Amity University, Noida

ASSIGNMENT
Topic- CANCER
SUBJECT- INTERVENTION AND TECHNIQUE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN
HEALTHCARE
SUBJECT CODE- PSYC229
GROUP NUMBER-
NAME OF GROUP MEMBER –
1. Priyanka Thakur

CANCER

Cancer is a disease in which some of the body’s cells grow uncontrollably and spread to other parts of the
body. Human body is made up of trillions of cells, cancer may begin from anywhere. Human cells typically
divide to create new cells as needed by the body by growing and multiplying. New cells replace old ones
when they die as a result of ageing or injury. Sometimes this orderly process breaks down, and abnormal or
damaged cells grow and multiply when they shouldn’t. These cells may form tumors, which are lumps of
tissue. Tumors can be cancerous or not cancerous (benign). Malignant tumours can metastasize, or spread
into, neighbouring tissues, and can also generate new tumours by travelling to far-off regions of the body.
Malignant tumours is another term for cancerous tumours. Blood cancers, including leukaemias, often do not
develop into solid tumours, but many malignancies can. Benign tumours do not penetrate or spread to
neighbouring tissues. Benign tumours seldom come back after removal, while malignant tumours
occasionally do. However, benign tumours can occasionally grow to be rather enormous. Some, like benign
brain tumours, are potentially fatal or produce severe symptoms.
Cancer is a genetic disease—that is, it is caused by changes to genes that control the way our cells function,
especially how they grow and divide.

Genetic changes that cause cancer can happen because:

 of errors that occur as cells divide.

 of damage to DNA caused by harmful substances in the environment, such as the chemicals in tobacco
smoke and ultraviolet rays from the sun. (Our Cancer Causes and Prevention section has more
information.)
 they were inherited from our parents.

The body normally eliminates cells with damaged DNA before they turn cancerous. But the body’s ability to
do so goes down as we age. This is part of the reason why there is a higher risk of cancer later in life.

Each person’s cancer has a unique combination of genetic changes. As the cancer continues to grow,
additional changes will occur. Even within the same tumor, different cells may have different genetic
changes.

According to the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2015, Cancer is one of the global cause of death and
morbidity. Cancer impacts the person interpersonal life and also lead to depression, anxiety. As per the
National Cancer Institute, between 15% to 25% of the cancer patients have depression. As per the study
from British Medical Journal, it is found that up to 10% of cancer patients have anxiety.

Types of Cancer

There are more than 100 types of cancer. Types of cancer are usually named for the organs or tissues where
the cancers form. For example, lung cancer starts in the lung, and brain cancer starts in the brain. Cancers
also may be described by the type of cell that formed them, such as an epithelial cell or a squamous cell.

Here are some categories of cancers that begin in specific types of cells:

1. Carcinoma

Carcinomas are the most common type of cancer. They are formed by epithelial cells, which are the cells
that cover the inside and outside surfaces of the body. Carcinomas that begin in different epithelial cell
types have specific names:
A dividing breast cancer cell.
Credit: National Cancer Institute / Univ. of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute

Adenocarcinoma is a cancer that forms in epithelial cells that produce fluids or mucus. Tissues with this
type of epithelial cell are sometimes called glandular tissues. Most cancers of the breast, colon, and
prostate are adenocarcinomas.

Basal cell carcinoma is a cancer that begins in the lower or basal (base) layer of the epidermis, which is a
person’s outer layer of skin.

2.Sarcoma
Sarcomas are cancers that form in bone and soft tissues, including muscle, fat, blood vessels, lymph
vessels, and fibrous tissue (such as tendons and ligaments).

Osteosarcoma is the most common cancer of bone. The most common types of soft tissue sarcoma
are leiomyosarcoma, Kaposi sarcoma, malignant fibrous histiocytoma, liposarcoma,
and dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans.

Leukemia

Cancers that begin in the blood-forming tissue of the bone marrow are called leukemias. These cancers
do not form solid tumors. Instead, large numbers of abnormal white blood cells (leukemia cells and
leukemic blast cells) build up in the blood and bone marrow, crowding out normal blood cells. The low
level of normal blood cells can make it harder for the body to get oxygen to its tissues, control bleeding,
or fight infections.

There are four common types of leukemia, which are grouped based on how quickly the disease gets
worse (acute or chronic) and on the type of blood cell the cancer starts in (lymphoblastic or myeloid).
Acute forms of leukemia grow quickly and chronic forms grow more slowly.

Lymphoma

Lymphoma is cancer that begins in lymphocytes (T cells or B cells). These are disease-fighting white
blood cells that are part of the immune system. In lymphoma, abnormal lymphocytes build up in lymph
nodes and lymph vessels, as well as in other organs of the body.

There are two main types of lymphoma:

Hodgkin lymphoma – People with this disease have abnormal lymphocytes that are called Reed-
Sternberg cells. These cells usually form from B cells.

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma – This is a large group of cancers that start in lymphocytes. The cancers can
grow quickly or slowly and can form from B cells or T cells.

Multiple Myeloma
 Multiple myeloma is cancer that begins in plasma cells, another type of immune cell. The abnormal
plasma cells, called myeloma cells, build up in the bone marrow and form tumors in bones all through the
body. Multiple myeloma is also called plasma cell myeloma and Kahler disease.

Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors

There are different types of brain and spinal cord tumors. These tumors are named based on the type of
cell in which they formed and where the tumor first formed in the central nervous system. For example,
an astrocytic tumor begins in star-shaped brain cells called astrocytes, which help keep nerve
cells healthy. Brain tumors can be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer).

Symptoms

Some of the symptoms that cancer may cause include:

Breast changes

 Lump or firm feeling in your breast or under your arm

 Nipple changes or discharge
 Skin that is itchy, red, scaly, dimpled, or puckered

Bladder changes

 Trouble urinating
 Pain when urinating
 Blood in the urine

Bleeding or bruising, for no known reason

Bowel changes

 Blood in the stools

 Changes in bowel habits

Cough or hoarseness that does not go away

Eating problems

 Pain after eating (heartburn or indigestion that doesn’t go away)

 Trouble swallowing
 Belly pain
 Nausea and vomiting
 Appetite changes

Fatigue that is severe and lasts

Fever or night sweats for no known reason

Mouth changes

 A white or red patch on the tongue or in your mouth

 Bleeding, pain, or numbness in the lip or mouth

Neurological problems

 Headaches
 Seizures
 Vision changes
 Hearing changes
 Drooping of the face

Skin changes

 A flesh-colored lump that bleeds or turns scaly

 A new mole or a change in an existing mole
 A sore that does not heal
 Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes)

Swelling or lumps anywhere such as in the neck, underarm, stomach, and groin

Weight gain or weight loss for no known reason

Cancer Psychological Impact on Patient and on Caregiver

After a person hears he or she is diagnosed with cancer, the first reaction frequently is a sort of shock: “It
can not be me; they must have mixed up the test results with another person”. For many patients,
receiving such a diagnosis is associated with the fear of intense pain, loss of control, stigmatisation and
death (Holland and Rowland 1989).

At times, psychological distress can be severe for cancer patients, resulting in clinically relevant mental
health conditions. Numerous studies have investigated the frequency of these conditions in cancer
patients over the past years. Several meta-analyses and large multicentre studies have shown that, during
the time of cancer diagnosis, about 30% of the patients suffer from a mental health condition (Singer et
al. 2010; Mitchell et al. 2011; Vehling et al. 2012; Mehnert et al. 2014; Kuhnt et al. 2016).

Cancer impacts the person interpersonal life and also lead to depression, anxiety. As per the National Cancer
Institute, between 15% to 25% of the cancer patients have depression. As per the study from British
Medical Journal, it is found that up to 10% of cancer patients have anxiety.
Anxiety and depression are two of the most commonly reported problems for caregivers, with estimates for
depression at 39%19 and for anxiety at 40%. In addition, caregiver depression appears to be especially
sensitive to sleep deprivation, declines in their own health, perceived burden of caregiving, and changes in
caregivers’ roles, responsibilities, and leisure activities, as well as to lifestyle interferences and social
isolation, all of which are modifiable risk factors. Researchers also found a strong positive correlation
between caregivers’ sleep problems and their level of depression. A multivariate analysis indicated that sleep
problems, in conjunction with poorer coping, lower optimism, less mastery, and higher neuroticism,
predicted 66.4% of the variance in caregivers’ depression. the caregivers’ perception of burden is influenced
more by a lack of confidence (less self-efficacy), inadequate preparation to perform skills expected of them,
disruptions in their lifestyle, and restrictions in activities (due to caregiving) that lead to their social
isolation.

Prevalence of Cancer in India

According to the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), the estimated number of new cancer
cases in India is projected to reach over 1.7 million annually by 2035. Factors contributing to the rising
prevalence of cancer, including population demographics, lifestyle changes, environmental factors, and
access to healthcare.

The estimated number of incident cases of cancer in India for the year 2022 was found to be 14,61,427
(crude rate:100.4 per 100,000). In India, one in nine people are likely to develop cancer in his/her lifetime.
Lung and breast cancers were the leading sites of cancer in males and females, respectively. Among the
childhood (0-14 yr) cancers, lymphoid leukaemia (boys: 29.2% and girls: 24.2%) was the leading site. The
incidence of cancer cases is estimated to increase by 12.8 per cent in 2025 as compared to 2020.

Management and techniques

Pharmacological

There are many types of cancer treatment. The types of treatment that you receive will depend on the type of
cancer you have and how advanced it is.

Some people with cancer will have only one treatment. But most people have a combination of treatments,
such as surgery with chemotherapy and radiation therapy.

1. Biomarker Testing for Cancer Treatment

Biomarker testing is a way to look for genes, proteins, and other substances (called biomarkers or tumor
markers) that can provide information about cancer. Biomarker testing can help you and your doctor choose
a cancer treatment.
2. Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment that uses drugs to kill cancer cells. Chemotherapy works by
stopping or slowing the growth of cancer cells, which grow and divide quickly. Chemotherapy is used for
two reasons:

 Treat cancer: Chemotherapy can be used to cure cancer, lessen the chance it will return, or stop or slow
its growth.
 Ease cancer symptoms: Chemotherapy can be used to shrink tumors that are causing pain and other
problems.
3. Hormone Therapy

Hormone therapy is a treatment that slows or stops the growth of breast and prostate cancers that use
hormones to grow. Hormone therapy is a cancer treatment that slows or stops the growth of cancer that
uses hormones to grow. Hormone therapy is also called hormonal therapy, hormone treatment, or endocrine
therapy. Hormone therapy is used for two main reasons.

 Treat cancer. Hormone therapy can stop or slow cancer's growth and reduce the chance it will return.
 Ease cancer symptoms. Hormone therapy may be used to reduce or prevent symptoms in men with
prostate cancer who are not able to have surgery or radiation therapy.
4. Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is a type of cancer treatment that helps your immune system fight cancer.

The immune system helps your body fight infections and other diseases. It is made up of white blood cells
and organs and tissues of the lymph system.

Immunotherapy is a type of biological therapy. Biological therapy is a type of treatment that uses substances
made from living organisms to treat cancer.

5. Radiation Therapy
Radiation therapy (also called radiotherapy) is a cancer treatment that uses high doses of radiation to kill
cancer cells and shrink tumors. At low doses, radiation is used in x-rays to see inside your body, as with x-
rays of your teeth or broken bones. At high doses, radiation therapy kills cancer cells or slows their growth
by damaging their DNA. Cancer cells whose DNA is damaged beyond repair stop dividing or die. When the
damaged cells die, they are broken down and removed by the body.

Radiation therapy does not kill cancer cells right away. It takes days or weeks of treatment before DNA is
damaged enough for cancer cells to die. Then, cancer cells keep dying for weeks or months after radiation
therapy ends.

6. Stem Cell Transplants

Stem cell transplants are procedures that restore blood-forming stem cells in people who have had theirs
destroyed by the high doses of chemotherapy or radiation therapy that are used to treat certain cancers, blood
disorders, and autoimmune disorders. Blood-forming stem cells are vital because they grow into different
types of blood cells.

Psychological
Psychological treatment can be defined as promoting a better adaption of the person in a given
circumstances and enhancing the person life. Hodges, 2011 define psychological intervention as
those that help people to adopt to the disease and its treatment, leading to improved well-being
and relief from the symptoms. Psychoeducation, psychotherapy, cognitive behavioural therapy, and
social support groups led by professionals are the most common types of treatments that address these
aspects.

1. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy [CBT] aim is to” understand how our thoughts influences how we feel.” It is
a type of psychotherapeutic approach. It has been used to treat the psychological disorders. Now it has many
uses, it is used to reduce the pain of various type of cancer [Anie & Green, 2012; Tatrow & Montgomery,
2006]. The goal of CBT is to change the thought and behavior of the person related to disorder. In the first
stage of CBT information is collected about the person [as well as their worries] and in the last stage of CBT
assisting the person in integrating what they have learned to deal living with cancer [Mustafa, et al. 2012].
Muller, et al. [2021] weakness and depressed symptoms improve during the Cognitive Behavioural
Therapy [CBT].

2. Mindfulness Based Therapy

Mindfulness Based Therapy is originated from Buddhism and other spiritually profound works. Jon kabat-
Zinn, in the 1990s, introduces mindfulness practices to the west. He defined mindfulness as paying attention
to the present moment, without judging. There are two most popular mindfulness therapies are mindfulness
based cognitive therapy [MBCT] and mindfulness based stress reduction [MBSR]. Zhang, et al. [2015]
Anxiety and depression among cancer patients were effectively alleviated by mindfulness-based
interventions.

3. Guided Imagery Technique

In guided imagery technique we instructed cancer patients to concentrate on positive mental imagery
and to imagine their immune system cells as powerful and destroying cancer cells. Charalambous, et al.
[2015] GI sessions can help decrease anxiety and depression in prostate and breast cancer patients receiving
chemotherapy.

4. Creative Therapy

Creative therapy is a type of supportive measures. Art therapy is one type of creative therapy, based on
painting and drawing and also includes book therapy, music, dance, and poetry. Art therapy is a
particular kind of intervention in the field of psycho-oncology. Art therapy aims is to help cancer
patients deal with their disease and its effects. Lefevre, C., Ledoux, M., & Filbet, M. [2016] art Therapy
helped in reduction of the symptoms torment, anxiety, depression, sadness, weakness and ill-being.
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