
𝑀 𝑟 𝑛+1 2𝜋𝑅
≤ ( )
2𝜋 𝑅 (𝑅 − 𝑟 )
or

𝑟 𝑛+1 1
|𝑈𝑛+1 | ≤ 𝑀 ( ) . 𝑟 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞
𝑅 1 − (𝑅 )
Hence lim 𝑈𝑛+1 = 0
𝑛→∞
1 𝑡 − 𝑎 𝑛+1 |𝑑𝑡|
|𝑉𝑛+1 | ≤ ∫ |𝑓(𝑡)| ⌈ ⌉
2𝜋 𝐶 ′ 𝑧−𝑎 (|𝑧 − 𝑎| − |𝑡 − 𝑎|)
𝑛+1
𝑀′ 𝑅′ 2𝜋𝑅′
≤ ( )
2𝜋 𝑟 (𝑟 − 𝑅′)
𝑛+1
𝑅′ 1
≤ 𝑀′ ( ) . 𝑟 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞
𝑟 ( )−1
𝑅′
Hence lim 𝑉𝑛+1 = 0.
𝑛→∞

Making 𝑛 → ∞ in (1) and noting the above facts,

∞ ∞
𝑏𝑛
𝑓 ( 𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛 +∑ … (2)
(𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
Deduction: Take 𝐶0 a circle whose equation is

𝑅′ < |𝑡 − 𝑎| = 𝑅0 < 𝑅.
Then
1 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 1 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ , 𝑏𝑛 = ∫ = −𝑎𝑛
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶0 (𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑛+1 2𝜋𝑖 𝐶0 (𝑡 − 𝑎)−𝑛+1

From (2), we get

∞ ∞

𝑓 ( 𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛 + ∑ (𝑧 − 𝑎)−𝑛 𝑎−𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
∞ −∞ −∞

= ∑ 𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛 + ∑ ( 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑎𝑛 = ∑ ( 𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑛 𝑎 𝑛
)𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=−1 𝑛=−∞
Or
1 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑−∞ 𝑛
𝑛=−∞(𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑎𝑛 with 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 (𝑡−𝑎)𝑛+1
0

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9.8 UNIQUENESS OF LAURENT EXPENSION:-

Suppose the we have obtained in any manner or as the definition of 𝑓(𝑧),
the formula
−∞

𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∑ (𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛 𝐴 𝑛 , 𝑅 ′ < |𝑧 − 𝑎 | < 𝑅
𝑛=−∞
Is the series necessarily identical with the Laurent’s series?

Proof: The given series

−∞

𝑓(𝑧) = ∑ (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 𝐴𝑛 , 𝑅′ < |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝑅 … (1)

𝑛=−∞

To prove that is identical with Laurent’s expansion. Laurent series is an

expansion of a complex function that includes terms with both positive
and negative powers of (𝑧 − 𝑎). It has the general form:

1 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑−∞ 𝑛
𝑛=−∞(𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑎𝑛 … (2) with 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 (𝑡−𝑎)𝑛+1
0

Now 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 , the equation to 𝐶0 is |𝑡 − 𝑎| = 𝑟, 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑡 − 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 𝑅′ <

𝑟 < 𝑅.
−∞
1 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ ∑ (𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑛 𝐴 𝑚 (𝑡 − 𝑎 )𝑚
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶0 (𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑛+1
𝑚=−∞

−∞
1
𝑎𝑛 = ∑ 𝐴𝑚 ∫ (𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑚−𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶0
𝑚=−∞

−∞2𝜋
1
= ∑ 𝐴𝑚 ∫ 𝑟 𝑚−𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑖(𝑚−𝑛−1)𝜃 𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋𝑖 0
𝑚=−∞

−∞ 2𝜋
1
= ∑ 𝐴𝑚 𝑟 𝑚−𝑛 ∫ 𝑒 𝑖(𝑚−𝑛)𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0
𝑚=−∞

2𝜋
If 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛, ∫0 𝑒 𝑖(𝑚−𝑛)𝜃 𝑑𝜃

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2𝜋
𝑒 𝑖(𝑚−𝑛)𝜃
=[ ] = 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑒 2𝑝𝜋𝑖=1
𝑖(𝑚 − 𝑛) 0

2𝜋 2𝜋
If 𝑚 = 𝑛, ∫0 𝑒 𝑖(𝑚−𝑛)𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫0 𝑒 0 𝑑𝜃 = 2𝜋
1
𝑎𝑛 = 𝐴 . 𝑟 𝑛−𝑛 . 2𝜋 = 𝐴𝑛
2𝜋𝑖 𝑛

SOLVED EXAMPLE

EXAMPLE1: Obtain the Taylor’s and Laurent’s Series which represents

𝑧 2−1
the function (𝑧+2)(𝑧+3) in the series.
(i) |𝑧 | < 2
(ii) 2 < |𝑧 | < 3
(iii) |𝑧 | > 3
SOLUTION: Let the given series is
𝑧2 − 1 5𝑧 + 7
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = =1−
(𝑧 + 2)(𝑧 + 3) (𝑧 + 2)(𝑧 + 3)

3 8
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 1 + −
𝑧+2 𝑧+3
|𝑧|
(i) When |𝑧| < 2, then 2 < 1
3 𝑧 −1 8 𝑧 −1
𝑓(𝑧) = 1 + (1 + ) − (1 + )
2 2 3 3
3 𝑧 𝑧 2 𝑧 3
1 + [1 − ( ) + ( ) − ( ) + ⋯ ]
2 2 2 2
8 𝑧 𝑧 2 𝑧 3
− [1 − ( ) + ( ) − ( ) + ⋯ ]
3 3 3 3
∞ ∞
𝑛
3 𝑧 8 𝑧𝑛
= 1 + ∑(−1)𝑛 𝑛 − ∑(−1)𝑛 𝑛
2 2 3 3
0 0
∞
3 8
= 1 + ∑(−1)𝑛 [ − ] 𝑧𝑛
2𝑛+1 3𝑛+1
0
2 |𝑧|
(iv) When 2 < |𝑧| < 3, then |𝑧| < 1, <1
3

3 2 −1 8 𝑧 −1
𝑓(𝑧) = 1 + (1 + ) − (1 + )
𝑧 𝑧 3 3
3 2 2 2 2 3
= 1 + [1 − ( ) + ( ) − ( ) + ⋯ ]
2 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
8 𝑧 𝑧 2 𝑧 3
− [1 − ( ) + ( ) − ( ) + ⋯ ]
3 3 3 3

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∞ ∞
3 𝑛
2𝑛 8 𝑛
𝑧𝑛
= 1 + ∑(−1) 𝑛 − ∑(−1) 𝑛
2 𝑧 3 3
0 0
∞
𝑛
32𝑛 8𝑧 𝑛
( )
= 1 + ∑ −1 [ 𝑛+1 − 𝑛+1 ]
𝑧 3
0

This is Laurent’s series in the annuals2 < |𝑧| < 3.

3 2 2
(v) When |𝑧| > 3, then |𝑧| < 1, |𝑧| < < 1
3

3 8
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 1 + −
𝑧+2 𝑧+3
3 2 −1 8 𝑧 −1
𝑓 (𝑧) = 1 + 𝑧 (1 + 𝑧 ) − 3 (1 + 3)

∞ ∞
3 𝑛
2𝑛 8 𝑛
3𝑛
(
= 1 + ∑ −1 ) (
− ∑ −1 )
2 𝑧𝑛 3 𝑧𝑛
0 0
∞
(−1 )𝑛
=1+∑ [3. 2𝑛 − 3𝑛 . 8]
𝑧 𝑛+1
0
EXAMPLE2: Find the Taylor’s series expansion of the function 𝑓(𝑧) =
𝑧
around 𝑧 = 0. Find also radius of convergence.
𝑧 4+9
SOLUTION: The given series is
−1
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧4
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 4 = (1 + )
𝑧 +9 9 9
∞ 𝑛
𝑧 𝑧4
= ∑ (−1)𝑛 ( )
9 9
𝑛=0
∞

[𝐹𝑜𝑟 (1 + 𝑥 )−1 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯ = ∑ (−1)𝑛 (𝑥)𝑛 ]

𝑛=0
∞ ∞
𝑧 𝑛
𝑧 4𝑛 𝑛
𝑧 4𝑛+1
𝑓(𝑧) = ∑ (−1) 2𝑛 = ∑ (−1) 2𝑛+2
9 3 3
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
∞
4𝑛+1
𝑧
𝑓(𝑧) = ∑ (−1)𝑛 … (1)
32𝑛+2
𝑛=0
This is Taylor expansion of 𝑓(𝑧).
PartII: Let
∞

𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑧 ) … (2)
𝑛=0

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From (1) and (2), we get

𝑧 4𝑛+1
𝑢𝑛 (𝑧) = (−1)𝑛
32𝑛+2
𝑢𝑛+1 (𝑧) 𝑧 4𝑛+5 32𝑛+2 𝑧4 |𝑧 2 |2
| | = | 2𝑛+4 . 4𝑛+1 | = | 2 | = 2
𝑢𝑛 (𝑧 ) 3 3 3 3
𝑢𝑛+1
Series is convergent if | |<1
𝑢𝑛
If
|𝑧 2 |2
< 1 𝑜𝑟 |𝑧| < 32/4 𝑜𝑟 |𝑧| < √3
32
Radius of convergence= √3.
1
EXAMPLE3: Find the Laurent series of the function 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧 2−4)(𝑧+1)
valid in the region. 1 < |𝑍| < 2.
SOLUTION: The given series is
1
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
(𝑧 2
− 4)(𝑧 + 1)
1
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
(𝑧 − 2)(𝑧 + 2)(𝑧 + 1)
1 1 1
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = + −
12(𝑧 − 2) 4(𝑧 + 2) 3(𝑧 − 2)
1 𝑧 −1 1 𝑧 −1 1 1 −1
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = (1 − ) + (1 + ) − (1 + )
12 2 4 2 3 𝑧
∞ ∞ ∞
1 𝑧 𝑛 1 𝑛
𝑧 𝑛 1 (−1)𝑛
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∑ ( ) + ∑ (−1) ( ) − ∑ .
24 2 8 2 3𝑧 𝑧𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝜋
EXAMPLE4: Expand 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 in a Taylor’s series about 𝑧 = 4.
SOLUTION: Let the series
∞
𝜋 𝑛
𝑓(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − ) … (1)
4
𝑛=0
𝜋
𝑓𝑛 ( )
4
where 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛! … (2)
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
𝑛𝜋
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑧 + )
2
𝑛
𝜋 𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑓 ( ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( + )
4 4 2
Now substituting value in (1), we get
∞ 𝜋 𝑛
𝜋 𝑛𝜋 (𝑧 − 4 )
𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( + )
4 2 𝑛!
𝑛=0
1
EXAMPLE5: (a) Expand 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 as a Taylor’s series about 𝑧 = 1.

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𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
(b) Determine Laurent’s expansion of the function 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝜋 3
in
(𝑧− )
4
𝜋
the annulus 0 < |𝑧 − 4 | < 1.
1
SOLUTION: (a) 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧
(−1)𝑛 𝑛!
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑧 ) =
𝑧 𝑛+1
(−1)𝑛 𝑛!
𝑓 𝑛 (1) =
1𝑛+1
(−1)𝑛 𝑛!
If 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛! , then 𝑎𝑛 = (−1)𝑛
For Taylor’s expansion about 𝑧 = 1,
∞ ∞

𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 1)𝑛 = ∑ (−1)𝑛 (𝑧 − 1)𝑛

𝑛=0 𝑛=0
(b) Let the given series is
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
𝜋 3
(𝑧 − 4 )

𝜋
For Taylor’s expansion about 𝑧 = 4 , we write
∞ ∞
𝜋 𝑛 𝑏𝑛
𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − ) + ∑
4 𝜋 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=1 (𝑧 − 4 )
where
1 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝑎𝑛 = ∫
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝜋 𝑛+1
(𝑧 − 4 )
And

𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = 𝑎(−𝑛) . 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 |𝑧 − | = 1
4
𝜋
𝑧 − = 𝑒 , 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑖𝜃
4
𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 4 + 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 𝑏𝑦 (1)
𝑒 𝑖3𝜃
Substituting this value in (3), we have
𝜋
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 4 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑎𝑛 = ∫
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑒 𝑖3𝜃 . (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )𝑛+1
1 𝜋
= ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑖𝑒 −𝑖𝜃(𝑛+3) 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 𝐶 4
1
= ∫{𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙. cosh(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) + 𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙. 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)}{𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚𝜃}𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 𝐶
Where

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𝜋
𝑚 = 𝑛 + 3, 𝜙 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
4
1 2𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙. 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) cos(𝑚𝜃)
2𝜋 0
+ 𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙. sinh(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)sin(𝑚𝜃)]𝑑𝜃
𝜋
where 𝜙 = 4 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑚 = 𝑛 + 3, 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑎(−𝑛)
EXAMPLE6: If 0 < |𝑧 − 1| < 2, then express
𝑧
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 3)
in a series of positive and negative powers of (𝑧 − 1).

SOLUTION: Suppose𝑢 = 𝑧 − 1, then

|𝑢|
0 < |𝑢| < 2, so that 2 < 1
𝑧 𝐴 𝐵
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = = +
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 3) 𝑧 − 1 𝑧 − 3
𝑧 1 1 𝑧 3 3
𝐴=[ ] = = − ,𝐵 = [ ] = =
𝑧 − 3 𝑧=1 1 − 3 2 𝑧 − 1 𝑧=3 3 − 1 2
1 3 3 1
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = − + = −
2(𝑧 − 1) 2(𝑧 − 3) 2(𝑢 − 2) 2𝑢
3 𝑢 −1 1
= (1 − ) −
4 2 ∞ 2𝑢
∞
3 𝑛
1 3 (𝑧 − 1) 𝑛 1
= − ∑ 𝑢/2 −( ) =− ∑ −
4 2𝑢 4 2𝑛 2(𝑧 − 1)
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
(𝑧−1)2
EXAMPLE7: Prove that 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑧 = (𝑧 − 1) − 2! + ⋯ , |𝑧 − 1| < 1.
SOLUTION: Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑧. By Taylor’s Theorem
∞
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∑ (𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛
𝑛!
𝑛=0
(𝑧 − 𝑎)2 ′′
= 𝑓 (𝑎 ) + ( 𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑓 ′ (𝑎 ) + 𝑓 (𝑎 ) + ⋯
2!
Taking 𝑎 = 1, we get 𝑓 (1) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔1 = 0
1 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = , 𝑓 ′′ (𝑧) = − 2
𝑧 𝑧
𝑓 (1) = 0, 𝑓 ′ (1) = 1, 𝑓 ′′ (1) = −1
(𝑧 − 1)2 ′′
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 𝑓 (1) + (𝑧 − 1)𝑓 ′ ( 1) + 𝑓 (1) + ⋯
2!
(𝑧 − 1)2
= 0 + (𝑧 − 1) + +⋯
2!
1
EXAMPLE8: Expand 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧+1)(𝑧+3) in Laurent series valid for:
a. |𝑧| > 3
b. 0 < |𝑧 + 1| < 2.

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1 1 1 1
SOLUTION: 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧+1)(𝑧+3) = 2 (𝑧+1 − 𝑧+3)
|𝑧| 3 1 1
a. when |𝑧| > 3 ⇒ > 1 ⇒ |𝑧| < 1 ⇒ |𝑧| < 3 < 1
3
∞
1 1 −1 3 −1 1 𝑛
1 3𝑛
( )
𝑓 𝑧 = [(1 + ) − (1 + ) ] = ( )
∑ −1 [ 𝑛 − 𝑛 ]
2𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 2𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
𝑛=0
∑∞ 𝑛+1 1 ∑∞ 𝑛+1 1
= 𝑛=0(−1) =
𝑧 𝑛+1 𝑛=0(−1) 𝑧𝑛
.
b. When 0 < |𝑧 + 1| < 2, substitute 𝑧 + 1 = 𝑡, then
1 1 1 𝑡 1
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = [ − ], |𝑡| < 1 ⇒ | | < < 1
2 𝑡 𝑡+2 2 2
1 1 1 1 −1
= [ − ( ) ]
2 𝑡 2 𝑡+2
∞
1 1 1 1 2
= [ − ∑ (−1)𝑛 ( ) ]
2 𝑡 2 𝑡
𝑛=0
∞
1 1 1 (𝑧 + 1)𝑛
= [ − ∑(−1)𝑛 ]
2 𝑧+1 2 2𝑛
𝑛=0
SELF CHECK QUESTIONS

1. How can Cauchy's inequalities be used to bound the n-th derivative

of an analytic function within a given radius?
2. State Morera's theorem.
3. Explain how Morera's theorem is used to show that a function is
analytic.
4. Question: State Liouville's theorem.
5. Question: How does Liouville's theorem relate to the fundamental
theorem of algebra?
6. How is the radius of convergence of a Taylor series determined?

9.9 SUMMARY:-

In this unit we have studied the Cauchy's inequalities provide upper

bounds for the derivatives of an analytic function within a given radius.
Specifically, if a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within a disk ∣ 𝑧 ∣≤ 𝑅 and the
absolute value of the function is bounded by 𝑀 on the boundary ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 𝑅,
then the absolute value of the 𝑛 − th derivative of 𝑓 at the center is
𝑛!𝑀
bounded by 𝑅𝑛 . These inequalities are crucial for estimating the size of
derivatives and understanding the growth behavior of analytic functions.
Morera's theorem states that if a continuous function f on a domain 𝐷 has
an integral equal to zero around every closed contour within 𝐷, then f is
analytic in 𝐷. This theorem is significant because it provides a criterion
for analyticity based on the behavior of line integrals, allowing one to
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prove that a function is analytic by verifying that the integral of the

function around all closed paths in the domain is zero. Morera's theorem is
often used to demonstrate the analyticity of functions when direct
verification of the Cauchy-Riemann equations is difficult. Liouville's
theorem asserts that any entire function (analytic over the entire complex
plane) that is bounded must be constant, which has implications like
proving the fundamental theorem of algebra. Taylor's theorem states that if
a function 𝑓 is analytic at a point a, it can be expanded in a Taylor
𝑓𝑛 (𝑎)
series 𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛! 𝐴𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎 ) , with the radius of convergence
determined by the distance to the nearest singularity. Laurent's theorem
generalizes this to functions analytic in an annulus, expressing them as a
Laurent series 𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝐴𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎 ) , including both positive and
negative powers, useful for representing functions with singularities.
These theorems are fundamental in understanding the behavior and
properties of analytic functions in complex analysis.

9.10 GLOSSARY:-
 Cauchy's Inequality (General Form): For a function f analytic
inside and on a simple closed contour C in the complex plane, if M
is the maximum value of ∣f(z)∣ on C, then for any z inside C, we
have
𝑀𝑛!
 |𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)| ≤ 𝑅𝑛
 where 𝑅 is the radius of the largest circle centered at 𝑧 that is
contained within 𝐶.
 Cauchy's Integral Formula: If f is analytic inside and on a simple
closed contour 𝐶, then for any point 𝑎 inside C,
1 𝑓(𝑧)
 𝑓(𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 𝑧−𝑎 𝑑𝑧
 Cauchy's Theorem: If f is analytic on and inside a simple closed
contour C, then
 ∫𝐶 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0.
 Cauchy's Integral Theorem: An extension of Cauchy's Theorem
stating that if f is analytic on a simply connected domain, then the
integral of f around any closed contour within this domain is zero.
 Cauchy's Formula for Derivatives: For a function f analytic
inside and on a simple closed contour C, the n-th derivative of f at
a point z0 inside C is given by
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛+1
 Morera's Theorem: A theorem in complex analysis that provides
a criterion for a function to be analytic based on its integral over
contours. It states:

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 If 𝑓 is continuous on a region 𝐷 and if the integral of 𝑓

over every closed contour within 𝐷 is zero, then 𝑓 is
analytic on 𝐷.
 Closed Contour: A path in the complex plane that starts and ends
at the same point. It does not intersect itself and can be simple
(non-intersecting) or more complex.
 Contour Integral: The integral of a complex-valued function
along a contour in the complex plane. If 𝑓 is integrated along a
path 𝛾, it is written as ∫𝛾 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧.
 Region D: A subset of the complex plane where a function 𝑓 is
defined. For Morera's Theorem, 𝐷 must be an open region
(meaning every point in 𝐷 has a neighborhood contained in 𝐷).
 Zero Integral Condition: In the context of Morera's Theorem,
this condition means that the integral of 𝑓 around every closed
contour within the region 𝐷 must be zero for 𝑓 to be analytic in 𝐷.
 Zero Integral Condition: In the context of Morera's Theorem,
this condition means that the integral of f around every closed
contour within the region D must be zero for f to be analytic in D.
 Holomorphic Function: Another term for an analytic function,
emphasizing that it is complex differentiable. In many contexts, the
terms "analytic" and "holomorphic" are used interchangeably.
 Taylor's Theorem: If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within a circle
𝐶 with its centre 𝑧 = 𝑎 and radius 𝑅, then at every point 𝑧 inside 𝐶,
∞ ∞
(𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑛
𝑛
( ) (
𝑓 𝑧 = ∑𝑓 𝑎 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 ,
𝑛!
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛 𝑓𝑛 (𝑎)
where 𝑎 = 𝑛!
 Convergence of the Taylor Series: A Taylor series converges to
the function 𝑓 if, as 𝑛 approaches infinity, the remainder term
𝑅𝑛 (𝑥 ) approaches zero. If the Taylor series converges to 𝑓 for all
𝑥 in a neighborhood of 𝑎, 𝑓 is said to be analytic at 𝑎.
 Analytic Function: A function is analytic at a point if its Taylor
series converges to the function in some neighborhood around that
point. This means the function can be represented exactly by its
Taylor series in that region.
 Radius of Convergence: The radius 𝑅 of the largest disk centered
at a within which the Taylor series converges to 𝑓. Outside this
radius, the series may diverge.
 Higher-Order Derivatives: Derivatives of 𝑓 of order greater than
one, which are used in constructing higher-degree Taylor
polynomials. For instance, 𝑓 2 (𝑎) is the second derivative
evaluated at 𝑎.

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 Polynomial Approximation: The process of approximating a

function by a polynomial of degree 𝑛 derived from the Taylor
series expansion, where the polynomial matches the function and
its derivatives up to order n at a specific point.

9.11 REFERENCES:-

 James Ward Brown and Ruel V. Churchill 2009 (Eighth Edition)

,Complex Variables and Applications.
 Elias M. Stein and Rami Shakarchi (2003), Complex Analysis.
 I.John B. Conway1978 (Second Edition), Functions of One
Complex Variable.
 Ravi P. Agarwal, Kanishka Perera, and Sandra Pinelas (2011), An
Introduction to Complex Analysis.
 Goyal and Gupta (Twenty first edition 2010), Function of complex
Variable.

9.12 SUGGESTED READING:-

 Goyal and Gupta (Twenty first edition 2010), Function of complex

Variable.
 https://old.mu.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Paper-III-
Complex-Analysis.pdf
 file:///C:/Users/user/Desktop/1468562133EText(Ch-5,M-
5%20(1).pdf

9.13 TERMINAL QUESTIONS:-

(TQ-1) State and prove Liouvlille’s theorem.

(TQ-2) If 𝑓(𝑧) is a continuous function in a domain 𝐷 and if for every
closed Contour 𝐶 in the domain 𝐷, then prove that
∫𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝐶
where 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within 𝐷.
(TQ-3) If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within and on a circle 𝐶, given by |𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑅
and if |𝑓(𝑧)| ≤ 𝑀 for every 𝑧 on 𝐶, then prove that the magnitude of the
𝑛 −th derivative of 𝑓 at 𝑎 is bounded by
𝑀𝑛!
|𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)| ≤ 𝑛
𝑅

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(TQ-4) If 𝑓(𝑧) is an entire function is bounded for all values of z, then it

is constant.
or
If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic for a finite value of 𝑧, and is bounded, then
𝑓(𝑧) is constant.
or
If 𝑓 is regular in hole 𝑧 −plane and if |𝑓(𝑧)| < 𝑘∀𝑧, then 𝑓(𝑧) must be
constant.
(TQ-5) If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within a circle 𝐶 with its centre 𝑧 =
𝑎 and radius 𝑅, then prove that at every point 𝑧 inside 𝐶,
∞ ∞
𝑛
(𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑓 ( 𝑎 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 ,
𝑛!
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛 𝑓𝑛 (𝑎)
where 𝑎 = 𝑛!
(TQ-6) If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic for all values of 𝑧 and as |𝑧| → ∞,
|𝑓(𝑧)| = 𝐴|𝑧|𝑘 , then prove that f(z) is polynomial of degree ≤ 𝑘.
1
(TQ-7)Find the Laurent series of the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 (1−𝑧) about 𝑧 =
0.
(TQ-8) If 𝑓(𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛
0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 (|𝑧| < 𝑅 ) and 𝑀(𝑟) is the upper bound of
|𝑓(𝑧)| on the circle |𝑧| = 𝑟, (𝑟 < 𝑅), then prove that |𝑎𝑛 |𝑟 𝑛 ≤ 𝑀(𝑟)∀𝑛.
(TQ-9) If the function f(z) is analytic and single valued in |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝑅
prove that when 0 < 𝑟 < 𝑅.
1 2𝜋
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 𝜋𝑟 ∫0 𝑃(𝜃) 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃 where 𝑃(𝜃) is real part of 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ). Also
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎) 1 2𝜋
prove that = 𝜋𝑟 𝑛 ∫0 𝑃(𝜃) 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃.
𝑛!
(𝑧−1)2
(TQ-10) Prove that 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑧 = (𝑧 − 1) − 2!
+ ⋯ , |𝑧 − 1| < 1.

9.14 ANSWERS:-
SELF CHECK ANSWERS

1. Cauchy's inequalities provide an upper bound for the 𝑛 − th

derivative of an analytic function at the origin in terms of the
maximum value 𝑀 of the function on the circle of radius 𝑅.
2. If 𝑓(𝑧) is a continuous function in a domain 𝐷 and if for every
closed Contour 𝐶 in the domain 𝐷,
∫𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝐶

3. Morera's theorem can be used to prove that a function is analytic

by showing that the integral of the function around any closed

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contour in the domain is zero, indicating the existence of an ant

derivative and hence analyticity.
4. If 𝑓 is entire (analytic on the entire complex plane) and bounded,
then 𝑓 is constant.
5. Liouville's theorem can be used to prove the fundamental theorem
of algebra by showing that a non-constant polynomial cannot be
bounded, implying it must have a root.
6. The radius of convergence 𝑅 is determined by the distance to the
nearest singularity of the function from the expansion point 𝑎.

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UNIT 10:- Maximum and Minimum Modulus

Principle and Schwarz Lemma
CONTENTS:
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Objectives
10.3 Maximum Modulus Principle
10.4 Minimum Modulus Principle
10.5 Schwarz Lemma
10.6 Open mapping theorem
10.7 Summary
10.8 Glossary
10.9 References
10.10 Suggested Reading
10.11 Terminal questions
10.12 Answers
10.1 INTRODUCTION:-
The Maximum and Minimum Modulus Principles and the Schwarz
Lemma are fundamental results in complex analysis. The Maximum
Modulus Principle states that if a function is holomorphic on a domain, the
maximum of the modulus of the function on a closed bounded subset of
that domain occurs on the boundary. Conversely, the Minimum Modulus
Principle asserts that if a function is non-constant and holomorphic, the
minimum modulus cannot occur in the interior unless the function is
constant. The Schwarz Lemma provides a powerful result for holomorphic
functions that map the unit disk to itself: if a function fixes the origin, then
the magnitude of the function is at most as large as the magnitude of the
input, and the magnitude of the derivative at the origin is at most one, with
equality only if the function is a rotation. These principles are essential
tools in the study of holomorphic functions and their behavior.

10.2 OBJECTIVES:-
The objectives of the Maximum and Minimum Modulus Principles and the
Schwarz Lemma in complex analysis are to understand and characterize
the behavior of holomorphic functions. The Maximum Modulus Principle
aims to identify where the maximum modulus of a holomorphic function
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occurs, emphasizing that it cannot happen in the interior of the domain

unless the function is constant. The Minimum Modulus Principle similarly
helps in determining where the minimum modulus occurs, ensuring that a
non-constant holomorphic function cannot achieve its minimum modulus
in the interior. The Schwarz Lemma, on the other hand, provides
constraints on holomorphic functions mapping the unit disk to itself,
particularly those fixing the origin. It sets bounds on the function's
magnitude and the magnitude of its derivative at the origin, offering
insight into the function's growth and behavior. Collectively, these results
help in analyzing the constraints and characteristics of holomorphic
functions in various domains.

10.3 MAXIMUM MODULUS PRINCIPLE:-

Suppose 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within and a simple closed Contour 𝐶 and 𝑓(𝑧) is
not constnt. Then |𝑓(𝑧)| reaches its maximum value on 𝐶 (and not inside
𝐶), that is to say, if 𝑀 is maximum value of |𝑓(𝑧)| on and within |𝑓(𝑧)| <
𝑀 for every 𝑧 inside 𝐶.

Proof: We prove this theorem by the method of contradiction. Analyticity

of f(z) declares that f(z) is continuous within and on C. Consequently we
assume f(z) is analytic within and on C and is not constant. Suppose that
∣f(z)∣ attains its maximum value M at some point a inside C. Therefore,

𝑚𝑎𝑥. |𝑓(𝑧)| = |𝑓(𝑎)| = 𝑀 … (1)

and

|𝑓(𝑧)| ≤ 𝑀∀𝑧 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝐶 … (2)

Since 𝑓(𝑧) is not constant, by the continuity of 𝑓(𝑧), there must exist a
point 𝑏 inside 𝐶 such that ∣ 𝑓(𝑏) ∣< 𝑀.

Let 𝜀 > 0 be s.t. |𝑓(𝑏)| = 𝑀 − 𝜀

By the continuity of |𝑓 (𝑧)| is continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑏 and so |[|𝑓(𝑧)| −

|𝑓(𝑏)|]| < 𝜀/2 whererever |𝑧 − 𝑏| < 𝛿 .

Since |[|𝑓(𝑧)| − |𝑓(𝑏)|]| ≥ |𝑓(𝑧)| − |𝑓(𝑏)|

|𝑓(𝑧)| − |𝑓(𝑏)| ≤ |[|𝑓(𝑧)| − |𝑓(𝑏)|]| < 𝜀/2

𝜀
|𝑓 (𝑧)| − |𝑓 (𝑏)| <
2
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𝜀
|𝑓 (𝑧)| < |𝑓 (𝑏)| +
2
This implies that within the circle γ centered at b with radius δ,
𝜀 𝜀
=𝑀−𝜀+ =𝑀−
2 2
𝜀
|𝑓(𝑧)| < 𝑀 − ∀𝑠. 𝑡. |𝑧 − 𝑏| < 𝛿
2
we draw a circle 𝛾 withcentre at b and radius 𝛿. Then (3) shows that
𝜀
|𝑓 (𝑧)| < 𝑀 − ∀𝑧 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝛾
2
Consider a circle 𝛤′centred at a with radius 𝑟 =∣ 𝑏 − 𝑎 ∣. By Cauchy's
Integral Formula, for f analytic on and inside 𝛤′.

1 𝑓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 Γ′ 𝑧 − 𝑎

On Γ ′ , 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 .
1 2𝜋 𝑟𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋𝑖 0 𝑟𝑒

If we measure 𝜃 in anti-clock-wise direction and if

< 𝑄𝑃𝑅 = 𝛼, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝛼 2𝜋
1
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = [∫ + ∫ ] 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0 𝛼

1 𝛼 1 2𝜋
∴ |𝑓(𝑧)| ≤ ∫ |𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )|𝑑𝜃 + 2𝜋 ∫𝛼 |𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )|𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0

1 𝛼 𝜀 1 𝛼
< ∫ (𝑀 − ) 𝑑𝜃 + ∫ (𝑀)𝑑𝜃 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2𝜋 0 2 2𝜋 0

𝜀 𝛼 𝑀(2𝜋 − 𝛼 ) 𝛼𝜀
= (𝑀 − ) + =𝑀−
2 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝛼𝜀
Then 𝑀 = |𝑓 (𝑎)| < 𝑀 − 2𝜋

𝛼𝜀
𝑀 < 𝑀 − 2𝜋 . A contraction.

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𝛼𝜀
which is a contradiction because 2𝜋 > 0. Thus, 𝑀 cannot be the maximum
value inside 𝐶.

Therefore, the maximum value of ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ must occur on the boundary 𝐶.

This completes the proof of the Maximum Modulus Principle.

10.4 MINIMUM MODULUS PRINCIPLE:-

Suppose 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within and on a closed contour C and let 𝑓(𝑧) ≠
0 inside C.

Suppose further that f(z) is not constant. Then |𝑓(𝑧) | attains its minimum
value at a point on the boundary of C, that is to say, if m is minimum
value of |𝑓(𝑧) | inside and on C, then

|𝑓(𝑧) | > 𝑚 ∀𝑧 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶

Proof: Let 𝑓 (𝑧) be analytic within and on the closed contour 𝐶, and let
1
𝑓 (𝑧) ≠ 0 inside𝐶. Since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic and non-zero, the function 𝑓(𝑧) is
also analytic within𝐶.By the Maximum Modulus Principle, since 1/f(z) is
1
analytic within C and continuous on C, the function |𝑓(𝑧)| attains its
maximum value on the boundary of 𝐶. Let this maximum value be M.
1
Consequently, since |𝑓(𝑧)| reaches its maximum value 𝐶, it follows that ∣
1
𝑓(𝑧) ∣ attains its minimum value 𝑀 .Thus, if m is the minimum value of
∣f(z)∣ inside and on 𝐶, then ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣≥ 𝑚 on the boundary of 𝐶.
1
Since 𝑓(𝑧) attains its maximum value on the boundary of 𝐶, ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ must
attain its minimum value on the boundary of 𝐶 . Therefore, ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ is
greater than m for every 𝑧 inside 𝐶, which implies ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣> 𝑚 for all 𝑧
inside 𝐶.

This completes the proof of the Minimum Modulus Principle.

10.5 SCHWARZ LEMMA:-

Suppose

i. F(z) analytic in a domain defined by |𝑧| < 1

ii. |𝑓(𝑧)| < 1
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iii. |𝑓(0)| = 0

Then |𝑓(𝑧)| < |𝑧|, |𝑓′(𝑧)| < 1 equality holds if f(z) is a linear
transformation
𝑤 = 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝛼
where 𝛼 is real constant.
Hence prove that |𝑓′(0)| < 1
Proof: Let c be the circle defined by |𝑧| = 𝑟 such that 𝑟 < 1 . By
assumption (i), 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within and upon the circle c, then by
Taylor theorem,
∞

𝑓 ( 𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛
𝑛=0

For any point z within c

𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑧 + 𝑎2 𝑧 2 + ⋯ … (1)
Using the assumption (iii), 𝑖. 𝑒. , |𝑓(0)| = 0, we get 𝑎0 = 0. Now (1)
reduces to

Given 𝑓(0) = 0, we have 𝑎0 = 0. Thus,

𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑎1 𝑧 + 𝑎2 𝑧 2 + ⋯
𝑓(𝑧)
Taking = 𝐹 (𝑧), we obtain
𝑧

𝐹(𝑧) = 𝑎1 for 𝑧 = 0, 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐹(0) = 𝑎1

Let 𝑧 = 𝑎 be any point on c so that 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝛼 , where 𝛼 is real.

Now 𝐹(𝑧) is analytic within and upon c and so by Maximum modulus

theorem, |𝐹(𝑧)| attains its maximum value on c, say at 𝑧 = 𝑎 and not
within c. Then
|𝐹(𝑎)| = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 |𝐹(𝑧)|
|𝐹(𝑧)| < 𝑚𝑎𝑥 |𝐹(𝑧)|

𝑓(𝑧) 1 1
= max 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 | |< = , 𝑏𝑦 (𝑖𝑖)
𝑧 |𝑧 | 𝑟

1
|𝐹(𝑧)| < 𝑎𝑠 𝑟 → 1
𝑟
|𝐹 (𝑧)| < 1

𝑓 (𝑧 )
| |<1
𝑧

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|𝑓(𝑧)| < |𝑧|

Substituting 𝑧 = 0 in above equation

|𝐹(0)| < 1. But 𝐹(0) = 𝛼1

Hence

|𝛼1 | < 1

⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑎1 𝑧 + 𝑎2 𝑧 2 + ⋯ ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (0) = 𝑎1

⇒ |𝑓 ′ (0)| = |𝑎1 | < 1 ⇒ |𝑓 ′ (0)| < 1.

This completes the proof.

In general, since 𝑎 is arbitrary, we have

|𝑓(𝑧)| ≤ |𝑧| for all 𝑧 for which |𝑧| ≤ 1.

If ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣= |𝑧| at some point 𝑧 with ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1, then ∣ 𝐹(𝑧) ∣ attains its
maximum value on the interior of the domain. By the Maximum Modulus
Principle, 𝐹(𝑧) must be constant. Therefore, there exists a constant 𝛼 ∈ 𝑅
such that

𝑓(𝑧)
𝐹 (𝑧 ) = = 𝑒 𝑖𝛼
𝑧
Thus, 𝑓 (𝑧) ≤ |𝑧| and ∣𝑓′(0) ∣≤ 1, with equality holding if and only if
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝛼 for some real constant 𝛼. This completes the proof of the
Schwarz Lemma.

10.6 OPEN MAPPING THEOREM:-

The Open Mapping Theorem is a fundamental result in complex analysis
that asserts that a non-constant analytic (holomorphic) function maps open
sets to open sets.

Theorem: If 𝑓 is a non-constant analytic function on an open set 𝑈 ⊂ 𝐶,

then 𝑓(𝑈) is an open set in 𝐶.
Proof: Let f be a non-constant analytic function on an open set U⊂C.
Assume 𝑓 does not map 𝑈 to an open set. We will reach contradiction.
Suppose 𝑓(𝑈) is not open. This means there exists a point 𝑤0 ∈ 𝑓(𝑈)
such that there is no neighborhood around 𝑤0 entirely contained within
𝑓(𝑈).

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Since 𝑤0 ∈ 𝑓(𝑈), there exists 𝑧0 ∈ 𝑈 such that 𝑓(𝑧0 ) = 𝑤0 .Because 𝑓 is

analytic and non-constant, 𝑓 can be expressed locally around 𝑧0 by its
Taylor series expansion:

(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 ′′
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + ⋯
2!
The Maximum Modulus Principle states that if 𝑓 is non-constant and
analytic in an open set, then the maximum of ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ cannot occur in the
interior of the set unless f is constant.

If 𝑓 were to fail to map 𝑈 to an open set, f would be unable to achieve

local maximum or minimum values on the boundary of small
neighborhoods around 𝑧0 , contradicting the principle.

Because 𝑓 is non-constant, the image of any sufficiently small open

neighborhood around 𝑧0 will contain an open disk centered at 𝑤0 . This
implies that 𝑤0 cannot be an isolated point in 𝑓(𝑈) and that every point in
𝑓(𝑈) has a neighborhood entirely contained within 𝑓(𝑈).

Thus, 𝑓(𝑈) must be open, proving the theorem.

SOLVED EXAMPLE

EXAMPLE1: Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 + 3𝑧 + 2. Show that the maximum value of

∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ in the disk ∣ 𝑧 ∣≤ 1 is attained on the boundary ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 1.

SOLUTION: The given equation is

𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 + 3𝑧 + 2

and the domain ∣ 𝑧 ∣≤ 1.

The function 𝑓(𝑧) is a polynomial and hence analytic everywhere,

including within and on the disk ∣ 𝑧 ∣≤ 1.

∣ 𝑓 (𝑧) ∣ 𝑜𝑛 ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 1

Let 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , where 𝜃 range 0 𝑡𝑜 2𝜋.

𝑓(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) = 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 3𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 2

The modulus of this expression is:

|𝑓(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )| = |𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 3𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 2|

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Since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within and on ∣ 𝑧 ∣≤ 1, the Maximum Modulus

Principle states that the maximum value of ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ is attained on the
boundary ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 1.

To compare, we evaluate specific points on the boundary:

|𝑓(1)| = |(1)2 + 3.1 + 2| = |6| = 6

|𝑓(−1)| = |(−1)2 + 3. (−1) + 2| = |1 − 3 + 2| = |0| = 0

We can see that the modulus of 𝑓(𝑧) is highest at 𝑧 = 1 on the boundary.

By the Maximum Modulus Principle, the maximum value of ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ in

the disk ∣ 𝑧 ∣≤ 1 is indeed attained on the boundary ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 1 , and the
maximum value is 6.

EXAMPLE2: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be an analytic function on the unit disk ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1,

with 𝑓(0) = 0 and ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣≤ 1/2 for all ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1. Prove that ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣≤
1/2 ∣ 𝑧 ∣ and ∣ 𝑓 ′(0) ∣≤ 1/2 .

SOLUTION: Let the 𝑓(𝑧) be an analytic function on the unit disk ∣ 𝑧 ∣<
1
1, 𝑓(0) = 0, ∣ 𝑓 (𝑧) ∣≤ 2 ∀ ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1.

Now we apply the Schwarz Lemma, which states that if 𝑔(𝑧) is analytic
on ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1, 𝑔(0) = 0, and ∣ 𝑔(𝑧) ∣< 1 for all ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1, then ∣ 𝑔(𝑧) ∣≤∣ 𝑧 ∣
and ∣ 𝑔′(0) ∣≤ 1.

Define 𝑔(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧)/1/2 = 2𝑓(𝑧). Then 𝑔(𝑧) satisfies the conditions of

the Schwarz Lemma: 𝑔 is analytic on ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1, 𝑔(0) = 2𝑓(0) = 0,∣𝑔(𝑧) ∣
≤ 1 for all ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1.

By the Schwarz Lemma: ∣ 𝑔(𝑧) ∣≤∣ 𝑧 ∣ and ∣ 𝑔′(0) ∣≤ 1

Since 𝑔(𝑧) = 2𝑓(𝑧)

1
|2𝑓(𝑧)| ≤ |𝑧| ⇒ ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣≤ |𝑧|
2
and for the derivative:

1
|𝑔′(0)| = |2𝑓′(0)| ≤ 1 ⇒ |𝑓′(0)| ≤
2

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EXAMPLE3: Let 𝑓 be analytic and bounded by 1 in the unit disc and

1 3
𝑓 (2) = 0 Estimate |𝑓 (4)|.

1
SOLUTION: Given: 𝑓 (2) = 0, then |𝑓(𝑧)| ≤ 1 for |𝑧| < 1.
3
We want to estimate |𝑓 (4)|.
Using the Schwarz-Pick Lemma:

|𝑓 (𝑧1 ) − 𝑓(𝑧2 )| |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 |

≤
|1 − 𝑓̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝑧2 )𝑓 (𝑧1 )| |1 − 𝑧̅2 𝑧1 |

For any 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 𝜖𝐷

|𝑓(3/4) − 𝑓(1/2)| |3/4 − 1/4|

≤
|1 − ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑓(1/2)𝑓(3/4)| |1 − ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑓(1/2)𝑓(3/4)|

Since 𝑓(1/2) = 0, this simplifies to:

3 1
| − |
|𝑓 (3/4)| ≤ 4 2
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
1 3
|1 − 𝑓 (2) 𝑓 (4)|

Calculate the numerator:

3 1 1 1
| − |=| |=
4 2 4 4
Calculate the denominator:

3 1 3 5 5
|1 − ( ) ( )| = |1 − | = | | =
4 2 8 8 8
Thus:

1
3 1 8 2
𝑓 ( ) ≤ 4 = . = = 0.4
4 5 4 5 5
8
Therefore, the estimate for ∣ 𝑓(3/4) ∣ is:

|𝑓(3/4)| ≤ 0.4

This shows that under the given conditions, ∣ 𝑓(3/4) ∣ can be estimated to
be less than or equal to 0.4.

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EXAMPLE4: Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 +1 be a holomorphic (analytic) function on

the closed disk ∣ 𝑧 ∣≤ 1. Determine the maximum value of ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ on the
disk ∣ 𝑧 ∣≤ 1.

SOLUTION: The Maximum Modulus Principle states that if 𝑓(𝑧) is a

non-constant holomorphic function on a domain 𝐷, then the maximum of ∣
𝑓(𝑧) ∣ occurs on the boundary of 𝐷.

Given 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 +1, we need to evaluate ∣ 𝑓(𝑧)∣ on the boundary ∣ 𝑧 ∣=

1:

On the boundary, ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 1, so 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 for 𝜃 ∈ [0,2𝜋).

𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 + 1 = 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 1

The modulus is

|𝑓(𝑧)| = |𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 1|

Using the identity ∣ 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∣≤∣ 𝑎 ∣ +∣ 𝑏 ∣, we get:

|𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 1| ≤ |𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 | + |1| = 1 + 1 = 2

The maximum occurs when 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 = −1, which gives

|𝑓(𝑧)| = |−1 + 1| = 2

The maximum value of ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ on the disk ∣ 𝑧 ∣≤ 1 ∣ is 2, and it occurs on

the boundary ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 1 when 𝑧 = −1.

EXAMPLE5: Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2 be a holomorphic function on the

closed disk ∣ 𝑧 ∣≤ 2. Determine the minimum value of ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ on the disk
∣ 𝑧 ∣≤ 2.

SOLUTION: The Minimum Modulus Principle states that if 𝑓(𝑧) is a

non-constant holomorphic function on a domain 𝐷, the minimum value of
∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ in the interior of D occurs at a point where 𝑓(𝑧) = 0 or on the
boundary.

Now to solve

𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2 = 0

2±√4−8
⇒ 𝑧= =2±𝑖
2

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The roots 1 + 𝑖 and 1 − 𝑖 are inside the disk ∣ 𝑧 ∣≤ 2|𝑧|.

On the boundary,∣ 𝑧 ∣= 2:

|𝑓(𝑧)| = |𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2|

We need to evaluate ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ for ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 2. Consider 𝑧 = 2𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , and find:

|𝑓(𝑧)| = |4𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 − 4𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 2|

The exact calculation is complex, but we only need to know that ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣
on the boundary is larger than the minimum at the root points.

At 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖, 𝑓(1 + 𝑖) = 0, so ∣ 𝑓(1 + 𝑖) ∣= 0.

Similarly, at 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖, 𝑓(1 − 𝑖) = 0, so ∣ 𝑓(1 − 𝑖) ∣= 0.

The minimum value of ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ is 0, which occurs at the points 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖

and 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖.

EXAMPLE6: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be an analytic function on the unit disk ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1

such that 𝑓(0) = 0 and ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣≤∣ 𝑧 ∣ for all ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1. Show that 𝑓(𝑧) =
𝑐𝑧 for some constant ∣ 𝑐 ∣≤ 1.

SOLUTION: Schwarz's Lemma states that if f is analytic on the unit disk

∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1, 𝑓(0) = 0, and ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣≤ 1 for all ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1, then:

1. ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣≤∣ 𝑧 ∣ for all ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1.

2. If equality holds for some 𝑧 ≠ 0, then 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑧 for some constant

𝑐 with ∣ 𝑐 ∣≤ 1.

Given ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣≤∣ 𝑧 ∣, we already satisfy the condition.

Now consider 𝑓(𝑧) under these conditions. If ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣=∣ 𝑧 ∣ for some
nonzero 𝑧, Schwarz's Lemma implies 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑧.

Since 𝑓(0) = 0 and ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣≤∣ 𝑧 ∣, it follows by Schwarz's Lemma that

𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑧 for some 𝑐 with ∣ 𝑐 ∣≤ 1.

Therefore, 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑧 where ∣ 𝑐 ∣≤ 1, satisfying all conditions of

Schwarz's Lemma.

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SELF CHECK QUESTIONS

1. What is the Maximum Modulus Principle, and how does it relate to
the boundary of a domain?
2. Can the Maximum Modulus Principle be applied to non-analytic
functions? Why or why not?
3. How would you prove the Maximum Modulus Principle using
contradiction?
4. Give an example of a function where the Maximum Modulus
Principle is applied. What are the implications for the maximum
value of the modulus?
5. Why does the Maximum Modulus Principle imply that a non-
constant analytic function cannot achieve its maximum modulus in
the interior of a domain?
6. How does the Minimum Modulus Principle follow from the
Maximum Modulus Principle?
7. State the Schwarz Lemma and explain its significance in complex
analysis.
8. Under what conditions does the Schwarz Lemma hold?
9. How can the Schwarz Lemma be generalized, and what are the
implications of such generalizations?

10.7 SUMMARY:-
The Maximum Modulus Principle and Minimum Modulus Principle are
fundamental results in complex analysis that state if 𝑓(𝑧) is a non-constant
analytic function on a domain 𝐷 and continuous on the closure of 𝐷, then
the maximum (or minimum) modulus of 𝑓(𝑧) occurs on the boundary of
𝐷 rather than in its interior. The Schwarz Lemma further refines this idea,
stating that if a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in the unit disk ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1, satisfies
𝑓(0) = 0, and ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣< 1 for all 𝑧 in the disk, then ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣≤∣ 𝑧 ∣ and ∣
𝑓′(0) ∣≤ 1, with equality holding if and only if 𝑓(𝑧) is of the form 𝑓(𝑧) =
𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝛼 for some real constant 𝛼. These principles are crucial in
understanding the behavior and constraints of analytic functions within
specified domains.

10.8 GLOSSARY:-
 Maximum Modulus Principle: States that if 𝑓(𝑧) is a non-
constant analytic function on a domain 𝐷 and continuous on the

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closure of 𝐷, then the maximum value of |𝑓(𝑧)| occurs on the

boundary of 𝐷, not in its interior.
 Analytic Function: A function that is complex differentiable at
every point in its domain.
 Domain: An open connected set in the complex plane.
 Modulus: The absolute value of a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦,
denoted as ∣ 𝑧 ∣ and defined as √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 .
 Minimum Modulus Principle: States that if 𝑓(𝑧) is a non-
constant analytic function on a domain 𝐷 and continuous on the
closure of 𝐷, and 𝑓(𝑧) ≠ 0 inside 𝐷, then the minimum value of ∣
𝑓(𝑧) ∣ occurs on the boundary of 𝐷.
 Continuous Function: A function f is continuous at 𝑧0 if
lim 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓( 𝑧0 ).
𝑧→𝑧0
 Schwarz Lemma: States that if 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in the unit disk ∣
𝑧 ∣< 1, 𝑓(0) = 0, and ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣< 1 for all 𝑧 in the disk, then ∣
𝑓(𝑧) ∣≤∣ 𝑧 ∣ and ∣ 𝑓′(0) ∣≤ 1, with equality if and only if 𝑓(𝑧) =
𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝛼 for some real constant 𝛼.
 Unit Disk: The set of all points in the complex plane whose
distance from the origin is less than 1, denoted as {𝑧 ∈ 𝐶: ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1}.
 Equality Condition: In the context of the Schwarz Lemma,
equality ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣=∣ 𝑧 ∣ 𝑜𝑟 ∣ 𝑓′(0) ∣= 1 holds if and only if
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝛼 , where 𝛼 is a real constant.
 Linear Transformation: A function of the form 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏,
where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants.
 Argument Principle: A theorem in complex analysis that relates
the number of zeros and poles of a meromorphic function inside a
closed contour to the change in the argument of the function along
the contour.
 Meromorphic Function: A function that is analytic except at a set
of isolated points, which are poles of the function.
 Holomorphic Function: Another term for an analytic function, a
function that is complex differentiable at every point in its domain.
 Contour: A piecewise smooth curve in the complex plane along
which an integral is evaluated.
 Simple Closed Contour: A contour that does not intersect itself
and forms a closed loop.

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Understanding these terms and concepts provides a deeper insight into the
behavior and properties of analytic functions as described by the
Maximum and Minimum Modulus Principles and the Schwarz Lemma.

10.9 REFERENCES:-

 Ravi P. Agarwal, Kanishka Perera, Sandra Pinelas (2011)-

Maximum Modulus Principle in An Introduction to Complex
Analysis.
 Graziano Gentili, Caterina Stoppato, Daniele C. Struppa -(2022)
Maximum Modulus Theorem and Applications in Regular
Functions of a Quaternionic Variable Springer, 2022.

10.10 SUGGESTED READING:-

 Goyal and Gupta (Twenty first edition 2010), Function of complex

Variable.
 https://old.mu.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Paper-III-
Complex-Analysis.pdf
 file:///C:/Users/user/Desktop/1468563787EText(Ch-8,M-3.pdf
 file:///C:/Users/user/Desktop/1468562099EText(Ch-5,M-4.pdf

10.11 TERMINAL QUESTIONS:-

(TQ-1) State and prove the principle of maximum modulus.

(TQ-2) Find the maximum modulus of 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 in the disc |𝑧| ≤ 1.
(TQ-3) Show that the maximum modulus of 𝑒 𝑧 is always assumed on the
boundary of the compact domain.
(TQ-4) Suppose 𝑓, 𝑔 both are analytic in a compact domain 𝐷. Show that
|𝑓(𝑧)| + |𝑔(𝑧)| take it’s maximum on the boundary.
(TQ-5) Let 𝑓 be a non-constant analytic function on the closed unit disc
𝐷 = {𝑧 ∈ 𝐶: ∣ 𝑧 ∣≤ 1}. Prove that ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ attains its maximum value on
the boundary 𝜕𝐷 = {𝑧 ∈ 𝐶: ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 1} and not in the interior 𝐷 = {𝑧 ∈ 𝐶: ∣
𝑧 ∣< 1}. Use this to show that if 𝑓 is analytic in 𝐷, bounded by 1, and
𝑓(0) = 0, then ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣≤∣ 𝑧 ∣ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧 ∈ 𝐷.
(TQ-6) Show that among all functions, which are analytic and bounded
1 1
by 1, in the unit disc, Max |𝑓′ ( )| is assumed, when 𝑓 ( ) = 0.
3 3

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(TQ-7) If 𝑓 is a non-constant analytic function on an open set 𝑈 ⊂ 𝐶,

then prove that 𝑓(𝑈) is an open set in 𝐶.
(TQ-8) Suppose further that 𝑓(𝑧) is not constant. Then |𝑓(𝑧) | attains its
minimum value at a point on the boundary of 𝐶, that is to say, if m is
minimum value of |𝑓(𝑧) | inside and on 𝐶, then
|𝑓(𝑧) | > 𝑚 ∀𝑧 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶

10.12 ANSWERS:-
SELF CHECK ANSWERS

1. The Maximum Modulus Principle states that if a function f is

analytic and non-constant in a domain 𝐷, then the maximum value
of ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ on the closure of 𝐷 occurs on the boundary of 𝐷. This
means that the modulus of f(z) cannot attain its maximum value
inside the domain unless the function is constant.
2. No, the Maximum Modulus Principle cannot be applied to non-
analytic functions because the principle relies on the properties of
analytic (holomorphic) functions, specifically their continuity and
differentiability. Non-analytic functions do not necessarily have
these properties, and thus the principle does not hold for them.
3. To prove the Maximum Modulus Principle by contradiction,
assume that ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ attains its maximum value 𝑀 at some point a
inside the domain 𝐷. Consider a small circle centered at a. By
analyticity, 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous and there exists a point b within the
circle such that ∣ 𝑓(𝑏) ∣< 𝑀. This contradicts the assumption that
𝑀 is the maximum value. Therefore, ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ must attain its
maximum value on the boundary of 𝐷.
4. Consider the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 on the unit disk ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1 . The
modulus ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣=∣ 𝑧 ∣. The maximum value of ∣ 𝑧 ∣ in the unit
disk is 1, which occurs on the boundary ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 1. The implication
is that the modulus ∣ 𝑧 ∣ does not reach 1 within the disk but only
on the boundary.
5. If a non-constant analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) could achieve its
maximum modulus in the interior of the domain, this would
contradict the principle that 𝑓(𝑧) attains its maximum on the
boundary. This is because an analytic function is open and cannot
have a local maximum in the interior unless it is constant.
6. Answer: The Minimum Modulus Principle can be derived from the
Maximum Modulus Principle by considering the function 𝑔(𝑧) =
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1/𝑓(𝑧), where 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic and non-zero. Applying the

Maximum Modulus Principle to 𝑔(𝑧), we find that ∣ 𝑔(𝑧) ∣ attains
its maximum on the boundary, implying that ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ attains its
minimum on the boundary.
7. The Schwarz Lemma states that if f is an analytic function on the
unit disk ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1 with 𝑓(0) = 0 and ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣< 1, then ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣≤∣
𝑧 ∣ for all 𝑧 in the disk, and ∣ 𝑓 ′(0) ∣≤ 1. If ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣=∣ 𝑧 ∣ for some
𝑧 ≠ 0, then 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 𝑧 for some real 𝜃. This lemma is
significant because it provides bounds for the function and its
derivative at the origin, showing that an analytic function cannot
grow too fast within the unit disk.
8. The Schwarz Lemma holds for an analytic function f on the unit
disk ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1 that satisfies 𝑓(0) = 0 and ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣< 1 for all 𝑧 in the
disk.
9. The Schwarz Lemma can be generalized to the Schwarz-Pick
theorem, which deals with functions mapping the unit disk to itself
and not necessarily fixing the origin. The generalization provides
bounds on the function and its derivative in terms of the hyperbolic
metric. The implications are broader control over the behavior of
analytic functions mapping the unit disk into itself.

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BLOCK IV
SINGULARITIES AND RESIDUE

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UNIT 11:- Singularities

CONTENTS:
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Objectives
11.3 Zero of an Analytic function
11.4 Singular Points
11.5 Zeros are Isolated
11.6 Poles are Isolated
11.7 The Point at Infinity
11.8 Limiting Point of Zeros
11.9 Limit Point of Poles
11.10 Characterization of Polynomials
11.11 Summary
11.12 Glossary
11.13 References
11.14 Suggested Reading
11.15 Terminal questions
11.16 Answers

11.1 INTRODUCTION:-
In complex analysis, singularities are points at which a complex function
ceases to be analytic. There are different types of singularities, classified
primarily into three categories: removable singularities, poles, and
essential singularities. A removable singularity is a point where the
function can be redefined to make it analytic. Poles are points where the
function goes to infinity in a specific manner, characterized by the
1
function behaving like 𝑧−𝑧 near the singularity 𝑧0 . Essential singularities
0
are points where the function exhibits chaotic behavior, as described by
the Weierstrass–Casorati theorem and Picard's theorem. Understanding
these singularities is crucial for analyzing the behavior of complex
functions, especially in the context of Laurent series and residue calculus,
which are fundamental tools in complex analysis for evaluating integrals
and solving differential equations.

11.2 OBJECTIVES:-

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Singularities in complex analysis are critical for understanding the

behavior and structure of complex functions. They represent points where
a function ceases to be well-behaved, such as where it becomes infinite or
undefined. Analyzing singularities helps in classifying functions into
categories like poles, essential singularities, or branch points, and
understanding their local behavior and global implications. This analysis is
vital for solving complex integrals, developing conformal mappings, and
exploring the analytic continuation of functions, thereby enhancing the
comprehension of complex functions' intricate properties and their
applications in various scientific fields.

11.3 ZERO OF AN ANALYTIC FUNCTION:-

A zero of an analytic function is a point 𝑧0 in the complex plane where the
function 𝑓(𝑧) evaluates to zero, i.e.,𝑓 (𝑧0 ) = 0. If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at 𝑧0 ,
then 𝑧0 is called a zero of the function.

Zeros are important in the study of complex functions because they

provide critical information about the function's behavior and its structure.
For instance, the order or multiplicity of a zero, defined as the highest
power of (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) that divides 𝑓(𝑧), indicates how the function behaves
near that zero. Analyzing zeros helps in understanding the function's
growth, mapping properties, and in solving complex differential equations.
They also play a significant role in the residue theorem and in the
factorization of analytic functions.
An analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) in a domain 𝐷 can be expanded as a Taylor
series around a point 𝑎 ∈ 𝐷:
∞
𝑛
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)
𝑓 ( 𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑧 − 𝑎 ) … ( 1), 𝑎𝑛 = … (2)
𝑛!
𝑛=0
If the coefficients 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 = ⋯ 𝑎𝑚−1 are all zero. But 𝑎𝑚 ≠ 0 , then
𝑓(𝑧) has a zero of order m at 𝑧 = 𝑎. so that
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) = ⋯ = 𝑓 (𝑚−1) (𝑎) = 0, 𝑓 𝑚 (𝑎) ≠ 0

In this case we say that 𝑓(𝑧) has a zero of order 𝑚 at 𝑧 = 𝑎.

From (1) takes the form
∞ ∞

𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 = ∑ 𝑎𝑛+𝑚 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛+𝑚

𝑛=0 𝑛=0
∞

= (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 ∑ 𝑎𝑛+𝑚 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛

𝑛=0
Taking

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∑ 𝑎𝑛+𝑚 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 = 𝜙(𝑧) … (3)

𝑛=0
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = (𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑚 𝜙 (𝑧 )
From (3),
∞ ∞

𝜙(𝑎) = [∑ 𝑎𝑛+𝑚 (𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛 ] = [𝑎𝑚 + ∑ 𝑎𝑛+𝑚 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 ] = 𝑎𝑚

𝑛=0 𝑧=𝑎 𝑛=1 𝑧=𝑎
But 𝑎𝑚 ≠ 0 so that 𝜙(𝑎) ≠ 0.
Thus
An analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to have a zero of order 𝑚 if 𝑓(𝑧) is
expressible as
𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚 𝜙(𝑧)
where 𝜙(𝑧) is analytic and 𝜙(𝑎) ≠ 0. 𝑓(𝑧) is said to have a simple zero at
𝑧 = 𝑎 if 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a zero of order one.

11.4 SINGULAR POINTS:-

A singularity of a complex function 𝑓(𝑧) is a point 𝑧0 where 𝑓(𝑧) ceases to
1
be analytic. For example if 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧−2) , then 𝑧 = 2 is a singularity of
𝑓(𝑧). Singular points are categorized into different types based on their
characteristics:
1. Isolated Singularity: A point 𝑧 = 𝑎 is an isolated singularity of a
complex function 𝑓(𝑧) if:
i. 𝑓(𝑧) is not analytic at 𝑧 = 𝑎.
ii. There exist a neighborhood around 𝑧 = 𝑎 (excluding a itself) where
𝑓(𝑧) is analytic.
In other words, 𝑧 = 𝑎 is an isolated singularity if 𝑓(𝑧) fails to be analytic
only at 𝑧 = 𝑎, but 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in some punctured neighborhood
around 𝑧 = 𝑎.
Conversely, if every deleted neighborhood of 𝑧 = 𝑎 contains other
singularities of 𝑓(𝑧), then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is called a non-isolated singularity. This
means 𝑧 = 𝑎 is part of a set of singularities that accumulate around it.
2. Definition: For a function 𝑓(𝑧) with an isolated singularity at 𝑧 = 𝑎,
there exists a deleted neighborhood 0 <∣ 𝑧 − 𝑎 ∣< 𝑟 where 𝑓(𝑧) is
analytic. In this neighborhood, 𝑓(𝑧) can be expanded using a Laurent
series:
∞ ∞

𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 + ∑ 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)−𝑛

𝑛=0 𝑛=1
The series ∑∞ 𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎 )
−𝑛
is called the principal part of the Laurent
series. Three cases arise based on the nature of the Singularity.
I. Removable Singularity: If the principal part of a function 𝑓(𝑧) at
an isolated singularity 𝑧 = 𝑎 contains no terms (i.e.,𝑏𝑛 = 0 for all

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𝑛), then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is called a removable singularity. In this case, the

function 𝑓(𝑧) can be expressed as:
∞

𝑓 ( 𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑛
𝑛=0
and 𝑓(𝑧) can be analytically extended to 𝑧 = 𝑎.
Or
A singularity 𝑧 = 𝑎 of a function 𝑓(𝑧) is called a removable singularity
if 𝑓(𝑧) can be analytically extended to 𝑧 = 𝑎. Formally:
A singularity 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a removable singularity of 𝑓(𝑧) if: lim 𝑓(𝑧) exists
𝑧→𝑎
finitely.
This means that even though 𝑓(𝑧) is not analytic at 𝑧 = 𝑎, it can be
defined or redefined at 𝑧 = 𝑎 such that 𝑓(𝑧) becomes analytic at 𝑧 = 𝑎.
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑧)
EXAMPLE1: Consider 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 . The point 𝑧 = 0 is a removable
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑧)
singularity. Although 𝑧 is not defined at 𝑧 = 0, it can be extended to
an analytic function by defining 𝑓(0) = 1.The extended function 𝑓 (𝑧) =
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑧)
for 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑓(0) = 1 is analytic everywhere.
𝑧
II. Pole: A singularity 𝑧 = 𝑎 of a function 𝑓(𝑧) is called a pole of
order 𝑚 if the principal part of the Laurent series expansion around
𝑧 = 𝑎 contains a finite number of terms, specifically up to (𝑧 −
𝑎)−𝑚 . More precisely:
If 𝑏𝑛 = 0 for all 𝑛 s.t. 𝑛 > 𝑚, where m is positive integer, then 𝑧 = 𝑎 pole
of order 𝑚 of 𝑓(𝑧).
Thus if 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a pole of order 𝑚 of the function 𝑓(𝑧), then 𝑓(𝑧) have the
expansion of the form
∞ ∞

𝑓 ( 𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛 + ∑ 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)−𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=1
Or
A function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to have pole of order 𝑛 if it is expressible as
𝜙(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
(𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛
where 𝜙(𝑧) is analytic and 𝜙(𝑧) ≠ 0.
Simple Pole: A pole of order 1 is called a simple pole.
Residue of a function f(z) at a simple pole z=a is defined as
lim (𝑧 − 𝑎) 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝑎)
𝑧→𝑎
Or
𝜙(𝑧)
𝑅𝑒𝑠 (𝑧 = 𝑎) = lim
𝑧→𝑎 𝜓 ′ (𝑧)
𝜙(𝑧)
where 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝜓′ (𝑧).

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1
EXAMPLE2: For 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧−1)2 , 𝑧 = 1 is a pole of order 2. Near 𝑧 =
1, 𝑓(𝑧) grows without bound as z approaches 1.
III. Essential singularity: A singularity 𝑧 = 𝑎 of a function 𝑓(𝑧) is
called an essential singularity if the Laurent series expansion
around 𝑧 = 𝑎 has an infinite number of terms in the principal part.
Specifically:If 𝑏𝑛 ≠ 0 for independently many values of 𝑛 so that
the series
∞

∑ 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)−𝑛
𝑛=1
contains an infinite number of terms, then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is an essential singularity
of 𝑓(𝑧).
In other words, near an essential singularity, the function 𝑓(𝑧) exhibits
highly irregular and chaotic behavior.
EXAMPLE3: For 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 1/(𝑧 − 1), the point 𝑧 = 1 is an essential
singularity. As 𝑧 approaches 1, 𝑓(𝑧) exhibits highly irregular behavior,
such as taking on virtually every complex value near 𝑧 = 1.
Theorem1: If 𝑓(𝑧) has a pole at 𝑧 = 𝑎, then |𝑓(𝑧)| → ∞, 𝑧 → 𝑎.
Proof: Suppose 𝑓(𝑧) has a pole of order 𝑚 at 𝑧 = 𝑎. By definition, the
Laurent series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) around 𝑧 = 𝑎 is given by:
∞ ∞

𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 + ∑ 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)−𝑛

𝑛=0 𝑛=1
This can be rewritten as:
∞
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏𝑛
= ∑ 𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑛 + + 2
+ ⋯+
𝑧 − 𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎 ) (𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑚
𝑛=0
∞
1
= ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛 + [𝑏 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚−1 + 𝑏2 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚−2 + ⋯
(𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑚 1
𝑛=0
+ 𝑏𝑚 ]
As 𝑧 → 𝑎, the expression within the square brackets on the right-hand side
approaches 𝑏𝑚 because the terms 𝑏1 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚−1 , 𝑏2 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚−2 , … all
vanish and the only non-vanishing term is 𝑏𝑚 .Therefore
∞
𝑏𝑛
𝑓 ( 𝑧 ) ≈ ∑ 𝑎𝑛 ( 𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑛 +
(𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑚
𝑛=0

𝑛 𝑏
As 𝑧 → 𝑎, the term(𝑧−𝑎) 𝑚 dominates the expression since the other terms

involving 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 and the lower-order principal part terms become

negligible in comparison. Thus, the magnitude of 𝑓(𝑧) is primarily
𝑏𝑛
determined by (𝑧−𝑎) 𝑚

Hence, as 𝑧 → 𝑎,

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𝑏𝑛
|𝑓(𝑧)| ≈ | |→∞
(𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑚
Therefore, ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣→ ∞ as 𝑧 → 𝑎, proving that 𝑓(𝑧) tends to infinity near
the pole 𝑧 = 𝑎.
Theorem2: If an analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) has a pole of order 𝑚 at 𝑧 → 𝑎,
1
then 𝑓(𝑧) has a zero of order 𝑚 at 𝑧 → 𝑎 and conversely.
Proof: Suppose an analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) has a zero of order 𝑚 at 𝑧 → 𝑎
this that
𝜙(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = … (1)
(𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑚
where 𝜙(𝑎) ≠ 0 and 𝜙(𝑧) is analytic.
1
We need to prove that 𝑓(𝑧) has a zero of order 𝑚 at 𝑧 = 𝑎.
1 (𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑚
= = (𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑚 𝜓 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑧 ) 𝜙 (𝑧 )
1
Where 𝜙 = 𝜓 and 𝜓(𝑎) ≠ 0.
1 1
This implies that has a zero of order 𝑚 at 𝑧 = 𝑎 so that 𝑓(𝑧) =
𝑓
(𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚 𝑔(𝑧), where 𝑔(𝑧) is analytic and 𝑔(𝑎) ≠ 0.
Therefore
1 ℎ(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = =
(𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑚 𝑔 (𝑧 ) (𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑚
1
where 𝑓(𝑧) = ℎ(𝑧).
ℎ(𝑧)
This shows that 𝑓(𝑧) can be written as (𝑧−𝑎)𝑚 where ℎ(𝑧) is an analytic
ℎ(𝑎) ≠ 0 𝑓 (𝑧) has a pole of order 𝑚 at 𝑧 = 𝑎.
Thus, if 𝑓(𝑧) has a pole of order 𝑚 at 𝑧 = 𝑎, then 1/𝑓(𝑧) has a zero of
order 𝑚 at 𝑧 = 𝑎, and conversely.

11.5 ZEROS ARE ISOLATED:-

Theorem3: (Zeros Are Isolated) Zeros of an analytic function is
isolated.
Proof: Suppose 𝑓(𝑧) is an analytic function in a domain 𝐷, and suppose
𝑓(𝑧) has a zero at 𝑧 = 𝑎. We aim to show that this zero is isolated,
meaning there exists a neighborhood around 𝑧 = 𝑎 where 𝑓(𝑧) has no
other zeros except 𝑧 = 𝑎.
Since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at 𝑧 = 𝑎, it can be expressed as a Taylor series
around 𝑧 = 𝑎:
∞

𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛
𝑛=0
𝑓𝑛 (𝑎)
where 𝑎𝑛 = .
𝑛!

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If 𝑓(𝑧) has a zero of order 𝑚 at 𝑧 = 𝑎, then 𝑎0 = 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = ⋯ = 𝑎𝑚−1 =

0 and 𝑎𝑚 ≠ 0.
Therefore, the Taylor series can be written as:
∞

𝑓 (𝑧 ) = (𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛 ∑ 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛
𝑛=0
where 𝑏0 = 𝑎𝑚 ≠ 0.
Define
∞

𝑔(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛
𝑛=0
Notice that 𝑔(𝑧) is analytic and 𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑏0 ≠ 0.

By the continuity of 𝑔(𝑧), there exists a neighborhood around 𝑧 = 𝑎 such

that 𝑔(𝑧) ≠ 0 in this neighborhood. Therefore, in this neighborhood, the
function 𝑓(𝑧) can be written as:
𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚 𝑔(𝑧)
Since 𝑔(𝑧) ≠ 0 in this neighborhood, 𝑓(𝑧) = 0 if and only if (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚 =
0 which implies 𝑧 = 𝑎.
Thus, there is a neighborhood around 𝑧 = 𝑎 where 𝑓(𝑧) has no zeros other
than 𝑧 = 𝑎. This proves that the zero at 𝑧 = 𝑎 is isolated.

11.6 POLES ARE ISOLATED:-

Theorem4: Poles of an analytic function are isolated.
Proof: Suppose 𝒇(𝒛) is an analytic function in a domain 𝑫 and has a pole
at 𝒛 = 𝒂. We need to show that this pole is isolated, meaning there exists a
neighborhood around 𝒛 = 𝒂 where 𝒇(𝒛) has no other poles except 𝒛 = 𝒂.

By definition, if 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a pole of 𝑓(𝑧) of order 𝑚, then near 𝑧 = 𝑎, the

function 𝑓(𝑧) can be expressed as:
ℎ(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
( 𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑚
where ℎ(𝑧) is analytic and ℎ(𝑎) ≠ 0.
Let's consider the function 𝑔(𝑧) = (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚 𝑓(𝑧). This function 𝑔(𝑧) is
constructed to remove the pole at 𝑧 = 𝑎:
ℎ(𝑧)
𝑔 ( 𝑧 ) = (𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑚 =
(𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑚
Since ℎ(𝑧) is analytic and non-zero at 𝑧 = 𝑎, 𝑔(𝑧) is analytic at 𝑧 = 𝑎.
By the continuity of ℎ(𝑧) , there exists a neighborhood 𝑈 around 𝑧 = 𝑎
such that ℎ(𝑧) ≠ 0 in U. Because 𝑔(𝑧) = ℎ(𝑧), 𝑔(𝑧) is analytic and non-
zero in this neighborhood 𝑈.
Given that g(z) is analytic and non-zero in U, we have:

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𝑔(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
( 𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑚

Therefore, the pole at 𝑧 = 𝑎 is isolated because there is a neighborhood

around 𝑧 = 𝑎 where 𝑓(𝑧) has no other poles except 𝑧 = 𝑎.
Hence, we have shown that poles of an analytic function are isolated.

11.7 THE POINT AT INFINITY:-

The point at infinity is treated differently from the finite points in the
complex plane. The extended complex plane (or Riemann sphere) includes
the point at infinity, denoted as ∞. This extended plane allows for a more
comprehensive understanding of the behavior of complex functions,
especially in terms of their singularities.

Key Concepts:
 Extended Complex Plane: The extended complex plane is the
complex plane 𝐶 together with the point at infinity, ∞. It is often
visualized as the Riemann sphere, where the complex plane is
projected onto a sphere such that the point at infinity is the north
pole of the sphere.
 Neighborhood of Infinity: A neighborhood of ∞ consists of all
points 𝑧 in 𝐶 such that ∣ 𝑧 ∣> 𝑅 for some large 𝑅 > 0. Essentially,
as ∣ 𝑧 ∣ grows without bound, 𝑧 approaches ∞.
 Behavior at Infinity: To study the behavior of a function 𝑓(𝑧) at
∞, we often consider the transformed function 𝑔(𝑤) = 𝑓(𝑤1 ) and
examine its behavior as 𝑤 → 0. The point 𝑧 = ∞ in the original
function corresponds to 𝑤 = 0 in the transformed function.
 Poles and Essential Singularities at Infinity:
 Pole at Infinity: A function 𝑓(𝑧) has a pole of order 𝑚 at ∞ if
𝑓(𝑤1 ) has a zero of order 𝑚 at 𝑤 = 0. Mathematically, 𝑓(𝑧)
behaves like 𝑧 𝑚 as 𝑧 → ∞.
 Essential Singularity at Infinity: A function 𝑓(𝑧) has an essential
singularity at ∞ if 𝑓(𝑤1 ) has an essential singularity at 𝑤 = 0.
 Removable Singularity at Infinity: A function 𝑓(𝑧) has a
removable singularity at ∞ if 𝑓(𝑤1 ) is analytic at 𝑤 = 0. This
means 𝑓(𝑧) approaches a finite limit as 𝑧 → ∞.

Examples:

 Pole at Infinity: The function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧1 has a simple pole at 𝑧 =

∞ because 𝑓(𝑤1 ) = 𝑤, which has a zero of order 1 at 𝑤 = 0.

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 Essential Singularity at Infinity: The function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 has an

1
essential singularity at 𝑧 = ∞ because 𝑓 (𝑤) = 𝑒 1/𝑤 has an
essential singularity at 𝑤 = 0.
1
 Removable Singularity at Infinity: The function 𝑓(𝑧) = 1+𝑧 has
1 1 𝑤
a removable singularity at 𝑧 = ∞ because 𝑓 (𝑤) = 1 = 1+𝑤,
1+
𝑤
which is analytic at 𝑤 = 0.

11.8 LIMITING POINT OF ZEROS:-

A point 𝑧0 ∈ ℂ ∪ {∞} is called a limiting point (or accumulation point) of
zeros of an analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) if, for any 𝜖 > 0, there are infinitely
many zeros of 𝑓(𝑧) within the distance 𝜖 from 𝑧0 .
Theorem5: Let 𝒇(𝒛) be an analytic function in a simply connected region
𝑫. Let 𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 … 𝒂𝒏 … be a sequence of zeros having a as its limit point, 𝒂
being the interior point of 𝑫. Then either 𝒇(𝒛) vanishes identically or else
has an isolated essential singularity at 𝒛 = 𝒂.
Proof: Suppose 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a simply connected region 𝐷 and {𝒂𝒏 }
is a sequence of zeros of 𝑓(𝑧) converging to 𝑎, where 𝑎 is an interior point
of 𝐷.
The function 𝑓 (𝑧) = 0 in 𝐷, the sequence {𝒂𝒏 } being zeros converging to
𝑎, poses no contradiction since every point in 𝐷 is a zero.
Assume 𝑓(𝑧) is not identically zero. By the Identity Theorem, an analytic
function that is zero on a sequence of points with an accumulation point in
𝐷 must be identically zero unless it has a singularity at the accumulation
point.
Here, 𝑎 is the limit point of zeros of 𝑓(𝑧), meaning 𝑓(𝑧) cannot be
analytic at 𝑎. Therefore, 𝑎 must be a singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).

11.9 LIMIT POINT OF POLES:-

A point 𝒛𝟎 is called a limiting point of poles of a function 𝑓(𝑧) if every
neighborhood of 𝒛𝟎 contains infinitely many poles of 𝑓(𝑧).

Theorem6: If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a limit point of the sequence of poles of an analytic

function 𝑓(𝑧), then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is an essential singularity (non-isolated essential
singularity) of 𝑓(𝑧).
Proof: Suppose 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a domain 𝐷 except for some poles. Let
{𝑎𝑛 } be a sequence of poles of 𝑓(𝑧) such that 𝑎𝑛 → 𝑎 as 𝑛 → ∞.
Since 𝑎 is a limit point of poles, every neighborhood of 𝑎 contains
infinitely many poles of 𝑓(𝑧).

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By definition, 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a singularity of f(z) because it is a point where

𝑓(𝑧) is not analytic.If 𝑧 = 𝑎 were a pole, then 𝑓(𝑧) would have a Laurent
series expansion around a with only finitely many negative powers:
𝑏𝑚 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑏1
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 𝑚
+ 𝑚−1
+ ⋯+ + 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
(𝑧 − 𝑎 ) (𝑧 − 𝑎 ) .
(𝑧 − 𝑎)1
However, if 𝑎 were a pole, then 𝑓(𝑧) would not have an infinite number of
poles accumulating at 𝑎. Poles are isolated by definition.
Since 𝑧 = 𝑎 is not isolated (it has an infinite number of poles arbitrarily
close to it), 𝑎 cannot be a pole.
According to complex analysis, the only type of singularity where poles
can accumulate and still fit the behavior of having infinitely many poles in
every neighborhood is an essential singularity.
Thus, 𝑧 = 𝑎 must be an essential singularity of 𝑓(𝑧), specifically a non-
isolated essential singularity. This means that 𝑓(𝑧) exhibits highly
irregular behavior near 𝑎, consistent with the presence of infinitely many
poles accumulating at 𝑎.

11.10 CHARACTERIZATION OF POLYNOMIALS:-

Theorem7: The order of zero of the polynomial equals the order of its
first non-vanishing derivative.
Or
The order (or multiplicity) of a zero of a polynomial 𝑝(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑎 is
equal to the order of the first non-zero derivative of 𝑝(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑎.
Proof: A polynomial 𝑝(𝑧) has a zero of order 𝑚 at 𝑧 = 𝑎 if:
𝑝(𝑎) = 𝑝′ (𝑎) = 𝑝′′ (𝑎) = ⋯ = 𝑝𝑚−1 (𝑎) = 0 and 𝑝(𝑚) ≠ 0.
In other words, 𝑝(𝑧) can be written locally around 𝑧 = 𝑎 as:
𝑝(𝑧) = (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚 𝑞(𝑧)
where 𝑞(𝑧) is a polynomial and 𝑞(𝑎) ≠ 0.
The derivatives of 𝑝(𝑧) are:
𝑝′ (𝑧) = 𝑚(𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚−1 𝑞(𝑧) + (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚 𝑞′(𝑧)
𝑝′ ′(𝑧) = 𝑚(𝑚 − 1)(𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚−2 𝑞(𝑧) + 2𝑚(𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚−1 𝑞 ′ (𝑧)
+ (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚 𝑞 ′′ (𝑧)
At 𝑧 = 𝑎, 𝑝(𝑎) = 𝑝′ (𝑎) = ⋯ = 𝑝𝑚−1 (𝑎) = 0, but 𝑝𝑚 (𝑎) will be non-
zero because
𝑝𝑚 (𝑧) = 𝑚! 𝑞(𝑧) and 𝑝𝑚 (𝑎) = 𝑚! 𝑞(𝑎) ≠ 0
Therefore, the order of the zero at 𝑧 = 𝑎 is exactly 𝑚, which corresponds
to the smallest 𝑘 for which 𝑝𝑘 (𝑎) ≠ 0.
EXAMPLE4: For the polynomial 𝑝(𝑧) = (𝑧 − 2)3 (𝑧 − 5).

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At 𝑧 = 2, 𝑝(𝑧) has a zero of order 3.

The first non-zero derivative at 𝑧 = 2 is the third derivative, which will
not be zero. This confirms that the order of the zero at 𝑧 = 2 is indeed 3.
Theorem8: (Due to Riemann) Removable singularity. If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is an
isolated singularity of 𝑓(𝑧) and if 𝑓(𝑧) is bounded on some deleted
neighborhood of 𝑎, then 𝑎 is a removable singularity.
Proof: Given that 𝑓(𝑧) is bounded on some deleted neighborhood 𝑁(𝑎) of
𝑎, Let 𝑀 be the maximum value of |𝑓(𝑧)| on a circle 𝐶 defined by
|𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑟, where the radius 𝑟 is chosen so small that 𝐶 lies entirely
within 𝑁(𝑎), the Laurent series expansion for a function 𝑓(𝑧) with an
isolated singularity at 𝑧 = 𝑎, the Laurent series expansion around 𝑧 = 𝑎 is:
∞ ∞

𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑛 + ∑ 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 … (1)
𝑛=0 𝑛=1

Where
1
𝑏𝑛 = ∫(𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛−1 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶
𝑀 𝑛−1
𝑀𝑟 𝑛−1
|𝑏𝑛 | ≤ ∫|𝑧 − 𝑎| |𝑑𝑧| = . 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑀𝑟 𝑛
2𝜋 𝐶 2𝜋
|𝑏𝑛 | ≤ 𝑀𝑟 𝑛 which → as 𝑟 → 0
𝑏𝑛 = 0∀𝑛
Thus, the boundedness of 𝑓(𝑧) on the deleted neighborhood implies that
𝑧 = 𝑎 is a removable singularity of 𝑓 (𝑧),by definition, this proves that 𝑧 =
𝑎 is removable singularity.
Theorem9: (Weierstrass Theorem) Essential Singularity. If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is an
essential singularity of 𝑓(𝑧), prove that any positive number, 𝑟, 𝜀 and any
number 𝑐, there is a point in the circle |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝑟 at which |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑐 | <
𝜀.
In other words, in any arbitrary neighborhood of an essential singularity,
there exists a point (and therefore an infinite number of points) at which
the function differs as little as we please form any –assigned number.
Proof: Suppose the theorem is false. Then there exist positive numbers
𝑟 and 𝜀 and a complex number 𝑐, such that |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑐 | > 𝜀 for all z with
1
|𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝑟 so that < 𝜀 whenever |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝑟.
|𝑓(𝑧)−𝑐|

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1
Use of theorem (2), we see that the function |𝑓(𝑧)−𝑐|
has a removable
1
singularity so that principal part of Laurent’s expansion for 𝑓(𝑧)−𝑐 about
the point 𝑧0 does not contain any term so that
∞
1
= ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑛 … (1)
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑐
𝑛=0
1
If 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, we define = 𝑎0 so that 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) = 𝑐 + (1/𝑎0 ). It means
𝑓(𝑧0 )−𝑐
1
that 𝑓(𝑧)−𝑐 is analytic and non-zero at 𝑧0 .

∴ As a result of which 𝑓(𝑧) itself is analytic at 𝑧0 . Contrary to be initial

assumption that 𝑧0 is an essential singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).
Again if 𝑎𝑛 = 0 for 𝑛 = 0,1,2, … 𝑚 − 1 then (1) becomes
∞
1
= ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑛
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑐
𝑛=𝑚

= 𝑎𝑚 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑚 + 𝑎𝑚+1 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑚+1 + ⋯
= (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑚 [𝑎𝑚 + 𝑎𝑚+1 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + ⋯ ]
∞

= (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑚 ∑ 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑛
𝑛=0

This proves the theorem.

SOLVED EXAMPLE
𝑒 𝑐/(𝑧−𝑎)
EXAMPLE5: Find the singularities of the function 𝑒 𝑧/𝑎−1 , indicating the
character of each singularity.
SOLUTION: Given
𝑐
𝑒 (𝑧−𝑎)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 𝑧
𝑒𝑎 − 1
𝑧
i. Let we write exp(𝑧/𝑎) in place of 𝑒 𝑎.

Now then
𝑐 𝑒 𝑐
𝑒 (𝑧−𝑎) 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 𝑒 (𝑧−𝑎)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 𝑧 = 𝑧−𝑎 = (𝑧−𝑎)
𝑒 −1
𝑎 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (1 + ) − 1 𝑒. 𝑒 𝑎 − 1
𝑎
(𝑧−𝑎) −1
𝑐
[1−𝑒.𝑒 𝑎 ]
(𝑧−𝑎)
=𝑒

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−1
𝑐 (𝑧−𝑎) (𝑧−𝑎) 2 1
[1−𝑒.{1+ +( ) . +⋯..}]
(𝑧−𝑎) 𝑎 𝑎 2!
=𝑒
𝑐 𝑐 2 1
= [1 + +( ) . + ⋯]
𝑧−𝑎 𝑧−𝑎 2!
2
(𝑧 − 𝑎 ) (𝑧 − 𝑎 ) 1
× [1 + 𝑒 {1 + +( ) . + ⋯}
𝑎 𝑎 2!
(𝑧−𝑎) (𝑧−𝑎) 2
2{1+ +( ) +⋯ }
𝑎 𝑎
+𝑒 ]

Hence by the definition 𝑧 = 𝑎 is an essential singularity.

𝑒
𝑒𝑥𝑝( )
𝑧−𝑎
ii. 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 𝑧
𝑒𝑥𝑝( )−1
𝑎
Evidently denominator has zero of order 1at

𝑒 𝑧/𝑎 = 1 = 𝑒 2𝑛𝜋𝑖 , 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑧 = 2𝑛𝜋𝑖𝑎.

So the function 𝑓(𝑧) has a pole of order one at each point 𝑧 = 2𝑛𝜋𝑖𝑎
(where 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, … … …).

EXAMPLE6: Specify the nature of singularity at 𝑧 = −2 of 𝑓 (𝑧) =

1
(𝑧 − 3)𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ).
𝑧+2
SOLUTION: The given singularity is
1
𝑓 (𝑧) = 0 𝑜𝑟 (𝑧 − 3) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )=0
𝑧+2
This implies that
1
⇒ 𝑧 = 3 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑧+2 ) = 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛0
1 1
⇒ = 𝑛𝜋 + (−1)𝑛 (0) = 𝑛𝜋 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑧+2 ) = 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛0
𝑧+2
1 1
⇒ 𝑧 + 2 = 𝑛𝜋 ⇒ 𝑧 = −2 + 𝑛𝜋
1
⇒ 𝑧 = −2 + 𝑛𝜋 for 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3 … ….
Limit points of zeros is 𝑧 = −2.
Hence the isolated singularity is 𝑧 = −2.
𝑧+1 2
EXAMPLE7: Find zeros and pole of (𝑧 2+1) .
SOLUTION: The given singularity is
𝑧+1 2
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ( 2 )
𝑧 +1
I. The zeros of 𝑓(𝑧) is given by
(𝑧 + 1 )2 = 0
𝑧 = −1, −1
So 𝑧 = −1 is a zero of order 2.
II. The poles of 𝑓(𝑧) is given by

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(𝑧 2 + 1)2 = 0
(𝑧 + 𝑖 )2 (𝑧 − 𝑖 )2 = 0
𝑧 = −𝑖, −𝑖, 𝑖, 𝑖
Hence 𝑧 = −𝑖 and 𝑧 = 𝑖 both are poles of order2.

1
EXAMPLE8: Find Laurent series of 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧 − 3) sin (𝑧+2) about
singularity 𝑧 = −2 and indicate nature of singularity.
SOLUTION: Let
𝜃3 𝜃5 𝜃7
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝜃 − + − +⋯
3! 5! 7!
So that
1 1 1 1
𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧 − 3) [ − . 3
+ +⋯]
(𝑧 + 2) 3! (𝑧 + 2) 5! (𝑧 + 2)5
which represents Laurent’s series.
Now the zeros of 𝑓(𝑧) is
1 1
(𝑧 − 3)𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 − 3 = 0, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 =0
(𝑧 + 2) (𝑧 + 2)
⇒
1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜋) ⇒ = 𝑛𝜋
(𝑧 + 2 ) (𝑧 + 2)
1 1
⇒ 𝑧 + 2 = 𝑛𝜋 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑛𝜋 − 2 for 𝑛 = 1,2,3,4, … ….
Now
1
𝑧 = − 2 = −2
∞
EXAMPLE9: Determine the nature of the singularity at z=0 for the
function:
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
𝑧
SOLUTION: The function
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
𝑧
is not defined at 𝑧 = 0 because of the division by zero. This suggests a
possible singularity at 𝑧 = 0.
So the limit as 𝑧 approaches 0:
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑧)
lim
𝑧→0 𝑧
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑧)
Using the standard limit lim 𝑧 = 1, we have
𝑧→0
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑧)
lim =1
𝑧→0 𝑧
Since the limit exists and is finite, the singularity at 𝑧 = 0 is a removable
singularity. The function can be redefined at 𝑧 = 0 as 𝑓(0) = 1 to remove
the singularity and make the function analytic at that point.

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EXAMPLE10: Determine the nature and order of the singularity at 𝑧 = 0

for the function:
1
𝑔 (𝑧 ) = 3
𝑧
1
SOLUTION: The function 𝑔(𝑧) = 𝑧 3 is undefined at 𝑧 = 0, indicating a
potential singularity at 𝑧 = 0.
The function can be written as,
1
𝑔 (𝑧 ) = 3
𝑧
Here, the function clearly approaches infinity as z approaches 0.
Since the function can be expressed as
1
𝑔(𝑧) = (𝑧−0)3 ,
It is evident that this is a pole of order 3.The singularity at 𝑧 = 0 is a pole
of order 3.

SELF CHECK QUESTIONS

1. What is a singularity in the context of complex analysis?
2. What are the three main types of isolated singularities?
3. Define a removable singularity.
4. What does it mean for zeros to be isolated?
5. Explain the relationship between the limit points of zeros and
essential singularities.
6. How does the Weierstrass theorem describe a removable
singularity?

11.11 SUMMARY:-
In this unit we have studied the singularities in complex analysis are points
where a function is not analytic. They can be classified into three main
types: removable singularities, poles, and essential singularities. A
removable singularity is one where the function can be redefined to make
it analytic. Poles are points where the function approaches infinity, with
the order of the pole indicating how fast it diverges. Essential singularities
are characterized by chaotic behavior, where the function takes on almost
every possible value infinitely often in any neighborhood around the
singularity. According to Picard's theorem, near an essential singularity, a
function assumes every complex value, with at most one exception,
infinitely often. Singularities play a crucial role in understanding the
behavior and properties of complex functions.

11.12 GLOSSARY:-
 Analytic Function: A function that is locally given by a
convergent power series.

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 Singularity: A point at which a function is not analytic.

 Isolated Singularity: A singularity where there exists a
neighborhood around the point such that there are no other
singularities within that neighborhood.
 Removable Singularity: A point 𝑧 = 𝑎 where a function is not
analytic but can be redefined to be analytic. If the Laurent series of
𝑓(𝑧) around 𝑧 = 𝑎 contains no negative power terms, it is a
removable singularity.
 Pole: A singularity where a function approaches infinity as the
variable approaches the point. The order of the pole indicates the
highest power of the negative term in the Laurent series expansion.
 Simple Pole: A pole of order one.
 Essential Singularity: A point where a function exhibits chaotic
behavior such that, in any neighborhood around the singularity, the
function takes on nearly every possible value infinitely often. The
Laurent series has an infinite number of negative power terms.
 Laurent Series: A representation of a complex function as a series
that includes both positive and negative powers of (𝑧 − 𝑎).
 Principal Part: The part of the Laurent series that contains the
negative powers of (𝑧 − 𝑎).
 Limit Point of Zeros: A point where a sequence of zeros
accumulates. If such a point is within the domain of an analytic
function, the function must either be identically zero or have an
essential singularity at that point.
 Picard's Theorem: A theorem stating that near an essential
singularity, a function takes on every possible complex value, with
at most one exception, infinitely often.
 Weierstrass Theorem: In the context of removable singularities,
this theorem states that if a function is bounded near an isolated
singularity, then the singularity is removable.
 Deleted Neighborhood: A neighborhood around a point,
excluding the point itself.
 Non-Isolated Singularity: A singularity where every
neighborhood of the point contains other singularities.
 Simply Connected Region: A region without holes, where any
loop can be continuously contracted to a point within the region.

11.13 REFERENCES:-

 Gerald B. Folland (2020), Complex Analysis: A Modern

Introduction.
 Steven G. Krantz (2020),Complex Analysis.
 Gerald Teschl (2017),Complex Analysis: An Invitation.
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 John P. D'Angelo (2021), Complex Analysis: An Introduction.

11.14 SUGGESTED READING:-

 Goyal and Gupta (Twenty first edition 2010), Function of complex

Variable.
 https://old.mu.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Paper-III-
Complex-Analysis.pdf
 James Brown and Ruel Churchill (2019), Complex Variables and
Applications.
 R. A. Johnson (2020), Introduction to Complex Analysis.

11.15 TERMINAL QUESTIONS:-

𝑧2
(TQ-1) If 𝑓(𝑧) = ∑∞𝑛=1 4+𝑛2𝑧 2, show that 𝑓(𝑧) is finite and continuous
for all real values of z but f(z) cannot be expanded in a Maclaurin’s series.
Show that 𝑓(𝑧) possesses Laurent’s expansion valid in succession of the
ring spaces.
(TQ-2) Show the function 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑧 has a simple pole at 𝑧 = ∞.
2
(TQ-3) Show that the function 𝑒 −1/𝑧 has no singularities.
(TQ-4) Show that the function 𝑒 𝑧 has isolated essential singularity at 𝑧 =
∞.
(TQ-5) Show that the function 𝑒 1/𝑧 actually takes every value except
zero an infinite number of times in the neighborhood of 𝑧 = 0.
(TQ-6) Prove that a function which have no singularity in the finite part
of the planes or at infinity is constant.
(TQ-7) To show that a function which has no singularity in the finite part
of the plane and has a pole of order 𝑛 at infinity is a polynomial of degree
𝑛.
(TQ-8) If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is an essential singularity of 𝑓(𝑧), prove that any
positive number, 𝑟, 𝜀 and any number 𝑐, there is a point in the circle
|𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝑟 at which |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑐 | < 𝜀.
(TQ-9) If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is an isolated singularity of 𝑓(𝑧) and if 𝑓(𝑧) is bounded
on some deleted neighborhood of 𝑎, then 𝑎 is a removable singularity.
(TQ-10) If 𝑓(𝑧) has a pole at 𝑧 = 𝑎, thenprove that |𝑓(𝑧)| → ∞, 𝑧 → 𝑎.
(TQ-11) Objectives Types Questions:
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1. If a function is analytic at all points of a bounded domain except at

infinity many points, then these points are called:
a. Zeros
b. Singularities
c. Poles
d. Simple points
2. A function which has poles as its only singularities in the finite
part of the plane is
a. An analytic function
b. A meromorphic function
c. An entire function
d. A finite function
1
3. The number of zeros of the function 𝑓 (𝑧) = sin (𝑧) is:
a. 3
b. 4
c. Infinite
d. None
1
4. The number of poles of the function 𝑓 (𝑧) = tan 𝑧 is:
a. 2
b. 4
c. Infinite
d. None
5. What type of singularity is characterized by the fact that a
function's Laurent series contains only a finite number of negative
power terms?
a. Removable Singularity
b. Pole
c. Essential Singularity
d. Isolated Singularity
(TQ-12) True/ False Types Questions:
1. A removable singularity is characterized by a Laurent series with
no negative power terms.
2. At a pole, the Laurent series of the function has an infinite number
of negative power terms.
3. An essential singularity is a point where the Laurent series of the
function has only a finite number of negative power terms.
𝑓(𝑧)
4. A function with a pole at 𝑧0 can be expressed as (𝑧−𝑧 )𝑛 where f(z)
0
is analytic and non-zero at 𝑧0 .
5. The behavior of a function near an isolated singularity can be
classified as removable, pole, or essential.
6. The residue of a function at a removable singularity is always zero.
7. Every isolated singularity of a function is either a removable
singularity, a pole, or an essential singularity.

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8. The function 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 1/(𝑧−1) has a removable singularity at 𝑧 = 1.

(TQ-13) Find kind of the singularities of the following
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜋𝑧
a. (𝑧−𝑎)2 at 𝑧 = 𝑎 and 𝑧 = ∞.
b. tan(1/𝑧) at 𝑧 = 0.
1
c. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑧) at 𝑧 = 0.
1
d. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [1−𝑧] at 𝑧 = 1.
1 𝜋
e. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 at 𝑧 = 4 .
f. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 at 𝑧 = ∞.
𝑒𝑧
g. 𝑧 2+4
1−𝑒 𝑧
h. 𝑓(𝑧) = 1+𝑒 𝑧 at 𝑧 = ∞.
i. 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑧 at 𝑧 = ∞.

11.16 ANSWERS:-
SELF CHECK ANSWERS

1. A singularity is a point at which a complex function is not analytic.

Singularities are points where the function fails to be differentiable
or undefined.
2. The three main types of isolated singularities are:
 Removable singularities
 Poles
 Essential singularities
3. A removable singularity at 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a point where a function 𝑓(𝑧)
is not defined or not analytic, but can be made analytic by defining
or redefining 𝑓(𝑎) appropriately. If 𝑓(𝑧) is bounded in some
deleted neighborhood of 𝑎, then 𝑎 is a removable singularity.
4. Zeros of a function 𝑓(𝑧) are said to be isolated if each zero has a
neighborhood in which it is the only zero of the function. This
implies that there are no other zeros of 𝑓(𝑧) arbitrarily close to it.
5. If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a simply connected region 𝐷 and
has a sequence of zeros 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … … .. that accumulate at a point
a within 𝐷, then either 𝑓(𝑧) is identically zero in 𝐷, or 𝑧 = 𝑎 is an
isolated essential singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).
6. The Weierstrass theorem states that if 𝑧 = 𝑎 is an isolated
singularity of 𝑓(𝑧) and if 𝑓(𝑧) is bounded on some deleted
neighborhood of 𝑎, then 𝑎 is a removable singularity.

TERMINAL ANSWERS

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(TQ-11) 1.b 2.b 3.c 4.c 5.d

(TQ-12) 1.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T

6.T 7.T 8.T
(TQ-13)
a. 𝑧=𝑎
b. 𝑧=0
c. 𝑧=0
d. 𝑧=1
𝜋
e. 𝑧=4
f. 𝑧 = ∞.
g. 𝑧 = 2𝑖, −2𝑖
h. 𝑧=∞
i. 𝑧 = ∞.

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UNIT 12:- The residue theorem

CONTENTS:
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 Cauchy’s Residue Theorem
12.4 Computation of Residue at Finite Pole
12.5 Working Rule (For Computing the Residue)
12.6 Jordan’s Inequality
12.7 Integration Round the Unit Circle
12.8 Evaluation of Integrals of the Type
12.9 Summary
12.10 Glossary
12.11 References
12.12 Suggested Reading
12.13 Terminal questions
12.14 Answers

12.1 INTRODUCTION:-
The residue theorem is a powerful tool in complex analysis, which
simplifies the evaluation of contour integrals. It states that if a function
𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on a simple closed contour 𝐶, except for a finite
number of isolated singularities within 𝐶, then the integral of 𝑓(𝑧) around
C is 2πi times the sum of the residues of f at those singularities. Formally,
∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∑ 𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓, 𝑧𝑘 ) where 𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓, 𝑧𝑘 ) denotes the residue of 𝑓
at the singularity 𝑧𝑘 . This theorem greatly facilitates the computation of
complex integrals, especially in cases where directly evaluating the
integral is difficult.

12.2OBJECTIVES:-
After studying this unit, learners will be able to:
 Understand and verify the Cauchy residue theorem,
comprehending its significance and applications in evaluating
contour integrals with isolated singularities.

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 Analyze Jordan's lemma, gaining insights into its role in

simplifying the evaluation of integrals involving exponential
functions and semicircular contours.
 Solve integration problems around the unit circle, applying the
concepts learned to compute integrals of complex functions
effectively.

12.3 CAUCHY’S RESIDUE THEOREM:-

Theorem1: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be a function that is analytic inside and on a simple
closed contour C, except for a finite number of isolated singularities
𝑧1 , 𝑧2 … … … … 𝑧𝑛 inside 𝐶. Then prove that the integral of 𝑓(𝑧) around 𝐶
is given by:
𝑛

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∑ 𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝑧𝑟 )

𝐶 𝑟=1
where 𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝑧𝑟 ) denotes the residue of 𝑓 at the singularity 𝑧𝑘 .
Proof: Let 𝛾1 , 𝛾2 , … … , 𝛾𝑛 are the circles with centres at 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … … , 𝑧𝑛
respectively and radii within C and do not overlap. 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within
the annulus bounded by these circles and curve C, by the corollary to
Cauchy’s theorem,
∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 + ⋯ + ∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
𝐶 𝛾1 𝛾2 𝛾𝑛
1
But 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝛾 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑧1
1
= 𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝑧1 )
∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝑧1 )
𝛾1
Using(1), we obtain
∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝑧1 ) + ⋯ + 2𝜋𝑖𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝑧𝑛 )
𝐶
𝑛

= 2𝜋𝑖 ∑ 𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝑧1 )
𝑟=1
This completes the proof that the integral of 𝑓(𝑧) around a simple closed
contour 𝐶 is 2𝜋𝑖 times the sum of residues of 𝑓 at the isolated singularities
inside 𝐶.
Theorem2: If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic except at finite number of
singularities (including that at infinity), then the sum of residues of these
singularities is zero.

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Proof: Let 𝐶 be a closed contour that encloses all the singularities of 𝑓(𝑧)
in the finite part of the complex plane, except that at infinity. By sum
∑ 𝑅 residues at all the singularities of 𝑓(𝑧), the integral of 𝑓(𝑧) around C
is given by:
∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∑ 𝑅
𝐶
Also
1
− ∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = ∞)
2𝜋𝑖 𝛾1
Adding these equations, we obtain
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = ∞) + ∑ 𝑅 = 0
This completes the proof that the sum of the residues of f(z) at all
singularities in the finite plane, including the singularity at infinity, is zero.
SOLVED EXAMPLE
𝑧2
EXAMPLE1: Evaluate the residue of (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)(𝑧−3) at 1,2,3 and infinity
and show that their sum is zero.
SOLUTION: Suppose the given residue is
𝑧2
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2)(𝑧 − 3)
Residue at 𝒛 = 𝟏: To find the residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 1, we first rewrite
𝑓(𝑧) as:
𝑧2
lim(𝑧 − 1) 𝑓(𝑧) = lim
𝑧→1 𝑧→1 (𝑧 − 2)(𝑧 − 3)

𝑧2 1
= =
(1 − 2)(1 − 3) 2
Residue at 𝒛 = 𝟐: To find the residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 2, we first rewrite
𝑓(𝑧) as:
𝑧2
lim(𝑧 − 2) 𝑓(𝑧) = lim = −4
𝑧→1 𝑧→1 (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 3)

Residue at 𝒛 = 𝟑:
𝑧2 9
lim(𝑧 − 3) 𝑓(𝑧) = lim =
𝑧→1 𝑧→1 (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2) 2
Residue at 𝒛 = +∞:

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𝑧𝑧
lim(−𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧) = lim = −1
𝑧→1 𝑧→1 𝑧(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2)(𝑧 − 3)

1 9
Sum of residues= 2 − 4 + 2 − 1 = 0.
Therefore, the sum of residues of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 1,2,3, and infinity is indeed
zero.
𝑧3
EXAMPLE2: Evaluate the residue of (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)(𝑧−3) at 𝑧 → ∞.
SOLUTION: Suppose the given residue is
𝑧3
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2)(𝑧 − 3)
1 −1 2 −1 3 −1
= (1 − ) (1 − ) (1 − )
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
1 2 3
= (1 + + ⋯ ) (1 + + ⋯ ) (1 + + ⋯ )
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
6 1
= 1 + + ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓
𝑧 𝑧
Thus,
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓, ∞) = −6
𝑧3
Therefore, the residue of (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)(𝑧−3) at 𝑧 → ∞ is −6.

𝑒𝑧
EXAMPLE3: Evaluate the residue of 𝑓(𝑧) where 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 2 (𝑧 2+9) at 𝑧 =
0, −3𝑖, +3𝑖.
𝑒𝑧
SOLUTION: To find the residues of the function 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 2(𝑧 2+9)at the
given points 𝑧 = 0, 𝑧 = −3𝑖, and 𝑧 = 3𝑖, follow these steps:
1. Residue at 𝒛 = 𝟎: The point 𝑧 = 0 is a pole of order 2. To find the
residue at a pole of order 2, use the formula:
𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓, 𝑧0 ) = lim [(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑓(𝑧)]
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑑𝑧

Here, 𝑧0 = 0 so we need
𝑑 2 𝑒𝑧
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓, 𝑧0 ) = lim 𝑧 2 2
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑑𝑧 𝑧 (𝑧 + 9)
Simplify inside the limit:
𝑒𝑧 𝑒𝑧
𝑧2 =
𝑧 2 (𝑧 2 + 9) (𝑧 2 + 9)

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Now, differentiate:
𝑑 𝑒𝑧 𝑒 𝑧 (𝑧 2 + 9) − 𝑒 𝑧 2𝑧 𝑒 𝑧 (𝑧 2 + 9 − 2𝑧) 9 1
2
= 2 2
= 2 2
= =
𝑑𝑧 (𝑧 + 9) (𝑧 + 9) (𝑧 + 9) 81 9
Evaluate at 𝑧 = 0:
𝑒 0 (02 + 9 − 2.0) 9 1
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓, 0) = 2 2
= =
(0 + 9) 81 9
2. Residue at 𝒛 = 𝟑𝒊: The point 𝑧 = 3𝑖 is a simple pole. To find the
residue at a simple pole, use the formula:
𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓, 𝑧0 ) = lim [(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑓(𝑧)]
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑑𝑧

Here, 𝑧0 = 3𝑖 so we need
𝑒𝑧
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓, 3𝑖) = (𝑧 − 3𝑖) 2 2
𝑧 (𝑧 + 9)
(𝑧 2 + 9) = (𝑧 − 3𝑖 )(𝑧 + 3𝑖 )
𝑒𝑧
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓, 3𝑖) = 2
𝑧 (𝑧 + 3𝑖 )

Evaluate at 𝑧 = 3𝑖:
𝑒 3𝑖 𝑒 3𝑖
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓, 3𝑖 ) = =
(3𝑖 )2 (3𝑖 + 3𝑖 ) −54𝑖
3. Residue at 𝒛 = −𝟑𝒊:
Similarly, 𝑧 = −3𝑖 is a simple pole. To find the residue:
𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓, 𝑧0 ) = lim [(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑓(𝑧)]
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑑𝑧

Here, 𝑧0 = −3𝑖 so we need

𝑒𝑧
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓, −3𝑖) = (𝑧 + 3𝑖)
𝑧 2 (𝑧 2 + 9)
(𝑧 2 + 9) = (𝑧 − 3𝑖 )(𝑧 + 3𝑖 )
𝑒𝑧
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓, 3𝑖) = 2
𝑧 (𝑧 − 3𝑖 )

Evaluate at 𝑧 = −3𝑖:
𝑒 −3𝑖 𝑒 3𝑖
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓, −3𝑖 ) = =
(−3𝑖 )2 (−3𝑖 − 3𝑖 ) 54𝑖
Hence

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1
 Residue at 𝑧 = 0: 9
𝑒 3𝑖
 Residue at 𝑧 = 3𝑖: −54𝑖
𝑒 3𝑖
 Residue at 𝑧 = −3𝑖: 54𝑖
𝑒𝑧
EXAMPLE4: Using residue theorem, evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧(𝑧−1)2 𝑑𝑧 where C is
circle |𝑧| = 2.
𝑒𝑧
SOLUTION: To evaluate the integral ∫𝐶 𝑧(𝑧−1)2 𝑑𝑧 where C is circle |𝑧| =
2. Using the residue theorem, we need to find the residues of the
integrand inside the contour 𝐶.
𝑒𝑧
The integrate 𝑧(𝑧−1)2 has singularities at 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑧 = 1.

 𝑧 = 0 is a simple pole.
 𝑧 = 1 is a pole of order 2.
Both poles are inside the contour ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 2.
Residue at 𝒛 = 𝟎:
For the simple pole at 𝑧 = 0:
𝑒𝑧 𝑒𝑧 𝑒𝑧 𝑒0
𝑅𝑒𝑠 0 = lim 𝑧 = lim = =1
𝑧(𝑧 − 1)2 𝑧→0 𝑧(𝑧 − 1)2 𝑧→0 (𝑧 − 1)2 (0 − 1)0
Residue at 𝒛 = 𝟏:
For the pole of order 2 at 𝑧 = 1:
𝑒𝑧 𝑑 2
𝑒𝑧 𝑑 𝑒𝑧
𝑅𝑒𝑠 , 1 = lim (𝑧 − 1) = lim
𝑧(𝑧 − 1)2 𝑧→1 𝑑𝑧 𝑧(𝑧 − 1)2 𝑧→0 𝑑𝑧 𝑧
Now, differentiate:
𝑑 𝑒 𝑧 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 𝑧
=
𝑑𝑧 𝑧 𝑧2
Evaluate at 𝑧 = 1:
𝑒𝑧 1𝑒 1 − 𝑒 1
𝑅𝑒𝑠 , 1 = =0
𝑧(𝑧 − 1)2 12
The residue theorem states:

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓, 𝑧𝑖 )

𝐶

Sum of residues inside C:

𝑒𝑧 𝑒𝑧
𝑅𝑒𝑠 , 0 + 𝑅𝑒𝑠 ,1 = 0+ 1 = 1
𝑧(𝑧 − 1)2 𝑧(𝑧 − 1)2
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Therefore, the integral is:

𝑒𝑧
∫ 2
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∙ 1 = 2𝜋𝑖
𝐶 𝑧(𝑧 − 1)

So, the value of the integral is 2𝜋𝑖.

12.4 COMPUTATION OF RESIDUE AT FINITE

POLE:-
1. Residue of 𝒇(𝒛) at a simple pole 𝒛 = 𝒂.
i. 𝑅𝑒𝑠 (𝑧 = 𝑎) = lim (𝑧 − 𝑎) 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑧→𝑎
𝜙(𝑧)
ii. Let 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝜓(𝑧) have a simple pole at 𝑧 = 𝑎, where 𝜓(𝑧) =
(𝑧 − 𝑎)𝐹(𝑧) and 𝐹 (𝑎) ≠ 0.
Then, residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑎
= lim (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑓(𝑧)
𝑧→𝑎
𝜙(𝑧) 0
= lim (𝑧 − 𝑎) [𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ]
𝑧→𝑎 𝜓(𝑧) 0
(𝑧 − 𝑎)2 ′′(𝑎)
(𝑧 − 𝑎) [𝜙(𝑎) + (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝜙 ′(𝑎) + 𝜙 + ⋯]
2!
= lim
𝑧→𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎)2 ′′(𝑎)
𝜓(𝑎) + (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝜓 ′(𝑎) + 𝜓 +⋯
2!
[by Taylor’s theorem]

(𝑧 − 𝑎)2 ′′(𝑎)
[𝜙(𝑎) + (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝜙 ′(𝑎) + 𝜙 + ⋯ ] 𝜙 (𝑎 )
2!
= lim = ′
𝑧→𝑎 (𝑧 − 𝑎)2 ′′(𝑎) 𝜓 (𝑎)
𝜓 ′ (𝑎) + 𝜓 + ⋯
2!
[for (𝑎) = 0 ]
Hence
𝜙 (𝑎 )
𝑅𝑒𝑠 (𝑧 = 𝑎) =
𝜓 ′ (𝑎)
2. Residue at a pole of order 𝒎:
𝜙(𝑧) 𝜙 (𝑚−1) (𝑎)
Theorem3: To prove that the residue of (𝑧−𝑎)𝑚 at 𝑧 = 𝑎 is (𝑚−1)!
.

Proof: Let 𝜙(𝑧) be analytic at 𝑧 = 𝑎, and let

𝜙 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = … (1)
(𝑧 − 𝑎 )𝑚

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where 𝑚 ≥ 1. Then the residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑎 is given by:

Residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑎 is 𝑏1 , where 𝑏1 is given by
1 1 𝜙 (𝑧 )
𝑏1 = ∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚
1 (𝑚 − 1)! 𝜙 (𝑧 )
= . ∫ 𝑚−1+1
𝑑𝑧
(𝑚 − 1)! 2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎 )
1
= . 𝜙 (𝑚−1) (𝑎)
(𝑚 − 1)!
[by Cauchy’s integral formula]
From (1), we obtain
1 𝑑𝑚−1
𝑅𝑒𝑠 (𝑧 = 𝑎) = (𝑚−1)! 𝑑𝑧 𝑚−1 [(𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚 𝑓(𝑧)] as 𝑧 → 𝑎.

Theorem4: Liouville’s theorem. If a function is analytic at every point

and finite at infinity, then it must be constant.
Proof: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be the given function. Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be any two distinct
points, then the only singularities of the function
𝑓(𝑧)
𝐹(𝑧) = (𝑧−𝑎)(𝑧−𝑏) are 𝑧 = 𝑎 and 𝑧 = 𝑏,

and possibly at infinity. But

𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = ∞) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 −𝑧𝐹(𝑧)
𝑧→∞
−𝑧
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = ∞) = [𝑙𝑖𝑚 ] × [ lim 𝑓(𝑧)] = 0
𝑧→∞ (𝑧 − 𝑎 )(𝑧 − 𝑏 ) 𝑧→∞
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = ∞) = 0
Since the sum of all the residues is zero and so
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝑎) + 𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝑏) + 𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = ∞) = 0
𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝐹(𝑧) + 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝑧 − 𝑏)𝐹 (𝑧) + 0 = 0
𝑧→∞ 𝑧→∞
𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓(𝑏)
+ = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
(𝑎 − 𝑏 ) (𝑏 − 𝑎 )
where 𝑓(𝑧) is constant.

12.5 WORKING RULE (FOR COMPUTING THE

RESIDUE):-
To compute the residue of a function at a given point, follow these steps:
1. Identify the Type of Pole:
Determine if the point 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a simple pole, a pole of higher
order, or an essential singularity.
2. Simple Pole (Pole of Order 1):
If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a simple pole, the residue can be found using the limit:

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𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝑎) = lim(𝑧 − 𝑎) 𝑓(𝑧)

𝑧−𝑎
3. Pole of Order m:
If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a pole of order 𝑚, the residue can be computed using
the formula:
1 𝑑 𝑚−1
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓, 𝑎) = lim [(𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑓(𝑧)]
(𝑚 − 1)! 𝑧−𝑎 𝑑𝑧 𝑚−1
4. Removable Singularity:
If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a removable singularity, the residue is zero because the
function is analytic at that point after removing the singularity.
5. Residue for Functions Expressed as Laurent Series:
If the function can be expressed as a Laurent series around 𝑧 = 𝑎:
𝑛

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∑ 𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟 )

𝐶 𝑟=1

SOLVED EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE5: Find the residue
𝑧3
at 𝑧 = 1,2,3.
(𝑧−1)4 (𝑧−2)(𝑧−3)

SOLUTION: Suppose
𝑧3
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
(𝑧 − 1)4 (𝑧 − 2)(𝑧 − 3)
Now we take
𝑧3
𝜙(𝑧) = (𝑧−2)(𝑧−3) , then
𝜙 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
(𝑧 − 1)4
𝜙 (3) (1)
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 1) = … (1)
3!
Breaking 𝜙(𝑧) into partial fractions
8 27
𝜙 (𝑧 ) = 𝑧 + 5 − +
𝑧−2 𝑧−3
8 27
𝜙′(𝑧) = 𝑧 + 5 − 2
+
(𝑧 − 2) (𝑧 − 3)2
16 54
𝜙′′(𝑧) = − 3
+
(𝑧 − 2) (𝑧 − 3 )3
48 162
𝜙 3 (𝑧 ) = −
(𝑧 − 2 )4 (𝑧 − 3) 4
162 303
𝜙 3 (1) = 48 − =
16 8
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Now using in (1), we have

303 101
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 1) = =
8 16
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 2) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑧 − 2) 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑧−2

𝑧3 8
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 2) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 4
= = −8
𝑧−2 (𝑧 − 1) (𝑧 − 3) 1 × (−1)
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 3) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑧 − 3) 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑧−2

𝑧3 27 27
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 3) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = =
𝑧−3 (𝑧 − 1)4 (𝑧 − 2) 16 × (1) 16
1
EXAMPLE6: Find the residue of (𝑧 2+1)3 at 𝑧 = 𝑖.

SOLUTION: Let
1 𝜙 (𝑧 )
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = =
(𝑧 2 + 1 )3 (𝑧 − 𝑖 )3
1 −3 12
Where 𝜙(𝑧) = (𝑧+𝑖)3 , 𝜙 ′ (𝑖) = (𝑧+𝑖)4 , 𝜙 ′′(𝑧) = (𝑧+𝑖)5
12 12 3
𝜙 ′′ (𝑖) = 5
= 5
=
(𝑖 + 𝑖 ) (2𝑖 ) 8𝑖
𝜙 ′′ (𝑖 ) 3
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝑖 ) = =
2! 16!
Hence 𝑧 = 𝑖 is the pole of order 3.
𝑧3
EXAMPLE7: Find the residue of (𝑧 2−1) at 𝑧 = ∞.

SOLUTION: Let
𝑧3
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
(𝑧 2 − 1)
Then
𝑧3 1 −1
𝑓 (𝑧) = 2 (1 − 2 )
𝑧 𝑧
1 1 1
= 𝑧 [1 + 2 + 4 + 6 + ⋯ ]
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
1 1 1
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 𝑧 + + 3 + 5 + ⋯
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
1
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = ∞) = − (𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ) = −1 = −1
𝑧

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2𝑧+1
EXAMPLE8: Find the residue of 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧 2+𝑎2)2 at 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎.

SOLUTION: Let
2𝑧 + 1 𝜙(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 2 2
= ,
(𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎) (𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎) (𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎)2
1
𝜙 (𝑧 ) =
(𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎)2
𝑓(𝑧) has a pole of order 2 at 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎
𝜙 ′ (𝑧) −2 2 𝑖
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎) = lim = lim 3
=− 3
= 3
𝑧→𝑖𝑎 1 𝑧→𝑖𝑎 (𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎 ) (2𝑖𝑎) 4𝑎
Theorem5: If 𝐴𝐵 is the arc 𝜃1 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜃2 of the circle |𝑧 − 𝑎| = 𝑟 and if
lim (𝑧 − 𝑎) 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑘 (constant), then lim ∫𝐴𝐵 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )𝑘.
𝑧→𝑎 𝑟→0

Proof: Let 𝐴𝐵 be the arc 𝜃1 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜃2 of the circle ∣ 𝑧 − 𝑎 ∣= 𝑟, and

suppose lim (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑘 , where 𝑘 is a constant. We want to prove
𝑧→𝑎
that:

lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )𝑘.

𝑟→0 𝐴𝐵

The arc 𝐴𝐵 on the circle ∣ 𝑧 − 𝑎 ∣= 𝑟 can be parameterized as:

𝑧(𝜃) = 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 𝜃1 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜃2
The differential 𝑑𝑧 is:
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
The integral over the arc 𝐴𝐵 is:
𝜃2
∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧(𝜃)) 𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝐴𝐵 𝜃1
𝑖𝜃
Substitute 𝑧(𝜃) = 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 into 𝑓(𝑧):
𝜃2
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) 𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜃1

lim (𝑧 − 𝑎) 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑘, substitute 𝑧(𝜃) = 𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 and take the limit as 𝑟 →

𝑧→𝑎
0:
𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑎) 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) = 𝑘
𝑟→0 𝑟→0

So,
𝑘
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑟𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) =
𝑟→0 𝑒 𝑖𝜃

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Substitute this into the integral:

𝜃2 𝜃2
𝑘 𝑖𝜃
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∫ 𝑖𝑒 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∫ 𝑘𝑖𝑑𝜃
𝑟→0 𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑟→0 𝜃
1 1

The 𝑟 terms cancel out, and the integral simplifies to:

𝜃2
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∫ 𝑘𝑖𝑑𝜃
𝑟→0 𝜃
1

The integral is straightforward:

𝜃2
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∫ 𝑘𝑖𝑑𝜃 = 𝑘𝑖(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
𝑟→0 𝜃
1

Hence,

lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )𝑘

𝑟→0 𝐴𝐵

This completes the proof.

Theorem6: If 𝐴𝐵 is an arc 𝛼 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝛽 of the circle |𝑧| = 𝑅 and if
lim 𝑧𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑘(constant), then
𝑅→∞

lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 (𝛽 − 𝛼 )𝑘.

𝑅→0 𝐴𝐵

Proof: Let 𝐴𝐵 be the arc 𝛼 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝛽 of the circle ∣ 𝑧 − 𝑎 ∣= 𝑟, and

suppose lim (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑘 , where 𝑘 is a constant. We want to prove
𝑧→𝑎
that:

lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 (𝛽 − 𝛼 )𝑘.

𝑅→0 𝐴𝐵

The arc 𝐴𝐵 on the circle ∣ 𝑧 − 𝑎 ∣= 𝑟 can be parameterized as:

𝑧(𝜃) = 𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 𝛼≤𝜃≤𝛽
The differential 𝑑𝑧 is:
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
The integral over the arc 𝐴𝐵 is:
𝛽
∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧(𝜃)) 𝑖𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝐴𝐵 𝛼
𝑖𝜃
Substitute 𝑧(𝜃) = 𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒 into 𝑓(𝑧):
𝜃2
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) 𝑖𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜃1

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lim (𝑧 − 𝑎) 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑘, substitute 𝑧(𝜃) = 𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 and take the limit as

𝑧→𝑎
𝑅 → 0:
𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑎) 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) = 𝑘
𝑅→0 𝑅→0

So,
𝑘
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑟𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) =
𝑅→0 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
Substitute this into the integral:
𝛽 𝛽
𝑘 𝑖𝜃
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∫ 𝑖𝑒 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∫ 𝑘𝑖𝑑𝜃
𝑅→0 𝛼 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑟→0 𝛼

The 𝑅 terms cancel out, and the integral simplifies to:

𝛽
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∫ 𝑘𝑖𝑑𝜃
𝑟→0 𝛼

The integral is straightforward:

𝛽
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∫ 𝑘𝑖𝑑𝜃 = 𝑘𝑖(𝛽 − 𝛼 )
𝑟→0 𝛼

Hence,

lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 (𝛽 − 𝛼 )𝑘.

𝑅→0 𝐴𝐵

This completes the proof.

12.6 JORDAN’S INEQUALITY:-

Jordan's Inequality is an inequality that provides bounds on the sine
function in terms of the angle 𝜃. It is defined as follows:
For any angle 𝜃 in the interval
2
𝜃 ≤ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≤ 𝜃
𝜋
Theorem7: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic except at finite number of singularities and
if 𝑓(𝑧) → 0 uniformly as 𝑧 → ∞, then
lim ∫𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0, 𝑚 > 0
𝑅→0 Γ
where Γ denotes the semi-circle |𝑧| = 𝑅, 𝐼 (𝑧) > 0.
Proof: Given
 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic except at a finite number of singularities.
 f(𝑧) → 0 uniformly as ∣ 𝑧 ∣→ ∞.

The semicircle Γ in the upper half-plane can be parametrized as:

𝑧(𝜃) = 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 0≤𝜃≤𝜋

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The differential 𝑑𝑧 is:

𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
The integral over Γ becomes:
𝜋
𝑖𝜃
∫𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑅𝑒 𝑓(𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )𝑖𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Γ 0
The exponential term 𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧 for 𝑧 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 is:
𝑖𝜃
𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑅𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑅(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) = 𝑒 −𝑖𝑚𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑒 𝑚𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Thus, the integral becomes:
𝜋
∫ 𝑒 −𝑖𝑚𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑒 𝑚𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑓(𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ). 𝑖𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
Consider the modulus of the integral:
𝜋
|∫𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧| ≤ |∫ 𝑒 −𝑖𝑚𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑒 𝑚𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑓(𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ). 𝑖𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 | 𝑑𝜃
Γ 0
𝑚𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑚𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Since |𝑒 | = 1 and |𝑒 | = 𝑒 −𝑚𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 , this simplifies to:

𝜋
|∫𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧| ≤ ∫ 𝑒 −𝑖𝑚𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 |𝑓(𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )|𝑑𝜃
Γ 0
Given that 𝑓(𝑧) → 0 uniformly as ∣ 𝑧 ∣→ ∞, for large 𝑅,
|𝑓(𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )|becomes small uniformly for all 𝜃.
Therefore, for large R, we have:
𝜋
|∫𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧| ≤ 𝑅. ∈. ∫ 𝑒 −𝑖𝑚𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Γ 0
where 𝜖 is a small constant because 𝑓(𝑧) is small for large 𝑅.
𝜋
The integral ∫0 𝑒 −𝑖𝑚𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 tends to zero as R increases because
𝑒 −𝑖𝑚𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 decays rapidly except near 𝜃 = 0 and 𝜃 = 𝜋, where 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 is
small.
Therefore, the whole expression tends to zero:
lim ∫𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑅→0 Γ
Thus, we have shown that:
lim ∫𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑧 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0, 𝑚 > 0
𝑅→0 Γ

12.7 INTEGRATION ROUND THE UNIT CIRCLE:-

We proceed to evaluate the integrals of the type
2𝜋
∫ 𝑓(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑑𝜃
0
𝑖𝜃
If we take 𝑧 = 𝑒 , then the above takes the form
𝑧+𝑧 −1 𝑧−𝑧 −1
∫𝐶 𝜙(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧. For 2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 2
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Where C is the unit circle |𝑧| = 1.
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SOLVED EXAMPLE
2𝜋 𝑑𝜃
EXAMPLE9: Evaluate∫0 , 𝑎2 < 1.
1+𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2𝜋 𝑑𝜃
SOLUTION: Let 𝐼 = ∫0 , 𝑎2 < 1
1+𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Let C be a circle |𝑧| = 1.

𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝑑𝜃 = 𝑖𝑧𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑧 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑧 + 𝑧 −1 1 + 𝑧 2
𝑑𝜃 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = =
𝑖𝑧 2 2 2𝑧
1 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧
𝐼=∫ 2 ( )= ∫
(
𝐶 [1 + 𝑎 1 + 𝑧 ] 𝑖𝑧
) 𝑖 2𝑧 + 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑧 2
2𝑧
2
𝐼= ∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝑎𝑖 𝐶
1
where 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 2𝑧
[𝑧 2 + +1]
𝑎

Now
2𝑧
𝑧2 + + 1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 𝑎 = 0
𝑎
or
−2 ± √4 − 4𝑎2 −1 ± √1 − 𝑎2
𝑧= =
2𝑎 𝑎
Take
−1 + √1 − 𝑎2 −1 − √1 − 𝑎2
𝛼= ,𝛽 =
𝑎 𝑎
Than
𝛼𝛽 = 1. Evidently |𝛼 | < 1. And |𝛽 | > 1.
𝑧 = 𝛼 is a simple pole lying inside 𝐶.
1
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝛼 ) = lim (𝑧 − 𝛼 ) 𝑓(𝑧) = lim (𝑧 − 𝛼 )
𝑧→𝛼 𝑧→𝛼 (𝑧 − 𝛼 )(𝑧 − 𝛽 )
1 1 𝑎
= lim = =
𝑧→𝛼 (𝑧 − 𝛽 ) (𝛼 − 𝛽 ) 2√1 − 𝑎2
2𝜋𝑖𝑎 𝜋𝑖𝑎
∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖. 𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝛼 ) = =
𝐶 2√1 − 𝑎2 √1 − 𝑎2
2 2 𝜋𝑖𝑎 2𝜋
𝐼 = ∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ( ) =
𝑎𝑖 𝐶 𝑎𝑖 √1 − 𝑎2 √1 − 𝑎2

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𝜋 𝑎𝑑𝜃
EXAMPLE10: Evaluate ∫0 , where 𝑎 > 0.
𝑎 2 +𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃

SOLUTION: Given
𝜋
𝑎𝑑𝜃
𝐼=∫
0 𝑎2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
Then
𝜋 𝜋
2𝑎𝑑𝜃 2𝑎𝑑𝜃
𝐼=∫ 2 2
= ∫ 2
0 2𝑎 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 0 2𝑎 + 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
𝜋
𝑎𝑑𝑡
=∫ , 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 2𝜃 = 𝑡
0 2𝑎2 + 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝜋
𝑎𝑑𝑡
=∫
1
0 2𝑎2 + 1 − 2 (𝑒 𝑖𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑡 )

Substituting 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑡 so 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑑𝑡, we have

2𝑎 𝑑𝑧
𝐼=∫
𝐶 2(2𝑎2 −1
+ 1) − (𝑧 + 𝑧 ) 𝑖𝑧
where c is unit circle |𝑧| = 1
2𝑎 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝐼= ∫ 2 2
= 2𝑎𝑖 ∫ 2 2
𝑖 𝐶 2(2𝑎 + 1)𝑧 − 𝑧 − 1 𝐶 𝑧 − 2(2𝑎 + 1)𝑧 + 1

𝐼 = ∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 … (1)
𝐶
1
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
𝑧2 − 2(2𝑎2 + 1)𝑧 + 1
The poles 𝑓 (𝑧) are given as
𝑧 2 − 2(2𝑎2 + 1)𝑧 + 1 = 0
2(2𝑎2 + 1) ± √4(2𝑎2 + 1)2 − 4
𝑧=
2
= (2𝑎2 + 1) ± √(2𝑎2 + 1)2 − 1

= (2𝑎2 + 1) ± 2𝑎√𝑎2 + 1
Now taking

𝛼 = (2𝑎2 + 1) + 2𝑎√𝑎2 + 1
𝛽 = (2𝑎2 + 1) − 2𝑎√𝑎2 + 1
we obtain 𝑧 = 𝛼, 𝛽. Evidently |𝛼 | > 1 and |𝛽 | > 1.
So 𝑓(𝑧) has only simple pole 𝑧 = 𝛽 lying within C.
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1
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝛽 ) = lim (𝑧 − 𝛽 ) 𝑓(𝑧) = lim (𝑧 − 𝛽 )
𝑧→𝛼 𝑧→𝛼 (𝑧 − 𝛼 )(𝑧 − 𝛽 )
1 1
= =
(𝛽 − 𝛼 ) −4𝑎√𝑎2 + 1
By Cauchy’s residue theorem
2𝜋𝑖
∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝐶 ) =
𝐶 −4𝑎√𝑎2 + 1
From (1), we obtain
2𝑖𝑎. 2𝜋𝑖 𝜋
𝐼= =
−4𝑎√𝑎2 + 1 (𝑎 2 + 1)1/2
𝜋 1+2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
EXAMPLE11: Evaluate the contour integration: ∫0 (5+4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ) 𝑑𝜃 .
SOLUTION: Given
𝜋
1 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐼=∫ ( ) 𝑑𝜃
0 5 + 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Then
1 2𝜋 1 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐼= ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝜃
2 0 5 + 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Now we take the circle 𝑐 as |𝑧 = 1|, 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑧𝑑𝜃
1 (1 + 2𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) 𝑑𝑧 1 (1 + 2𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝐼= ∫ ( )= ∫
2 𝐶 5 + 2 (𝑧 + 1) 𝑖𝑧 2𝑖 𝐶 5𝑧 + 2𝑧 2 + 2
𝑧
1 (1 + 2𝑧)𝑑𝑧 1
= ∫ = ∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
4𝑖 𝐶 5𝑧 + 𝑧 2 + 1 4𝑖 𝐶
2
(1+2𝑧) 5𝑧
where 𝑓 (𝑧) = 5𝑧 . So the poles are + 𝑧 2 + 1 = 0.
+𝑧 2 +1 2
2

5±3 1
𝑧 2 + 5𝑧 + 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = − = −2, − = 𝛼, 𝛽
4 2
𝑧 = 𝛼 lies outside |𝑧| = 2 > 1. 𝑧 = 𝛽 lies inside C.
(1 + 2𝑧)
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝛽 ) = lim (𝑧 − 𝛽 ) 𝑓(𝑧) = lim (𝑧 − 𝛽 )
𝑧→𝛼 𝑧→𝛼 (𝑧 − 𝛼 )(𝑧 − 𝛽 )
(1 + 2𝑧) 1 + (−1) 0
= lim = = = 0.
𝑧→𝛼 (𝑧 − 𝛼 ) (𝛽 − 𝛼 ) 𝛽−𝛼

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖. 𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝛽 ) = 2𝜋𝑖. 0 = 0

𝐶

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Hence
𝐼=0
EXAMPLE12: By the method of contour integration, prove that
2𝜋
2𝜋
∫ 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑛𝜃) 𝑑𝜃 =
0 𝑛!
where 𝑛 is a positive integer.
OR
Prove that
2𝜋
2𝜋
∫ 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑑𝜃 =
0 𝑛!

SOLUTION: Now let |𝑧| = 1 denote the circle 𝐶 and

2𝜋
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
0
2𝜋
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑒 𝑖(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃−𝑛𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
0
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼 = ∫ exp[𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑛𝜃)] 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ exp[(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑖𝑛𝜃)] 𝑑𝜃
0 0
𝑑𝑧
−𝑖𝑛𝜃
= ∫𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑧) 𝑒 , 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝐶 𝑖𝑧
1 𝑒𝑧 1
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑛+1 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
𝑖 𝐶𝑧 𝑖 𝐶
𝑒𝑧
where 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 𝑛+1 at 𝑧 = 0 of order 𝑛 + 1.
1 𝑑𝑛 𝑧 1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 0) = 𝑛
[𝑒 ]𝑧=0 = . 𝑒 0 =
𝑛! 𝑑𝑧 𝑛! 𝑛!
By Cauchy’s residue theorem,
2𝜋𝑖
∫𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝐶 ) =
𝐶 𝑛!
From (1), we obtain
1 2𝜋𝑖
𝐼=
𝑖 𝑛!
12.8 EVALUATION OF INTEGRALS OF THE
TYPE:-
∞
∫−∞ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 where the function 𝑓(𝑧) is s.t. no pole of f(z) lies on the real
line, but pole lies in the upper half of z-plane. We evaluate the above
integrals by considering them along a closed contour C consisting of
i. semi circle γ s.t. |𝑧| = 𝑅 in the upper half plane.
ii. real axis from – 𝑅 to 𝑅.
The integral over the closed contour C is:
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𝑅
∫𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝐶 Γ −𝑅
∞
Taking limits as 𝑅 → ∞, ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
According to the Cauchy’s Residue Theorem, the integral over the closed
contour 𝐶 is equal to 2𝜋𝑖 times the sum of the residues of 𝑓(𝑧) inside 𝐶:

Fig.1.
∞
∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝐶)
−∞

SOLVED EXAMPLE
∞ 𝑑𝑥 𝜋
EXAMPLE13: Prove that ∫0 = 2.
1+𝑥 2

SOLUTION: Recall that the integral

1
∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓(𝑧) =
𝐶 1 + 𝑧2
𝑅
∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝐶 −𝑅 Γ

Where C is closed contour consisting of Γ. Let 𝑓(𝑧) has only one simple
pole at 𝑧 = 𝑖 inside 𝐶. So
1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝑖 ) = lim(𝑧 − 𝑖 )𝑓(𝑧) = lim(𝑧 − 𝑖 ) =
𝑧→𝑖 𝑧→𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑖 )(𝑧 + 𝑖 ) 2𝑖
By Cauchy’s residue theorem,
2𝜋𝑖
∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝐶 ) = =𝜋
𝐶 2𝑖
1
lim 𝑧𝑓(𝑧) = lim =0 by theorem6
|𝑧|→∞ |𝑧|→∞ 1+𝑧 2

lim ∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖(𝜋 − 0)(0) = 0

𝑅→∞ Γ

From 𝑅 → ∞ in (1), we obtain

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∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + 0 𝑜𝑟 ∫ 2
= 2 ∫ 2
= 𝜋 𝑜𝑟 ∫ 2
−∞ −∞ 1 + 𝑥 0 1+𝑥 0 1+𝑥
𝜋
=
2
∞ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝑥 𝜋𝑒 −𝑚𝑎
EXAMPLE14: Prove that the contour integration ∫0 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑥 2+𝑎 2 2𝑎
where 𝑚 ≥ 0, 𝑎 ≥ 0.
SOLUTION: First, express the cosine function using Euler's formula:
𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑚𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝑥 =
2
Thus, the integral becomes:
∞
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝑥 1 ∞ 𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑥 ∞
𝑒 −𝑖𝑚𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 2 0 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 2
0 𝑥 +𝑎
2

Consider the complex function:

𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑥
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 2
𝑧 + 𝑎2
𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑥
The poles of 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑥 2+𝑎2 are at 𝑧 = ±𝑖𝑎. 𝑓(𝑧) has only simple one pole
𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎 inside 𝐶.
𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑥
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎) = lim (𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎)𝑓(𝑧) = lim (𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎)
𝑧→𝑖𝑎 𝑧→𝑖𝑎 (𝑧 + 𝑖𝑎)(𝑧 − 𝑖𝑎)
1 −𝑚𝑎
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎) = 𝑒
2𝜋𝑖
1
lim = 0. Hence by Jordan’s Lemma.
|𝑧|→∞ 𝑥 2+𝑎 2

𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑥
lim ∫ 2 2
𝑑𝑧 = lim ∫𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑅→∞ Γ𝑧 +𝑎 𝑅→∞ Γ

By Cauchy’s residue theorem,

2𝜋𝑖𝑒 −𝑚𝑎
∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐶 ) =
𝐶 2𝑖𝑎
𝑅
𝜋
∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑚𝑎
Γ −𝑅 𝑎
Now making 𝑅 → ∞, we have
∞ ∞
𝜋 𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑥 𝜋 −𝑚𝑎
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑚𝑎 𝑜𝑟 ∫ 2 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒
−∞ 𝑎 −∞ 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑎
Now equating real parts, we obtain

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∞
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝑥 𝜋
∫ 2 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑚𝑎 … (1)
−∞ 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑎
∞
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝜋 −𝑚𝑎
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 … (2)
0 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 2𝑎
Deductions:
1. Taking 𝑚 = 𝑎 = 1, we get
∞
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝜋 𝜋
∫ 2 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −1 =
0 𝑥 +𝑎 2 2𝑒
2. Taking 𝑚 = 1 in (1), we obtain
∞
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝜋
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑎
0 𝑥 +4 𝑎
3. Taking 𝑎 = 2, 𝑚 = 1 in (2) , we have
∞
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝜋 𝜋
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −2 = 2
0 𝑥 +4 4 4𝑒
4. Taking 𝑚 = 1 in 92) ,we get
∞
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝜋 −𝑎
∫ 2 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒
0 𝑥 +𝑎 2𝑎
EXAMPLE15: Apply the method of calculus of residues to prove that
∞
log(1 + 𝑥 2 )
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋𝑙𝑜𝑔2
0 1 + 𝑥2
SOLUTION: Consider the complex function
log(𝑧 + 𝑖)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) =
1 + 𝑧2
We use a keyhole contour that consists of:
 A line segment along the real axis from 0 < 𝜖 < 1 and 𝑅 > 1.
 A large semicircle 𝐶𝑅 centered at the origin in the upper half-plane
of radius 𝑅.
 A line segment along the real axis from −𝑅 to −𝜖.
 A small semicircle 𝐶𝜖 around the origin in the upper half-plane.
The function 𝑓(𝑧) has branch points at 𝑧 = ±𝑖. The branch cut is usually
taken along the imaginary axis from 𝑧 = −𝑖 to 𝑧 = 𝑖.
𝑓(𝑧) has poles at 𝑧 = ±𝑖 where 1 + 𝑧 2 = 0
Let's calculate the residue at 𝑧 = 𝑖:
log(𝑧 + 𝑖)
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓(𝑧), 𝑧 = 𝑖 ) = lim(𝑧 − 𝑖 )
𝑧→𝑖 1 + 𝑧2
Since 1 + 𝑧 2 = (𝑖 − 𝑧)(𝑖 + 𝑧), we simplify this to:

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log(2𝑖) log(2𝑒 𝑖𝜋/2 ) log 2 + (𝑖𝜋/2)

𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓(𝑧), 𝑧 = 𝑖 ) = = =
2𝑖 2𝑖 2𝑖
By Cauchy’s residue theorem,
2𝜋𝑖
∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 𝑖)) = [log 2 + (𝑖𝜋/2)]
𝐶 2𝑖𝑎
𝑅
∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = [log 2 + (𝑖𝜋/2)]
Γ −𝑅

Now let 𝑅 → 0 so
∞
log(𝑥 + 𝑖)
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋[log 2 + (𝑖𝜋/2)]
−∞ 1 + 𝑥

Equating real parts from both sides, we get

1 ∞ log(𝑥 + 𝑖 )
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋[log 2]
2 −∞ 1 + 𝑥 2
1 ∞ log(𝑥 + 𝑖) ∞
log(𝑥 + 𝑖)
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋[log 2]
2 −∞ 1 + 𝑥 0 1 + 𝑥2
∞ 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 𝜋
EXAMPLE16: Show that ∫0 𝑥 2+𝑘 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑒 −𝑎𝑘 , (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 > 0, 𝑘 > 0).
SOLUTION: We begin by considering the complex function:
𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝑎𝑧
( )
𝑓 𝑧 = 2
𝑧 + 𝑘2
where 𝑧 is a complex variable. This function has poles at 𝑧 = ±𝑖𝑘.
To evaluate the real integral, consider integrating 𝑓(𝑧) over a contour that
consists of:
A line segment along the real axis from −𝑅 to 𝑅.
A semicircle Γ𝑅 in the upper half-plane (𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑅).
We close the contour in the upper half-plane because 𝑒 𝑖𝑎𝑧 decays rapidly
as 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) increases when 𝑎 > 0.
The only pole of 𝑓(𝑧) in the upper half-plane is at 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑘. The residue of
𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑘 is:
𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝑎𝑧
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓 (𝑧), 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑘) = lim (𝑧 − 𝑖𝑘) 2
𝑧→𝑖𝑘 𝑧 + 𝑘2
2 2 ( )( )
Since 𝑧 + 𝑘 = 𝑧 − 𝑖𝑘 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑘 , the residue simplifies to:
𝑖𝑘𝑒 −𝑎𝑘 𝑒 −𝑎𝑘
( ( ) )
𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓 𝑧 , 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑘 = =
2𝑖𝑘 2
By the residue theorem, the contour integral around the closed contour 𝐶
is:
𝑒 −𝑎𝑘
∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × = 𝜋𝑖𝑒 −𝑎𝑘
𝐶 2
𝑅
∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋𝑖𝑒 −𝑎𝑘
Γ −𝑅

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Now → ∞ , we obtain
𝑅 ∞
𝑥𝑒 𝑖𝑎𝑥
∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 + 𝑘2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋𝑖𝑒 −𝑎𝑘
−∞ −∞ 𝑥
Equating imaginary parts from both sides,
∞ ∞
𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥
∫ 2 + 𝑘2
𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 2 + 𝑘2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋𝑒 −𝑎𝑘
−∞ 𝑥 0 𝑥
∞
𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 1
∫ 2 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋𝑒 −𝑎𝑘 … (1)
0 𝑥 + 𝑘 2
Deduction:
1. Substituting 𝑘 = 1, in (1), we get
∞
𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 1
∫ 2 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋𝑒 −𝑎
0 𝑥 +𝑘 2
2. Substituting 𝑘 = 1, in (1), we get
∞
𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 1
∫ 2 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋𝑒 −𝑘
0 𝑥 +𝑘 2
3. Substituting 𝑎 = 𝑘 = 1, in (1), we get
∞
𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 1 𝜋
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋𝑒 −1 =
0 𝑥 +1 2 2𝑒
SELF CHECK QUESTIONS
1. What is a residue?
2. How do you find the residue at a simple pole?
3. What are the conditions for applying the Residue Theorem?
4. If a function 𝑓(𝑧) has no singularities inside the contour 𝐶, what is
the value of the contour integral?
5. How does the Residue Theorem simplify the evaluation of
integrals?
6. What happens if the contour 𝐶 encloses multiple singularities?

12.9 SUMMARY:-
In this unit we have studied the Residue Theorem in complex analysis
states that if a function is analytic inside and on a closed contour, except
for a finite number of isolated singularities, the contour integral of the
function around the contour is equal to 2πi2πi times the sum of the
residues of the function at those singularities. This theorem provides a
powerful tool for evaluating complex integrals by reducing the problem to
calculating residues at the singular points within the contour.

12.10 GLOSSARY:-

 Residue Theorem: A fundamental theorem in complex analysis

stating that the contour integral of a function around a closed curve

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can be calculated as 2πi times the sum of the residues at the

singularities enclosed by the contour.
 Residue: The coefficient of the 1/𝑧 − 𝑧𝑘 term in the Laurent
series expansion of a function around a singularity 𝑧𝑘 , representing
the contribution of the singularity to the contour integral.
 Contour: A closed, oriented path in the complex plane typically
used to describe the boundary around which the integral is taken.
 Singularity: A point where a complex function is not analytic,
which may be a pole, essential singularity, or other types of non-
removable discontinuity.
 Laurent Series: A representation of a complex function as a
power series that includes terms of negative powers, used to
describe functions near singularities.
 Pole: A type of singularity where the function approaches infinity
as the variable approaches the pole; classified by the order of the
pole, indicating how quickly the function diverges.
 Analytic Function: A function that is differentiable at every point
in a given domain, implying it is smooth and has a well-defined
derivative.

12.11 REFERENCES:-

 Stein, E. M., & Shakarchi, R. (2010), Complex Analysis (Princeton

Lectures in Analysis, Volume II). Princeton University Press.
 Saff, E. B., & Snider, A. D. (2016), Fundamentals of Complex
Analysis with Applications to Engineering, Science, and
Mathematics (3rd ed.). Pearson.
 Brown, J. W., & Churchill, R. V. (2013), Complex Variables and
Applications (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

12.12 SUGGESTED READING:-

 Goyal and Gupta (Twenty first edition 2010), Function of complex

Variable.
 Fischer, W. (2012). Complex Analysis: A Brief Introduction (1st
ed.). World Scientific.
 Mathews, J. H., & Howell, R. W. (2012). Complex Analysis for
Mathematics and Engineering (6th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.
 Stein, E. M., & Shakarchi, R. (2010). Complex Analysis (Princeton
Lectures in Analysis, Volume II). Princeton University Press.

12.13 TERMINAL QUESTIONS:-

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𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
(TQ-1) Using residue theorem, evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧(𝑧−1)2 with C is circle |𝑧| =
2.
(TQ-2) Prove that
lim −𝑧𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = ∞)
𝑧→∞
Provided f(z) is analytic at 𝑧 = ∞.
(TQ-3) Determine the order of the pole and values of residues of the
function
i. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑧
𝑧+3
ii. 𝑧 2−2𝑧
(TQ-4) If 𝜙(𝑧) and 𝜓(𝑧) are two regular functions and 𝑧 = 𝑎 is onced
𝜙(𝑧)
repeated root of 𝜓(𝑧) = 0 and 𝜙 (𝑎) ≠ 0, then prove that the residue 𝜓(𝑧)
at 𝑧 = 𝑎 is
6𝜙 ′ (𝑎)𝜓 ′′(𝑎) − 2𝜙(𝑎) 𝜓′′′(𝑎)
3[𝜓′′′(𝑎)]2
2𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠 23𝜃𝑑𝜃 𝜋(1−𝑝+𝑝2 )
(TQ-5) Prove that ∫0 1−2𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃+𝑝2
= 1−𝑝
,0 < 𝑝 < 1
𝜋 𝑑𝜃
(TQ-6) Evaluate∫0 2+𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃
.
2𝜋 (1+2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
(TQ-7) Prove that ∫0
3+2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑛 being positive integer.
2𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 2𝜋
(TQ-8) Prove that ∫0 𝑎+𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑏2 [𝑎 − √(𝑎2 − 𝑏2 )], where 𝑎 > 𝑏 > 0
2𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑑𝜃 𝜋
(TQ-9) Prove that ∫0 5+4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 6
𝜋 1+2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
(TQ-10) Evaluate ∫0 4+5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 2𝜋(−1)𝑛
(TQ-11) Prove that ∫0 𝑒 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = , 𝑛 being
𝑛!
positive integer.
𝜋 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎
(TQ-12) Prove that ∫−𝜋 𝑎+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 2𝜋𝑎 [1 − √𝑎2 ] , 𝑎 > 1
−1
𝜋
(TQ-13) show that ∫0 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃 + 𝑖𝑎) 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑖𝜋, where 𝑅(𝑎) > 0.
∞
(TQ-14) Prove that if 𝑎 > 0, ∫0 𝑥 4𝑑𝑥
+𝑎 4 =
𝜋 √2
4𝑎 3
.
−∞ 𝑑𝑥
(TQ-15) Prove by the contour integration ∫0 𝑥 4 +1 = 2𝜋√2
∞
(TQ-16) Show that ∫0 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2+𝑎 4
𝜋
= 2 𝑒 −𝑎𝑘 , (where 𝑎 > 0, 𝑘 > 0).
∞ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝜋
(TQ-17) Prove that ∫0 (1+𝑥 2 )2 = − 4 .
∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝜋
(TQ-18) Prove that ∫0 𝑥
= 2
∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑚𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝜋
(TQ-19) Show that ∫0 𝑥 2(𝑥 2+𝑎2 ) = 4𝑎3 (𝑒 −2𝑚𝑎 − 1 + 2𝑚𝑎)where 𝑚 >
0, 𝑎 > 0
(TQ-20) Prove that if 0 < 𝑎 < 1, then
∞ 𝑥 𝑎−1 𝜋
i. ∫0 𝑑𝑥 =
1+𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑎

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∞ 𝑥 𝑎−1
ii. ∫0 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜋𝑎.
1−𝑥

12.14 ANSWERS:-
SELF CHECK ANSWERS

1. A residue is the coefficient of 1/𝑧 − 𝑧𝑘 in the Laurent series

expansion of a function around a singularity 𝑧𝑘 .
2. For a simple pole at 𝑧𝑘 , the residue can be found using:
𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑓, 𝑧𝑘 ) = lim 𝑧𝑘 (𝑧 − 𝑧𝑘 )𝑓(𝑧)
𝑧→𝑧𝑘
3. The function 𝑓(𝑧) must be analytic inside and on a simple, closed
contour 𝐶, except at a finite number of isolated singularities inside
𝐶.
4. If there are no singularities inside 𝐶, the contour integral is zero.
5. Answer: Instead of directly evaluating the contour integral, which
may be complicated, the Residue Theorem allows the integral to be
computed by summing the residues of the function at the
singularities inside the contour and multiplying by 2𝜋𝑖.
6. The integral is calculated by summing the residues at all the
enclosed singularities and multiplying the result by 2𝜋𝑖.

TERMINAL ANSWERS

(TQ-1) 2𝜋𝑖
3 5
(TQ-3) i. 𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 0) = 1 ii. 𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 0) = − , 𝑅𝑒𝑠(𝑧 = 2) =
2 2
𝜋 4𝜋
(TQ-6) (TQ-10)
√6 5

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UNIT 13:- Argument Principle and Rouche’s

Theorem
CONTENTS:
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 Argument Principle
13.4 Rouche’s Theorem
13.5 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
13.6 Summary
13.7 Glossary
13.8 References
13.9 Suggested Reading
13.10 Terminal questions
13.11 Answers

13.1 INTRODUCTION:-
The Argument Principle in complex analysis relates the change in the
argument of a meromorphic function around a closed contour to the
difference between the number of its zeros and poles inside the contour,
1
quantified as 2𝜋 imes the total change in argument. Rouché’s Theorem
provides a method for determining the number of zeros of a function
inside a contour by comparing it to another function, stating that if one
function is dominated by another on the contour, they have the same
number of zeros inside. Both theorems are essential for analyzing the
distribution of zeros and poles of analytic functions in complex domains.
The Argument Principle aims to determine the net number of zeros and
poles of a meromorphic function inside a closed contour by analyzing the
change in the argument of the function along the contour, providing a
relationship between this change and the count of singularities within.
Rouché’s Theorem seeks to facilitate the counting of zeros of a function
within a contour by comparing it to a simpler function, asserting that if the
simpler function dominates the difference between the two functions on
the contour, both functions will have the same number of zeros inside.
Both principles are used to analyze and understand the behavior of
complex functions and their zeros and poles in a given region.

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13.2 OBJECTIVES:-

The objectives of the Argument Principle and Rouche’s Theorem in

complex analysis are to provide students with the tools to analyze and
determine the number of zeros and poles of analytic functions within a
contour. The Argument Principle aims to connect the change in the
argument of a function along a contour to the number of zeros and poles
inside, while Rouche’s Theorem helps in comparing functions to establish
when they have the same number of zeros within a given region. Mastery
of these principles enables students to solve complex problems involving
zero distributions, simplify functions for easier analysis, and understand
the impact of function perturbations on zero locations.

13.3 ARGUMENT PRINCIPLE:-

The Argument Principle is indeed a powerful tool for determining the
number of zeros and poles of a meromorphic function inside a given
contour. Here’s a summary of the relevant observations and theorem:

Meromorphic Functions: A function 𝑓(𝑧) is meromorphic if it is

analytic except for isolated poles. Specifically:

 Analytic functions are a subset of meromorphic functions, where

the function is analytic everywhere in its domain (i.e., no poles).
 Rational functions, defined as 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑝(𝑧)/𝑞(𝑧) where 𝑝(𝑧) and
𝑞(𝑧) are polynomials, are meromorphic across the entire complex
plane, with poles corresponding to the roots of 𝑞(𝑧).
 Meromorphic functions do not have essential singularities, only
poles.

Argument Principle: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic on and inside a simple closed

contour 𝐶 and meromorphic in the region enclosed by 𝐶, then:

 𝑓(𝑧) can have at most a finite number of zeros and poles inside 𝐶.
1
 The function 𝑔(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧) is also meromorphic in this region, and
thus 𝑓(𝑧) has a finite number of poles inside Cbecause 𝑔(𝑧) will
have a finite number of zeros inside 𝐶.

The Argument Principle states that the difference between the number of
zeros and poles of 𝑓(𝑧) inside 𝐶 is given by:

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𝟏
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒔 − 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 = ∆𝒂𝒓𝒈 𝒇(𝒛)
𝟐𝝅
Where ∆𝒂𝒓𝒈 𝒇(𝒛) is the total change in the argument of 𝑓(𝑧) as
𝑧 traverses 𝐶 once. This principle provides a way to calculate the number
of zeros and poles of 𝑓(𝑧) based on the behavior of 𝑓(𝑧) around the
contour.

Theorem1:(Number of poles and zeros of a meromorphic function)

Let 𝑓(𝑧) by analytic inside and on a simple closed curve 𝐶 except for a
finite number of poles inside 𝐶, and let 𝑓(𝑧) ≠ 0 on 𝐶. Prove that

1 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑁 − 𝑃
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)

where 𝑁 and 𝑃 are respectively the number of zeros and the number of
poles of 𝑓(𝑧) inside 𝐶. A pole of zero of order 𝑛 is counted 𝑛 times.

Proof: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be analytic inside and on a simple closed contour

𝐶 except for a finite number of poles inside 𝐶. Assume 𝑓(𝑧) ≠ 0 on 𝐶. To
use the Argument Principle, we decompose C into smaller contours around
each pole and zero of 𝑓(𝑧). Also suppose that 𝑓(𝑧) has a zero of order 𝑛 at
𝑧 = 𝑏 inside 𝐶. Then we prove that

1 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑁 − 𝑃
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)

Specially, Let 𝛾1 and Γ1 be non-overlapping circles inside C with their

centres at 𝑧 = 𝑎 and 𝑧 = 𝑏 respectively. The by the corollary of Cauchy’s
Theorem,

1 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) 1 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) 1 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)

∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑑𝑧 … (1)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 2𝜋𝑖 𝛾1 𝑓(𝑧) 2𝜋𝑖 Γ1 𝑓(𝑧)

Fig.1.

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Suppose 𝒇(𝒛) has a zero of order 𝒑 at 𝒛 = 𝒂, 𝒇(𝒛) can be written as:

𝑔(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑧−𝑎)𝑝 … (2)

where 𝑔(𝑧) is analytic and non zero within and 𝛾1 .

Taking both side logarithmic of 𝑓(𝑧), we obtain

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑔(𝑧) + 𝑝 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑧 − 𝑎)

Now differentiating, w.r.t.to 𝑧,

𝑓 ′ (𝑧) 𝑔′ (𝑧)
= − 𝑝 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑧 − 𝑎)
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑔(𝑧)

𝑓 ′ (𝑧) 𝑔′ (𝑧) 1
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 − 𝑝 ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝛾1 𝑓(𝑧) 𝛾1 𝑔(𝑧) 𝛾1 (𝑧 − 𝑎)

𝑔′ (𝑧)
= ∫𝛾 𝑑𝑧 − 2𝜋𝑖𝑝 … (3)
1 𝑔(𝑧)

Since 𝑔(𝑧) is analytic and 𝑔′(𝑧) is also analytic, so 𝑔′(𝑧)/𝑔(𝑧) is analytic

and within on 𝛾1 . Hence by Cauchy’s theorem , we get
𝑔′ (𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝛾1 𝑔(𝑧)
So
𝑓′ (𝑧)
∫𝛾1 𝑑𝑧 = 0 − 2𝜋𝑖𝑝 … (4)
𝑓(𝑧)
Suppose 𝒇(𝒛) has a zero of order 𝒑 at 𝒛 = 𝒃, 𝒇(𝒛) can be written as:
𝑓 ( 𝑧 ) = (𝑧 − 𝑏 )𝑛 𝜙 (𝑧 ) … (5)
Where 𝜙(𝑧) is analytic and 𝜙′(𝑧)/𝜙(𝑧) within on Γ1 . Hence by Cauchy’s
theorem
𝜙′(𝑧)
∫Γ1 𝑑𝑧 = 0 … (6)
𝜙(𝑧)
Taking both side logarithmic of 𝑓(𝑧), we obtain

log 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑛 log(𝑧 − 𝑏) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜙(𝑧)

Differentiating this, we obtain

𝑓 ′ (𝑧) 𝑛 𝜙′(𝑧)
= +
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑧 − 𝑏 𝜙(𝑧)

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𝜙′(𝑧)
Integrating along Γ1 and the integral around Γ1 is zeros by Cauchy’s
𝜙(𝑧)
𝜙′(𝑧)
theorem because is analytic on Γ1 , from (6), we get
𝜙(𝑧)

𝑓 ′ (𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑛 ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑛
Γ1 𝑓(𝑧) Γ1 (𝑧 − 𝑏)

𝑓′ (𝑧)
∫Γ1 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑛 … (7)
𝑓(𝑧)

Writing (1) with the help of (4) and (7), we obtain

1 𝑓′ (𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = −𝑝 + 𝑛 … . (8)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)

Now we suppose that 𝑓(𝑧) has the pole of order 𝑝𝑚 at 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑚 for 𝑚 =

1,2 … … 𝑟 and 𝑛𝑚 at 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑚 for 𝑚 = 1,2 … … 𝑠 within 𝐶. Specifically, let
𝛾1 , 𝛾2 , … … . 𝛾𝑟 and Γ1 , Γ2 , … … . Γ𝑠 be small circles around the poles of
𝑓 (𝑧). By summing up the contributions from all the poles and zeros, from
(8), we get
𝑟 𝑠
1 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = − ∑ 𝑝𝑚 + ∑ 𝑛𝑚
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑚=1 𝑚=1

Taking
𝑟 𝑠

∑ 𝑝𝑚 = 𝑃, ∑ 𝑛𝑚 = 𝑁
𝑚=1 𝑚=1

Hence

1 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑁 − 𝑃
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)

Theorem2: (Principle of Argument): If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic and on C, then

1
𝑁= . Δ arg 𝑓(𝑧)
2𝜋 𝐶
Proof: By the Argument Principle, we have:
1 𝑓′ (𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑁 − 𝑃 … (1)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)
where 𝑃 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶, 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐶.
Suppose 𝑓(𝑧) has no poles inside 𝐶 , then 𝑃 = 0 and from (1) , we have

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1 𝑓′ (𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑁 … (2)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)
We can relate this to the change in the logarithm of 𝑓(𝑧), the function
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑓(𝑧) (where 𝑙𝑜𝑔 denotes the principal branch of the complex
logarithm) has a change in its value around 𝐶 given by:
𝑓′ (𝑧)
∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 = [log 𝑓(𝑧)]𝐶 = Δ𝐶 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑓(𝑧) … (3)
𝑓(𝑧)
From the equation (2) and (3), we obtain
2𝜋𝑖𝑁 = [log 𝑓(𝑧)]𝐶 = Δ𝐶 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑓(𝑧) … (4)
where Δ𝐶 is the variation of log 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑓(𝑧) as 𝑧 moves once round 𝐶.
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑓(𝑧)| + 𝑖𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑓(𝑧)
For
1
log(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛− (𝑦/𝑥)
2
Δ𝐶 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑓(𝑧)| + 𝑖𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑓(𝑧)
But
Δ𝐶 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑓(𝑧)| = 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑓(𝑧)| 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑑.
Hence
Δ𝐶 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑖. Δ𝐶 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑓(𝑧)
From(2), we get
2𝜋𝑖𝑁 = 𝑖. Δ𝐶 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑓(𝑧)
1
𝑁= . Δ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑓(𝑧)
2𝜋 𝐶
This completes the proof of the Principle of Argument.

SOLVED EXAMPLE
𝑓′ (𝑧)
EXAMPLE1: If 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 5 − 3𝑖𝑧 2 + 2𝑧𝑖 − 1 , then ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧, where C
𝑓(𝑧)
encloses zero of f(z)?
SOLUTION: Let given 𝑓(𝑧) has 5 zeros, So
𝑁=5
Put 𝑃 = 0, by theorem (1), we have
1 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑁 − 𝑃 = 5 − 0 = 5
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 ′ (𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 10𝜋𝑖
𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)
2
𝑓′ (𝑧) (𝑧 2+1)
EXAMPLE2: Evaluate the integral ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 when 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧 2+3𝑧+2)3
and C is the circle |𝑧| = 3, taken in the positive sense.
SOLUTION: The zeros of 𝑓(𝑧) occur where the numerator is zero, 𝑖. 𝑒.,
𝑧 2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 2 = −1 ⇒ 𝑧 = ±𝑖
So, 𝑓(𝑧) has zeros at 𝑧 = 𝑖 and 𝑧 = −𝑖. Since the numerator is squared,
both zeros are of order 2.
The poles of 𝑓(𝑧) occur where the denominator is zero, 𝑖. 𝑒.,

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𝑧 2 + 3𝑧 + 2 = 0
Solving the quadratic equation:
𝑧 2 + 3𝑧 + 2 = (𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 + 2) = 0
gives poles at 𝑧 = −1 and 𝑧 = −2. Since the denominator is cubed, both
poles are of order 3.
 The zeros 𝑧 = 𝑖 and 𝑧 = −𝑖 have magnitudes ∣ 𝑖 ∣=∣ −𝑖 ∣= 1, so
they are both inside the contour.
 The poles 𝑧 = −1 and 𝑧 = −2 have magnitudes ∣ −1 ∣= 1 and ∣
−2 ∣= 2, so they are also inside the contour.

Using the integral formula

1 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑁 − 𝑃
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)
where 𝑁 is the number of zeros (counted with multiplicity) inside
𝐶 and 𝑃 is the number of poles (counted with multiplicity) inside 𝐶.
Zeros inside C:
𝑧 = 𝑖 (𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 2),
𝑧 = −𝑖 (𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 2)
Thus,
𝑁 =2+2 =4
Poles inside C:
𝑧 = −1(𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 3)
𝑧 = −2(𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 3)
Thus,
𝑃 =3+3=6
Now substitute the values into the formula:
1 𝑓 ′ (𝑧 )
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑁 − 𝑃 = 4 − 6 = −2
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓 (𝑧)
Thus, the integral evaluates to:
1 𝑓 ′ (𝑧 )
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = −2
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓 (𝑧)
𝑓 ′ (𝑧 )
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = −2 × 2𝜋𝑖 = −4𝜋𝑖
𝐶 𝑓 (𝑧 )

13.4 ROUCHE’S THEOREM:-

If 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔(𝑧) are analytic and on a simple closed curve C and if
|𝑔(𝑧)| < |𝑓(𝑧)| on C, then 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧) both have the same
number of zeros inside 𝐶.
Proof: Given 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔(𝑧) are analytic on and inside a simple closed
curve |𝑔(𝑧)| < |𝑓(𝑧)| on C.
To prove that 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧) have the same number of zeros inside
𝐶.
(i). Prove that neither f(z)nor f(z)+g(z) has zeros on C.
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Assume 𝑓(𝑧) has a zero at 𝑧 = 𝑎 on 𝐶. Then 𝑓(𝑎) = 0. But according to

the given condition, ∣ 𝑔(𝑎) ∣<∣ 𝑓(𝑎) ∣= 0 , which implies ∣ 𝑔(𝑎) ∣= 0 .
Therefore, 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑔(𝑎) = 0 + 0 = 0, leading to ∣ 𝑓(𝑎) ∣=∣ 𝑔(𝑎) ∣. This
contradicts the assumption that ∣ 𝑔(𝑧) ∣<∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ on
Now, assume 𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧) has a zero at 𝑧 = 𝑎 on 𝐶. Then 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑔(𝑎) =
0 , 𝐶. which implies 𝑓(𝑎) = −𝑔(𝑎) and ∣ 𝑓(𝑎) ∣=∣ 𝑔(𝑎) ∣. Again, this
contradicts the assumption ∣ 𝑔(𝑧) ∣<∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ on 𝐶.
Thus, neither 𝑓(𝑧) nor 𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧) has zeros on 𝐶.
(ii). Show that 𝑵𝟏 = 𝑵𝟐 where 𝑵𝟏 and 𝑵𝟐 are the number of zeros of
𝒇(𝒛) and 𝒇(𝒛) + 𝒈(𝒛) inside 𝑪, respectively.
Since 𝑓 and 𝑓 + 𝑔 are analytic inside and on 𝐶, they have no poles inside
𝐶.By the Argument Principle, the number of zeros 𝑁1 of 𝑓(𝑧) inside 𝐶 is
given by:
1 𝑓′
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑁1
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓
Similarly, the number of zeros 𝑁2 of 𝑓 + 𝑔 inside 𝐶 is given by:

1 𝑓 ′ + 𝑔′
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑁2
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓 + 𝑔
Subtracting these two integrals, we have
1 𝑓′ +𝑔′ 𝑓′
∫ (
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓+𝑔
− 𝑓 ) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑁2 − 𝑁1 … (1)
express 𝑔/𝑓 = 𝜙 so that 𝑔 = 𝜙𝑓, where |𝑔/𝑓| < 1 = 𝜙 < 1
𝑓 ′ + 𝑔′ 𝑓 ′ 𝜙′
− =
𝑓+𝑔 𝑓 1+𝜙
Now using (1), we have
1 𝜙′
𝑁2 − 𝑁1 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 1 + 𝜙
1
𝑁2 − 𝑁1 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 𝜙 ′ (1 + 𝜙)−1 𝑑𝑧 … (2)
Since |𝜙| < 1, we can expand (1 + 𝜙)−1 as a binomial series is possible
and the binomial expansion thus obtained is uniformly convergent and
hence term by term integration is permissible. Hence
∫𝜙 ′ (1 + 𝜙)−1 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝜙 ′ (1 − 𝜙 + 𝜙 2 − 𝜙 3 + ⋯ )𝑑𝑧
𝐶 𝐶
= ∫𝐶 𝜙 ′ 𝑑𝑧 − ∫𝐶 𝜙 ′ 𝜙 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐶 𝜙 ′ 𝜙 2 𝑑𝑧 − ∫𝐶 𝜙 ′ 𝜙 3 𝑑𝑧 + ⋯ … (3)

The functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 both are analytic within and on 𝐶 and 𝑔(𝑧) ≠ 0 for
𝑔
any point on C. Hence = 𝜙 is analytic and non-zero for any point of C.
𝑓
Therefore 𝜙 and its all derivatives are analytic. By Cauchy’s integral
theorem, each integral on R.H.S. of (3). Consequently
∫𝜙 ′ (1 + 𝜙)−1 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝐶
From (2), we get

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𝑁2 − 𝑁1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑁2 = 𝑁1
Hence the number of zeros of 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧) inside 𝐶 is the same,
i.e., 𝑁2 = 𝑁1 .

13.5 FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA:-

Every polynomial degree of n has exactly 𝑛 zeros.
Or
Prove that the polynomial equation.
𝑃(𝑧) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑧 + 𝑎2 𝑧 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, 𝑛 ≥ 1
has exactly 𝑛 roots.
Proof: Given polynomial is
𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑧 + 𝑎2 𝑧 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0
we want to show that it has exactly 𝑛 roots.
Now we take
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 , 𝑔 (𝑧) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑧 + 𝑎2 𝑧 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑧 𝑛−1
Let C be the circle |𝑧| = 𝑟 where 𝑟 > 1.
|𝑔(𝑧)| ≤ |𝑎0 | + |𝑎1 |𝑟 + |𝑎2 |𝑟 2 + ⋯ + |𝑎𝑛−1 |𝑟 𝑛−1
≤ |𝑎0 |𝑟 𝑛−1 + |𝑎1 |𝑟 𝑛−1 + |𝑎2 |𝑟 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + |𝑎𝑛−1 |𝑟 𝑛−1
= (|𝑎0 | + |𝑎1 | + |𝑎2 | + ⋯ + |𝑎𝑛−1 |)𝑟 𝑛−1
But |𝑓 (𝑧)| = |𝑎𝑛 𝑟 𝑛 | = |𝑎𝑛 |𝑟 𝑛
𝑔(𝑧) (|𝑎0 |+|𝑎1 |+|𝑎2|+⋯+|𝑎𝑛−1 |)𝑟 𝑛−1
∴ | |≤
𝑓(𝑧) |𝑎𝑛 |𝑟 𝑛
|𝑎0 | + |𝑎1 | + |𝑎2 | + ⋯ + |𝑎𝑛−1 |
=
|𝑎𝑛 |𝑟
𝑔(𝑧)
Now if |𝑔(𝑧)| ≤ |𝑓(𝑧)| so that |𝑓(𝑧)| < 1, then
|𝑎0 | + |𝑎1 | + |𝑎2 | + ⋯ + |𝑎𝑛−1 |
<1
| 𝑎𝑛 | 𝑟
⇒
|𝑎0 | + |𝑎1 | + |𝑎2 | + ⋯ + |𝑎𝑛−1 |
𝑟>
| 𝑎𝑛 | 𝑟
As 𝑟 becomes large, the terms involving 𝑟 in the denominator tend to zero.
Hence, for sufficiently large 𝑟, we have:

|𝑔(𝑧)| ≤ |𝑓(𝑧)|𝑟 𝑛 = |𝑓(𝑧)| on 𝐶

By applying Rouche’s Theorem, we find that the polynomial 𝑃(𝑧) =

𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧) has the same number of zeros inside the circle ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 𝑟 as the
polynomial 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 . Since 𝑓(𝑧) is a polynomial of degree 𝑛, it has
exactly 𝑛 zeros (counting multiplicities) inside any sufficiently large
circle. Consequently, the given polynomial 𝑃(𝑧) also has exactly 𝑛 zeros
in the complex plane.

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SOLVED EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE3: Using Rouche’s theorem determine the number of zeros of
the polynomial 𝑃(𝑧) = 𝑧 10 − 6𝑧 7 + 3𝑧 3 + 1 in |𝑧| < 1.
SOLUTION: Let 𝑃(𝑧) = 𝑧 10 − 6𝑧 7 + 3𝑧 3 + 1
𝑓(𝑧) = −6𝑧 7 , 𝑔(𝑧) = 𝑧 10 + 3𝑧 3 + 1
Then 𝑃(𝑧) = 𝑓 (𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧)
Let the circle C defined |𝑧| = 1.
Then 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔(𝑧) both are analytic within and upon 𝐶.
𝑔 𝑧 10 + 3𝑧 3 + 1 |𝑧 10 | + 3|𝑧 3 | + 1
| |=| |≤
𝑓 6𝑧 7 6| 𝑧 7 |
10 3
1 + 3(1) + 1
= <1
6(1)7
5
= <1
6
𝑔
| | < 1 𝑜𝑟 |𝑔 | < |𝑓 |
𝑓
By Rouche's Theorem, 𝑓(𝑧) = −6𝑧 7 and 𝑃(𝑧) = 𝑧 10 − 6𝑧 7 + 3𝑧 3 +
1 have the same number of zeros inside ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1.
The function 𝑓 (𝑧) = −6𝑧 7 clearly has 7 zeros inside the unit circle (all at
𝑧 = 0).
Hence the polynomial 𝑃(𝑧) = 𝑧 10 − 6𝑧 7 + 3𝑧 3 + 1 has exactly 7 zeros
inside the unit circle ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1.
EXAMPLE4: Use Rouche’s theorem to show that the equation 𝑧 5 +
3
15𝑧 + 1 = 0 has one root in the disc |𝑧| < 2 and four roots in the annulus
3
< |𝑧| < 2.
2
SOLUTION: We are given the equation 𝑧 5 + 15𝑧 + 1 = 0 and need to
3
demonstrate that it has one root in the disc |𝑧| < 2 and four roots in the
3
annulus 2 < |𝑧| < 2. using Rouche’s theorem.
Let |𝑧| = 2 represent the circle 𝐶1 . Then we have
𝑧 5 + 15𝑧 + 1 = 0
Take 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 5 and 𝑔(𝑧) = 15𝑧 + 1
Then
𝑔 15𝑧 + 1 15|𝑧| + 1 15.2 + 1 31
| |=| | = = = <1
𝑓 𝑧5 |𝑧 |5 25 32

Since ∣ 𝑔(𝑧) ∣<∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ on 𝐶1 by Rouche’s theorem, 𝑃(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧) +

𝑔(𝑧) = 𝑧 5 + 15𝑧 + 1 and 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 5 have the same number of zeros
inside ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 2. The polynomial 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 5 has five zeros inside ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 2
(all at 𝑧 = 0). Therefore, 𝑧 5 + 15𝑧 + 1 = 0 has five zeros inside ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 2.

Consider the circle 𝐶2 defined by |𝑧| = 3/2. We need to determine the

number of zeros of 𝑧 5 + 15𝑧 + 1 inside |𝑧| < 3/2

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Take 𝑓(𝑧) = 15𝑧, 𝑔(𝑧) = 𝑧 5 + 1.

Thus
3 5
𝑔 𝑧 +1 5 |𝑧 + 1 |5 ( ) + 1 275
| |=| |≤ = 2 = <1
𝑓 15𝑧 15|𝑧| 3 720
15 (2)
Since ∣ 𝑔(𝑧) ∣<∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ on 𝐶2 , by Rouche’s theorem, 𝑃𝑃(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧) +
𝑔(𝑧) = 𝑧 5 + 15𝑧 + 1 and 𝑓(𝑧) = 15𝑧 have the same number of zeros
inside ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 3/2. The polynomial 𝑓(𝑧) = 15𝑧 has one zero at z=0.
Therefore, 𝑧 5 + 15𝑧 + 1 = 0 has exactly one zero inside ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 3/2 .
Therefore, we conclude that the equation 𝑧 5 + 15𝑧 + 1 = 0 has one root
in the disc ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 3/2 and four roots in the annulus 3/2 <∣ 𝑧 ∣< 2.

SELF CHECK QUESTIONS

1. What does the Argument Principle state about the integral

1 𝑓′ (𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 for a function 𝑓(𝑧) analytic inside and on a contour
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)
𝐶.
2. If 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 − 1 and 𝐶 is the unit circle, what is the number of
zeros of 𝑓(𝑧) inside 𝐶 using the Argument Principle?
3. State Rouche’s Theorem and how it helps in counting zeros of
𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔(𝑧) inside a contour 𝐶.
4. If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic on and inside 𝐶 except for a simple pole at 𝑧 =
𝑎, how does the Argument Principle account for this pole when
counting zeros?

13.6 SUMMARY:-
In this unit we have studied the Argument Principle and Rouche's
Theorem are fundamental results in complex analysis used to count the
zeros of analytic functions within certain regions. The Argument Principle
states that for an analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) inside and on a simple closed
contour 𝐶, the change in the argument of 𝑓(𝑧) around 𝐶 is 2𝜋 times the
difference between the number of zeros and the number of poles inside 𝐶.
Rouche's Theorem provides a method for comparing two analytic
functions 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔(𝑧) on a contour 𝐶. If ∣ 𝑔(𝑧) ∣<∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ on 𝐶, then
𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧) have the same number of zeros inside 𝐶. Both
theorems are powerful tools for determining the number of zeros of
complex functions without explicitly solving for them.

13.7 GLOSSARY:-
 Argument Principle: A result in complex analysis that relates the
number of zeros and poles of an analytic function inside a simple
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closed contour 𝐶 to the integral of 𝑓′(𝑧)/𝑓(𝑧) around 𝐶.

1 𝑓′ (𝑧)
Specifically, ∫ 𝑑𝑧 equals the number of zeros minus the
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)
number of poles of 𝑓(𝑧) within 𝐶.
 Rouche’s Theorem: A theorem in complex analysis that helps
determine the number of zeros of a function inside a contour. If
𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔(𝑧) are analytic on and inside a simple closed contour
𝐶, and if ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑔(𝑧) ∣<∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ on 𝐶, then 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔(𝑧) have
the same number of zeros inside 𝐶.
 Zeros: Points where a function 𝑓(𝑧) is equal to zero. In the context
of these theorems, zeros are counted with their multiplicities.
 Poles: Points where a function f(z) goes to infinity. Poles are also
counted with their multiplicities when applying the Argument
Principle.
 Contour C: A simple closed curve in the complex plane that is
used to define the boundary of a region where properties of the
function are analyzed.
 Analytic Function: A function f(z) that is differentiable at every
point in its domain, meaning it can be expressed locally by a
convergent power series.
𝟏 𝒇′ (𝒛)
 Integral ∫ 𝒅𝒛: The integral used in the Argument
𝟐𝝅𝒊 𝑪 𝒇(𝒛)
Principle to calculate the difference between the number of zeros
and poles of a function 𝑓(𝑧) inside the contour 𝐶.
 Comparison Function: In Rouche’s Theorem, a function 𝑔(𝑧) is
compared with 𝑓(𝑧) to determine if they have the same number of
zeros inside a contour 𝐶.

13.8 REFERENCES:-

 Bojanov, D., & Zdravkovska, J. (2013). Complex Analysis: A

Comprehensive Guide. CRC Press.
 Ahlfors, L. V. (2017). Complex Analysis. Harvard University
Press (Updated Edition).
 Lang, S. (2013). Complex Analysis. Springer.

13.9 SUGGESTED READING:-

 Goyal and Gupta (Twenty first edition 2010), Function of complex

Variable.
 file:///C:/Users/user/Desktop/1468563753EText(Ch-8,M-
2%20(1).pdf

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 L. L. Stewart (2015). Advanced Complex Analysis. Cambridge

University Press.
 M. R. Douglas, K. A. Johnson, & M. D. McCarty (2011). Complex
Analysis: An Introduction to the Theory. Wiley.

13.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS:-

(TQ-1) Let 𝑓(𝑧) by analytic inside and on a simple closed curve 𝐶

except for a finite number of poles inside 𝐶, and let 𝑓(𝑧) ≠ 0 on 𝐶. Prove
that
1 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑁 − 𝑃
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)
where 𝑁 and 𝑃 are respectively the number of zeros and the number of
poles of 𝑓(𝑧) inside 𝐶. A pole of zero of order 𝑛 is counted 𝑛 times.
(TQ-2) If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic and on C, then prove that
1
𝑁= . Δ arg 𝑓(𝑧)
2𝜋 𝐶
(TQ-3) State and prove the principle of Argument.
(TQ-4) State and prove Rouche’s Theorem.
Or
If 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔(𝑧) are analytic and on a simple closed curve C and if
|𝑔(𝑧)| < |𝑓(𝑧)| on C, then 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑓(𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧) both have the same
number of zeros inside 𝐶.
(TQ-5) Prove that polynomial equation.
𝑃(𝑧) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑧 + 𝑎2 𝑧 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, 𝑛 ≥ 1
has exactly 𝑛 roots.
(TQ-6) Show that one root of the equation 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 + 1 = 0 lies in the
first quadrant.
(TQ-7) Show that roots of the equation 𝑧 6 − 9𝑧 2 + 11 = 0 all lies in
the circles |𝑧| = 1 and |𝑧| = 3.
(TQ-8) Prove that one root of the equation 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 3 + 1 = 0 lies in the
positive quadrant.
(TQ-9) Show that the equation 𝑧 4 + 2𝑧 3 + 3𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 + 5 = 0 has no
real purely imaginary roots and that it has one complex root in each
quadrant.
(TQ-10) Show that the equation 𝑒 −𝑧 = 𝑧 − (1 + 𝑖) has one root in the
first quadrant.
(TQ-11) State Rouche’s theorem and use it to find the number of zeros
of the polynomial 2𝑧 4 − 2𝑧 3 + 2𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 11 = 0 inside the circle |𝑧| =
1.
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(TQ-12) State Rouche’s theorem and apply it to determine the number of

roots of the equation 𝑧 8 − 4𝑧 5 + 𝑧 2 − 1 = 0 , that lies inside the
circle|𝑧| = 1.

13.11 ANSWERS:-
SELF CHECK ANSWERS
1 𝑓′ (𝑧)
1. The Argument Principle states that ∫ 𝑑𝑧 equals the
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)
number of zeros minus the number of poles of 𝑓(𝑧) inside C.
1 𝑓′ (𝑧)
2. The number of zeros inside 𝐶 is 1 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 = 2 , since
𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 − 1 has 2 zeros inside the unit circle.
3. Rouche’s Theorem states that if ∣ 𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑔(𝑧) ∣<∣ 𝑓(𝑧) ∣ on 𝐶,
then 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔(𝑧) have the same number of zeros inside 𝐶.
4. The Argument Principle considers the residue at the pole,
which affects the count of zeros. Specifically, the number of
zeros is adjusted by subtracting the number of poles, including
their orders, from the total integral result.

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UNIT 14:- Uniqueness of analytic continuation

CONTENTS:
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Objectives
14.3 Analytic Continuation
14.4 Complete Analytic Function
14.5 Uniqueness of Analytic Continuation
14.6 Schwartz’s Reflection Principle
14.7 Summary
14.8 Glossary
14.9 References
14.10 Suggested Reading
14.11 Terminal questions
14.12 Answers

14.1 INTRODUCTION:-

Analytic continuation is a fundamental concept in complex analysis,

where the idea is to extend the domain of an analytic function beyond its
original region of definition. The uniqueness of analytic continuation
asserts that if two analytic functions agree on a common domain, then they
must agree everywhere on their domain of convergence. This property
highlights the rigidity of analytic functions: once an analytic function is
defined on a small region, its behavior on a much larger region is
completely determined. The principle stems from the fact that analytic
functions are highly constrained by their local behavior. Specifically, if
two analytic functions are equal on a set that has an accumulation point
within their domain of definition, they must be equal on the entire
connected domain where both functions are analytic. This concept is
crucial in various areas of mathematics and physics, as it ensures that the
analytic continuation of a function is unique, making the extended
function well-defined.

14.2 OBJECTIVES:-
The objectives of studying the uniqueness of analytic continuation are to
understand the fundamental concept of extending an analytic function
beyond its initial domain while ensuring that the extended function
remains uniquely determined. This involves exploring the uniqueness

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theorem, which asserts that if two analytic functions agree on a common

domain with an accumulation point, they must coincide throughout their
entire domain of definition. Additionally, the objectives include applying
this principle to solve complex analysis problems, recognizing the role of
accumulation points, and connecting this concept to broader topics such as
the identity theorem and holomorphic functions, all while working through
illustrative examples to solidify understanding.

14.3 ANALYTIC CONTINUATION:-

Let 𝑓1 (𝑧) be a function that is analytic in a domain 𝐷1 . If there exists
another function 𝑓2 (𝑧) that is analytic in a different domain 𝐷2 , and 𝐷2
overlaps with 𝐷1 in a region 𝐷12 , where 𝑓1 (𝑧) = 𝑓2 (𝑧) for all 𝑧 in 𝐷12,
then 𝑓2 (𝑧) is called the analytic continuation of 𝑓1 (𝑧) from 𝐷1 into 𝐷2 via
𝐷12 .

Equivalently, 𝑓1 (𝑧) can be viewed as the analytic continuation of 𝑓2 (𝑧)

from 𝐷1 into 𝐷2 via 𝐷12 .

Fig.2

For analytic continuation, it is sufficient that the domains 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 have

even a small arc in common, as long as the function values agree on that
common part.

For example, consider an arc ABC that is shared by both 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 . If a

function 𝑓1 (𝑧) is analytic in 𝐷1 and another function 𝑓2 (𝑧) is analytic in
𝐷2 , and if 𝑓1 (𝑧) = 𝑓2 (𝑧) for all 𝑧 on the 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝐴𝐵𝐶, then 𝑓2 (𝑧) is the
analytic continuation of 𝑓1 (𝑧) from 𝐷1 into 𝐷2 via the 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝐴𝐵𝐶.

An Alternate definition: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a domain 𝑆1 and if 𝑓(𝑧) is

also analytic in a domain 𝑆2 continuation of 𝑓(𝑧) in the domain 𝑆2 .

SOLVED EXAMPLE
1
EXAMPLE1: Let 𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑧 , 𝜙(𝑧) = 1−𝑧.

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SOLUTION: The function 𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛

𝑛=0 𝑧 is analytic within the unit
1
circle ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1, where it equals the function 𝜙(𝑧) = 1−𝑧 . While 𝜑(𝑧) is
analytic at all points in the complex plane except at 𝑧 = 1, where it has a
simple pole, it matches 𝑓(𝑧) within ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1. Therefore, 𝜑(𝑧) provides the
analytic continuation of 𝑓(𝑧) over the entire complex plane, except at the
singularity 𝑧 = 1.
1 1+𝑧 𝑛
EXAMPLE2: Let 𝑓1 (𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛 ∞
𝑛=0 𝑧 , 𝑓2 (𝑧) = ∑𝑛=0 2 ( 2 ) .
SOLUTION: The first power series 𝑓1 (𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑧 is convergent inside
1
the circle 𝑅1 defined by ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 1 and has the sum 1−𝑧. The second power
1 1+𝑧 𝑛 1
series𝑓2 (𝑧) = ∑∞
𝑛=0 2 ( ) is Geometric series with first term and a
2 2
1+𝑧 1+𝑧
common ratio 2 converging when | 2 | < 1 or equivalent |𝑧 + 1| < 2.
The sum of the second series is given by
1 1 1
𝑓2 (𝑧) = . =
2 (1 + 𝑧 ) 1 − 𝑧
1− 2
1
Hence, 𝑓1 (𝑧) simplifies to the same function as 𝑓2 (𝑧), 𝑖. 𝑒. , 1−𝑧.

Fig.1

The function 𝑓1 (𝑧) is analytic inside the circle 𝑅1 where ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 1 , and

𝑓2 (𝑧) is analytic inside the circle 𝑅2 where ∣ 𝑧 + 1 ∣= 2. Both functions
are equal in the region where 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 overlap, meaning 𝑓1 (𝑧) = 𝑓2 (𝑧)
in this common region. Therefore, 𝑓2 (𝑧) extends the domain of the
analytic function 𝑓1 (𝑧) from 𝑅1 to the larger domain 𝑅2 , making 𝑓2 (𝑧) the
analytic continuation of 𝑓1 (𝑧) from 𝑅1 in to 𝑅2 .

Definition: An analytic function f defined on a domain 𝐷 is known as a

function element, which is denoted by (𝑓, 𝐷).

14.4 COMPLETE ANALYTIC FUNCTION:-

Suppose 𝑓(𝑧) is an analytic function within a domain 𝐷. By forming all
possible analytic continuations of the pair (𝑓, 𝐷), and subsequently all

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possible continuations of the resulting function elements

(𝑓1 , 𝐷1 ) … … . . (𝑓𝑛 , 𝐷𝑛 ), we eventually construct a function 𝐹(𝑧) . This
function 𝐹(𝑧) is defined such that for any point 𝑣, 𝐹(𝑣) represents the
value obtained by the analytic continuation to 𝑣, with:

𝑓1 (𝑧)𝑖𝑓 𝑧 ∈ 𝐷1
𝑓 (𝑧) 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 ∈ 𝐷2
𝐹 (𝑧 ) = { 1
……………….
𝑓𝑛 (𝑧) 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 ∈ 𝐷𝑛

The function 𝐹(𝑧) constructed in this way is known as a complete

analytic function. During the process of analytic continuation, it is
possible to encounter a closed curve beyond which further continuation is
not possible. This closed curve is referred to as the natural boundary of
the complete analytic function. Points lying outside this natural boundary
are considered singularities of the complete analytic function, where the
function ceases to be analytic.

Theorem1: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a domain 𝑅 and 𝑓(𝑧) = 0 at all points on

𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑃𝑄 inside 𝑅, then 𝑓(𝑧) = 0 throughout 𝑅.
Solution: Suppose 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within a domain 𝑅. Let PQ be an arc
inside RR such that f(z)=0 for all points z on the arc PQ. This is the given
condition, s.t.
𝑓 (𝑧) = 0∀𝑧 𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑄 … (1)
We need to prove that 𝑓(𝑧) = 0 throughout the entire domain 𝑅. Consider
an arbitrary point 𝑧0 on the arc 𝑃𝑄. Since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at 𝑧0 ,we can
describe a circle 𝐶 centered at 𝑧0 within which 𝑓(𝑧) can be expanded as
Taylor series:
∞

𝑓(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑛 … (2)
𝑛=0
𝑓𝑛 (𝑧0)
where 𝑎𝑛 = .
𝑛!
Since 𝑧0 lies on PQ, by the given condition 𝑓(𝑧0 ) = 0, by (1)
⇒ 𝑓 (𝑧) = 0 at 𝑧 = 𝑧0
⇒ 𝑓 (𝑧), 𝑓 ′ (𝑧), 𝑓 ′′ (𝑧), … , 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑧) = 0 at 𝑧 = 𝑧0
⇒ 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑧0 ) = 0 when 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, …
Here 𝑓 0 (𝑧0 ) = 𝑓 (𝑧)
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = 0, for 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, …
Form(2), we get

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∞ ∞

𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑛 = ∑ 0(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑛 = 0
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
Hence, 𝑓(𝑧) = 0 for all points 𝑧 inside the circle 𝐶.
Since 𝑓(𝑧) = 0 inside the circle 𝐶 centered at 𝑧0 , and 𝑧0 was an arbitrary
point on 𝑃𝑄, this argument can be extended across the entire domain 𝑅.
By the identity theorem, since 𝑓(𝑧) = 0 in an open set (the arc 𝑃𝑄 and its
interior), 𝑓(𝑧) must be identically zero throughout 𝑅.
Thus, 𝑓(𝑧) = 0 throughout the domain 𝑅. This completes the proof of
Theorem.
Theorem2: If a function 𝑓(𝑧) and all its derivatives vanish at a point 𝑎,
then 𝑓(𝑧) and all its derivatives will vanish at all points in the domain of
𝑎.
Proof: By Taylor theorem
∞

𝑓(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑛
𝑛=0
𝑓𝑛 (𝑧0)
where 𝑎𝑛 = . for 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, …
𝑛!
By assumption, 𝑎0 = 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎3 = ⋯ = 0.
Hence 𝑓(𝑧), 𝑓 ′ (𝑧), 𝑓 ′′ (𝑧) all vanish at all points of the domain.
Thus, if a function 𝑓(𝑧) and all its derivatives vanish at a point 𝑎, then
𝑓(𝑧) and all its derivatives will vanish at all points in the domain
containing 𝑎.

14.5 UNIQUENESS OF ANALYTIC

CONTINUATION:-
The uniqueness of analytic continuation is a fundamental concept in
complex analysis. It states that if two analytic functions agree on a non-
discrete subset of a domain, they must be identical on the entire domain to
which they can both be analytically continued.
Theorem3: There cannot be one more than one continuation of analytic
continuation 𝑓2 (𝑧) in to the same domain.
Proof: Let 𝑓1 (𝑧) be analytic in a domain 𝐷1 and let 𝑓2 (𝑧) and 𝑔2 (𝑧) be
two analytic continuations of 𝑓1 (𝑧) from 𝐷1 into a domain 𝐷2 .Assume
via 𝐷12 which is common to both 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 .
If we show that 𝑓2 (𝑧) = 𝑔2 (𝑧) throughout 𝐷2 , the result will follow
By the definition of analytic continuation
i. 𝑓1 (𝑧) = 𝑓2 (𝑧)∀𝑧 ∈ 𝐷12 and 𝑓1 (𝑧) is analytic in 𝐷2 .

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ii. 𝑓1 (𝑧) = 𝑔2 (𝑧)∀𝑧 ∈ 𝐷12 and 𝑔2 (𝑧) is analytic in 𝐷2 .

Now from (i) and (ii), we get
𝑓2 (𝑧) = 𝑓1 (𝑧) = 𝑔2 (𝑧)∀𝑧 ∈ 𝐷12
𝑓2 (𝑧) = 𝑔2 (𝑧)∀𝑧 ∈ 𝐷12
(𝑓2 − 𝑔2 )(𝑧) = 0∀𝑧 ∈ 𝐷12
𝑓2 and 𝑔2 are analytic in 𝐷2 .
Thus we see that (𝑓2 − 𝑔2 )(𝑧) vanishes in 𝐷12 which is a part of 𝐷2 . Also
the function of analytic in 𝐷2 . Hence we must have
(𝑓2 − 𝑔2 )(𝑧) = 0∀𝑧 ∈ 𝐷2
𝑓2 (𝑧) = 𝑔2 (𝑧)∀𝑧 ∈ 𝐷2

14.6 SCHWARTZ’S REFLECTION PRINCIPLE:-

Theorem5: Suppose that 𝑓1 (𝑧) is analytic in the region 𝑅1 and that
𝑓1 (𝑧)takes only real values on the parts LMN of the real axis. Then the
Swartz’s reflection principle states that the analytic continuation 𝑓2 (𝑧)of
𝑓1 (𝑧)into the domain 𝑅2 (considered as the mirror images of 𝑅1 with LMN
as mirror) is given by 𝑓2 (𝑧) = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑓1 (𝑧).
Proof: Suppose that 𝑓1 (𝑧)is analytic in the region 𝑅1 and that 𝑓1 (𝑧)takes
only real values on the parts LMN of the real axis so that
𝑓2 (𝑧) = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑓1 (𝑧) on the line LMN ….(1)
Let 𝑅2 be the mirror image 𝑅1 with LMN as mirror and let
𝑓2 (𝑧) = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑓1 (𝑧) …(2)
To prove that 𝑓2 (𝑧) is analytic continuation of 𝑓1 (𝑧)from 𝑅1 into 𝑅2 via
the line LMN, it is enough to show that
i. 𝑓2 (𝑧) = 𝑔2 (𝑧) on the line LMN
ii. 𝑓2 (𝑧) is analytic in 𝑅2 .

(i) . on the line LMN, 𝑧 = 𝑥, 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 so that 𝑧 = 𝑧̅

Now from (1) , we get 𝑓2 (𝑧) = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑓1 (𝑧) on the line LMN
Using (2), we have 𝑓1 (𝑧) = 𝑓2 (𝑧) on the line LMN
Hence prove result (i)
(ii). Let 𝑓1 (𝑧) = 𝑓1 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑢1 (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦) … (3)
Analyticity of 𝑓1 (𝑧) in the domain 𝑅1 implies that Cauchy-Riemann
equations are satisfied
𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑣1
= , =− … (4)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
and Compute the partial derivatives are continuous so
From(3), we obtain

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𝑓1 (𝑧̅) = 𝑓1 (𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑢1 (𝑥, −𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣1 (𝑥, −𝑦)

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑓1 (𝑧) = 𝑓2 (𝑧) = 𝑢1 (𝑥, −𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣1 (𝑥, −𝑦)
( )
Now 𝑓2 𝑧 is analytic in 𝑅2 , we obtain
If
𝜕𝑢1 𝜕(−𝑣1 ) 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕(−𝑣1 )
= , =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕(−𝑦) 𝜕(−𝑦) 𝜕𝑥
Or equivalently if
𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑣1
= , =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
which is true by (4),
For
𝜕(−𝑣1 ) 𝜕𝑣1 𝜕(−𝑣1 ) 𝜕𝑣1
= , =−
𝜕(−𝑦) 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
These satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations, showing𝑓2 (𝑧) is analytic in
𝑅2 .
SOLVED EXAMPLE
̅̅̅̅̅̅
EXAMPLE3: If 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓 (𝑧), then prove that 𝑓(𝑥) is real.
SOLUTION: Suppose 𝑓1 (𝑧) is an analytic function and satisfies:
𝑓 (𝑧̅) = 𝑓(𝑧)
Let
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓1 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓1 (𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑢(𝑥, −𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, −𝑦)
Taking conjugate of it and Let 𝑓(𝑧) be written as:
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢1 (𝑥, −𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣1 (𝑥, −𝑦)
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦)
So that
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑢(𝑥, −𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, −𝑦)
Substituting 𝑦 = 0, we have
𝑢(𝑥, 0) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, 0) = 𝑢(𝑥, 0) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, 0)
2𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 0) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑣(𝑥, 0) = 0

Substituting 𝑦 = 0 in 𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑢(𝑥, 0) + 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥, 0)
= 𝑢(𝑥, 0) as 𝑣(𝑥, 0) = 0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑢(𝑥, 0)
Hence 𝑓(𝑥) is real.
EXAMPLE4: Show that the power series ∑∞ 𝑛=0 𝑧
3𝑛
cannot be continued
analytically beyond the circle |𝑧| = 1.
SOLUTION: Let

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|𝑢𝑛 (𝑧)|1/𝑛 = |𝑧 3𝑛 |1/𝑛 = |𝑧 3 | = |𝑧|3

Hence the series is convergence is |𝑧| < 1.
Circle of convergence is |𝑧| = 1.
𝑞 ∞
3𝑛
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑧 + ∑ 𝑧 3𝑛 = 𝑓1 (𝑧) + 𝑓2 (𝑧)
𝑛=0 𝑛=𝑞+1
2𝜋𝑝𝑖
Take a point p of affix 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 (𝑟 > 1).
3𝑞

Now proceed as in Problem 2, 𝑓 (𝑧) → ∞𝑎𝑠 𝑟 → 1.

For 𝑓1 (𝑧) = finite quantity and 𝑓2 (𝑧) → ∞ as 𝑟 → 1.
EXAMPLE5: Show that the series
∞
1 𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧𝑛
+ + + ⋯ += ∑ 𝑛+1
2 4 8 2
𝑛=0
and
∞
1 𝑧−𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑖 ) 2 (𝑧 − 1)𝑛
+ + + ⋯ = ∑
2 − 𝑖 (2 − 𝑖 )2 (2 − 𝑖 )3 (2 − 𝑖 )𝑛+1
𝑛=0
are analytic continuation of each other.
SOLUTION: Consider the first series:
∞
𝑧𝑛
𝑓1 (𝑧) = ∑
2𝑛+1
𝑛=0
This is a geometric series where the first term 𝑎 = 1/2 and the common
𝑧
ratio 𝑟 = 2, the sum of an infinite geometric series ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑟 is given by:
1 1
𝑎 2 1
𝑓1 (𝑧) = = 𝑧 = 2 =
1−𝑟 1− 2−𝑧 2−𝑧
2 2
Consider the second series:
∞
(𝑧 − 1)𝑛
𝑓2 (𝑧) = ∑
(2 − 𝑖 )𝑛+1
𝑛=0
1
This is a geometric series where the first term 𝑎 = 2−𝑖 and the common
𝑧−𝑖
ratio 𝑟 = 2−𝑖 . The sum of an infinite geometric series ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑟 is given
by:
1 1
𝑎 2 − 𝑖 1
𝑓2 (𝑧) = = = −𝑖 =
2
1−𝑟 1−𝑧−𝑖 2−𝑧 2−𝑧
2−𝑖 2−𝑖
We found that:
1
𝑓1 (𝑧) =
2−𝑧
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And
1
𝑓2 (𝑧) =
2−𝑧
𝑧𝑛
Since both functions 𝑓1 (𝑧) and 𝑓2 (𝑧) are equal, the series ∑∞
𝑛=0 2𝑛+1 and
(𝑧−1)𝑛
∑∞
𝑛=0 are indeed analytic continuations of each other. This shows
(2−𝑖)𝑛+1
that they represent the same analytic function over their domains of
convergence.
EXAMPLE6: Show that the function defined by
∞
𝑓1 (𝑧) = ∫ 𝑡 3 𝑒 −𝑧𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
is analytic at all points z for which 𝑅(𝑧) > 0. Find also a function which is
analytic continuation of 𝑓1 (𝑧) into the left hand place 𝑅(𝑧) < 0, where
𝑅(𝑧) means the real part of 𝑧.
SOLUTION: Consider the integral:
∞
𝑓1 (𝑧) = ∫ 𝑡 3 𝑒 −𝑧𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
Integration by parts
∞
3
𝑒 −𝑧𝑡 2
𝑒 −𝑧𝑡 𝑒 −𝑧𝑡 𝑒 −𝑧𝑡
𝑓1 (𝑧) = [𝑡 ( ) − 3𝑡 ( 2 ) + 6𝑡 ( 3 ) − 6 ( 4 )]
−𝑧 𝑧 −𝑧 𝑧 𝑡=0
6
𝑓1 (𝑧) = 𝑧 4 if 𝑅(𝑧) > 0
6
Let 𝑓2 (𝑧) = 𝑧 4
𝑓2 (𝑧) = 𝑓1 (𝑧) for 𝑅(𝑧) > 0
Hence 𝑓1 (𝑧) is required analytic continuation of 𝑓2 (𝑧).
EXAMPLE7: Show that the circle of convergence of the power series
∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑧 is a natural boundary for its sum function.
Or
∞
Show that the function ∑𝑛=0 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 + ⋯ can be obtained
𝑛

outside the circle of convergence of the power series.

SOLUTION: The given power series is:
∞

∑ 𝑧𝑛 = 1 + 𝑧 + 𝑧2 + ⋯
𝑛=0
This is a geometric series with the first term 𝑎 = 1 and the common ratio
𝑟 = 𝑧. The sum 𝑆 of an infinite geometric series is given by:
𝑎 1
𝑆= =
1−𝑟 1−𝑧

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provided ∣z∣<1. So, within the circle of radius 1 centered at the origin, the
series converges to:
∞
1
∑ 𝑧𝑛 =
1−𝑧
𝑛=0
The radius of convergence RR for the series ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑧 can be found using
the formula:
1 𝑎𝑛+1
= lim | |
𝑅 𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛
where 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑧 𝑛 . We have:
𝑎𝑛+1
=𝑧
𝑎𝑛
So
1
= |𝑧 | ⇒ 𝑅 = 1
𝑅
Hence, the power series ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑧 converges for ∣ 𝑧 ∣< 1, which means the
circle ∣ 𝑧 ∣= 1 is the boundary of convergence.

SELF CHECK QUESTIONS

1. What is the statement of the Uniqueness Theorem for analytic
continuation?
2. Why does the existence of an accumulation point in the shared
domain matter in the uniqueness theorem?
3. Explain the role of connectedness in the uniqueness theorem for
analytic continuation.
4. What is the implication of the uniqueness theorem for the
extension of an analytic function?
5. What are the practical implications of the uniqueness of analytic
continuation in complex analysis?
6. How does the identity theorem relate to the uniqueness of analytic
continuation?

14.7 SUMMARY:-
The uniqueness of analytic continuation is a fundamental principle in
complex analysis, stating that if two analytic functions coincide on any
non-discrete subset of their domain, then they must be identical on their
entire domain. This means that an analytic function is uniquely determined
by its values on any small region, as long as this region has an
accumulation point within the domain. The principle underscores the
rigidity of analytic functions, where local behavior completely dictates

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global behavior, allowing a function defined on a small part of its domain

to be uniquely extended to a larger domain.

14.8 GLOSSARY:-

 Analytic Function: A complex function that is differentiable at

every point in its domain. This implies that the function can be
locally represented by a convergent power series.
 Analytic Continuation: The process of extending the domain of
an analytic function beyond its original domain, while preserving
the function's analyticity.
 Domain: The set of all points in the complex plane where a
function is defined and analytic.
 Non-Discrete Subset: A subset of a domain that has an
accumulation point, meaning that within any neighborhood of a
point in this subset, there are infinitely many other points from the
subset.
 Accumulation Point: A point in the complex plane where any
neighborhood around it contains infinitely many points from a
given set.
 Uniqueness Theorem: A principle in complex analysis stating that
if two analytic functions coincide on a non-discrete subset of their
domain, they must be identical throughout the entire domain.
 Rigidity: The concept that the behavior of analytic functions is
strictly determined by their values in a small region, allowing no
flexibility in how they can be extended.
 Power Series: A series of the form ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) , where anan
are coefficients and 𝑧0 is the center of the series. An analytic
function can be expressed as a power series around any point in its
domain.
 Local Behavior: The behavior or properties of a function in a
small neighborhood around a specific point.
 Global Behavior: The overall behavior or properties of a function
across its entire domain.
 Identity Theorem: A theorem in complex analysis that states if
two analytic functions agree on an infinite set of points that has an
accumulation point within their domain, then they must be
identical on the entire domain.

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 Extension: The process of enlarging the domain of a function

while maintaining its original properties, particularly analyticity.
 Holomorphic Function: Another term for an analytic function,
often used interchangeably in the context of complex analysis.
 Isolated Singularity: A point where a function is not analytic but
is analytic in some punctured neighborhood around that point.
Analytic continuation can sometimes resolve isolated singularities.

 Analytic Continuation Along a Path: A method of extending an

analytic function by moving along a path in the complex plane,
ensuring that the function remains analytic at each point.
 Convergence Radius: The radius within which a power series
converges to the corresponding analytic function. The concept is
crucial in understanding the limits and possibilities for analytic
continuation.
 Removable Singularity: A point where a function is not initially
analytic, but where it can be redefined so that the function becomes
analytic. Analytic continuation can often "fill in" these points,
ensuring the uniqueness of the function.
 Schwarz Reflection Principle: A method used in analytic
continuation, especially when the original function is defined on a
domain with a boundary. It reflects the function across the
boundary, maintaining analyticity and ensuring uniqueness.

14.9 REFERENCES:-

 Krantz, S. G. (2013). Geometric Function Theory: Explorations in

Complex Analysis. Birkhäuser.
 Remmert, R. (2012). Classical Topics in Complex Function
Theory. Springer.
 Dinh, T.-C., & Sibony, N. (2018). Dynamics in Several Complex
Variables: Endomorphisms of Projective Spaces and Polynomial-
like Mappings. Springer.

14.10 SUGGESTED READING:-

 Aizenberg, L. (2012). Carleman's Formulas in Complex Analysis:

Theory and Applications. Springer.

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 Goyal and Gupta (Twenty first edition 2010), Function of complex

Variable.
 https://old.mu.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Paper-III-
Complex-Analysis.pdf
 Dinh, T.-C., & Sibony, N. (2018). Dynamics in Several Complex
Variables: Endomorphisms of Projective Spaces and Polynomial-
like Mappings. Springer.

14.11 TERMINAL QUESTIONS:-

(TQ-1) Define analytic continuation.

(TQ-2) Define natural boundary.
(TQ-3) show that two function 𝑓1 (𝑧) and 𝑓2 (𝑧) are equal at all points of
a line 𝐿 in a region 𝐷 in which they are holomorphic; the functions are
equal at all points of 𝐷.
(TQ-4) Prove that the unit circle |𝑧| = 1 is a natural boundary of the
function 𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛=1 𝑧
𝑛!

(TQ-5) If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a domain 𝑅 and 𝑓(𝑧) = 0 at all points on

𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑃𝑄 inside 𝑅, thenprove that 𝑓(𝑧) = 0 throughout 𝑅.
(TQ-6) Show that the function
1 𝑧 𝑧2
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = + 2 + 3 + ⋯
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
Can be continued analytically outside the circle of convergence.
(TQ-7): If a function 𝑓(𝑧) and all its derivatives vanish at a point 𝑎, then
prove that 𝑓(𝑧) and all its derivatives will vanish at all points in the
domain of 𝑎.

14.12 ANSWERS:-
SELF CHECK ANSWERS

1. The Uniqueness Theorem for analytic continuation states that if

two analytic functions 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔(𝑧) are defined on a connected
domain 𝐷 and if there exists a subset 𝑆 ⊂ 𝐷 containing an
accumulation point where 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑔(𝑧) for all 𝑧 ∈ 𝑆, then 𝑓(𝑧) =
𝑔(𝑧) for all 𝑧 ∈ 𝐷. This means that an analytic function is uniquely
determined by its values on any subset that has an accumulation
point within the domain.

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2. The existence of an accumulation point ensures that the agreement

of the two functions on the shared subset is not just coincidental
but instead implies that the functions must be identical on the
entire connected open set 𝑈.
3. Connectedness of the domain U is crucial because if the domain
were not connected, the agreement of the functions on a subset
might not necessarily extend to the entire domain. The theorem
relies on the ability to "continue" the agreement throughout a
single connected component.
4. The uniqueness theorem implies that an analytic function, if it can
be analytically continued from a given domain to a larger domain,
must be unique on that larger domain as long as the continuation is
well-defined and the domain is connected.
5. The practical implications include the fact that once an analytic
function is known in a small region, it is uniquely determined in
the entire domain of definition, allowing for consistent extension
and prediction of the function's behavior beyond the initially
known region.
6. The identity theorem is a specific case of the uniqueness theorem.
It states that if two analytic functions agree on a set that has a limit
point within their domain of definition, then they must be identical
on the entire connected component of the domain. This theorem
underpins the uniqueness of analytic continuation.

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