Ain Shams Engineering Journal (2013) 4, 475–483

Ain Shams University

Ain Shams Engineering Journal

www.elsevier.com/locate/asej
www.sciencedirect.com

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Investigation of temperature and thermal stress in

ventilated disc brake based on 3D thermomechanical
coupling model
1
Ali Belhocine *, Mostefa Bouchetara

Department of Mechanical Engineering, USTO Oran University, L.P 1505 El-Mnaouer, USTO, 31000 Oran, Algeria

Received 27 May 2012; revised 12 July 2012; accepted 17 August 2012

Available online 5 July 2013

KEYWORDS Abstract The objective of this study is to analyse the thermal behaviour of the full and ventilated
Brake discs; brake discs of the vehicles using computing code ANSYS. The modelling of the temperature distri-
Heat flux; bution in the disc brake is used to identify all the factors, and the entering parameters concerned at
Von Mises stress; the time of the braking operation such as the type of braking, the geometric design of the disc, and
Contact pressure the used material. The numerical simulation for the coupled transient thermal field and stress field is
carried out by sequentially thermal-structural coupled method based on ANSYS to evaluate the
stress fields and of deformations which are established in the disc and the contact pressure on
the pads. The results obtained by the simulation are satisfactory compared with those of the spec-
ialised literature.
Ó 2013 Ain Shams University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.
All rights reserved.

1. Introduction of the product in phase of operation. Parallel to technological

progress, the significant theoretical developments were made in
The modelling of the problems involved in the phenomena of the field of the transfers of heat and of mass, and sciences re-
energy transfer in general and the thermal case in particular is lated to thermodynamics in particular, and this discipline has
of primary importance, on the one hand, for the phase study or developed for a few decades at intervals raised in many sectors:
design of a product, and on the other hand, for the follow-up nuclear power, space, aeronautical, automobile, petrochemis-
try, etc. [1].
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +21 3793851317. In 2002, Nakatsuji et al. [2] did a study on the initiation of
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Belhocine), mbouchetar- hair-like cracks which formed around small holes in the flange
[email protected] (M. Bouchetara). of one-piece disc during overloading conditions. The study
1
Tel: +21 3775039631. showed that thermally induced cyclic stress strongly affects
Peer review under responsibility of Ain Shams University. the crack initiation in the brake discs. In order to show the
crack initiation mechanism, the temperature distribution at
the flange had to be measured. Using the finite element meth-
od, the temperature distribution under overloading was ana-
Production and hosting by Elsevier
lysed. 3D unsteady heat transfer analyses were conducted

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476 A. Belhocine, M. Bouchetara

Nomenclature

a deceleration of the vehicle, ms2 t time, s

Ad disc surface swept by a brake pad, m2 T temperature, °C
(C) thermal capacity matrix, JK1 T* temperature specified on a surface, °C
Cp specific heat, Jkg1K1 Tf fluid temperature, °C
E Young modulus, GPa TP temperature imposed, °C
g gravitational acceleration, (9.81 m/s2) v initial speed of the vehicle, ms1
h convective heat transfer coefficient, Wm2 K1 {m} vector speed of mass transport
k thermal conductivity, Wm1 K1 z braking effectiveness
(K) thermal conductivity matrix, WK1
{L} vector operator Greek symbols
m mass of the vehicle, kg a thermal expansion coefficient, 1/°C
~
n unit normal ep factor load distribution on the disc surface
q0 heat flux entering the disc, W/m2 m Poisson coefficient
Q heat quantity generated during the friction, W/m2 q mass density, kgm3
Q* heat flux specified on a surface, W/m2 m kinematic viscosity, m2/s
ST surface temperature, m2 / rate distribution of the braking forces between the
SQ surface in heat flux, m2 front and rear axle
Sc surface in convection, m2

using ANSYS. A 1/8 of the one-piece disc was divided into finite of cracks [13,14]. This solution is applied to the problem of
elements, and the model had a half thickness due to symmetry in determining the transient temperatures reached at the friction
the thickness direction. In 2000, Valvano and Lee [3] did a study surfaces of a disc brake when a constant deceleration is pro-
on the technique to determine the thermal distortion of a brake duced during braking [15].
rotor. The severe thermal distortion of a brake rotor can affect
important brake system characteristics such as the system re- 2. Numerical modelling of the thermal problem
sponse and brake judder propensity. As such, the accurate pre-
diction of thermal distortions can help in the designing of a 2.1. Equation of the problem
brake disc. In 1997, Hudson and Ruhl [4] did a study on the
air flow through the passage of a Chrysler LH platform venti- The first law of thermodynamics indicating the thermal conser-
lated brake rotor. Modifications to the production rotor’s vent vation of energy gives:
inlet geometry are prototyped and measured in addition to the  
@T
production rotor. Vent passage air flow is compared to existing Cp þ fmgT fLgT þ fLgT fQg ¼ p ð1Þ
@t
correlations. With the aid of Chrysler Corporation, investiga-
tion of ventilated brake rotor vane air flow is undertaken. The In our case, there is not an internal source (p = 0), and thus,
goal was to measure current vane air flow and to improve this Eq. (1) is written:
vane flow to increase brake disc cooling. Temperature increases  
@T
can strongly influence the properties of surface of materials in qCp þ fmgT fLgT þ fLgT fQg ¼ 0 ð2Þ
@t
slip, support physicochemical and microstructural transforma-
tions and modify the rheology of the interfacial elements present With:
in the contact [5]. Recent numerical models, presented to deal 8@9
with rolling processes [6,7], have shown that the thermal gradi- >
< @x >
=
@
ents can attain important levels which depend on the heat dissi- fLg ¼ @y ð3Þ
>
:@ > ;
pated by friction, the rolling speed, and the heat convection @z
coefficient. Other authors [8,9] dealt with the evaluation of tem-
perature in solids subjected to frictional heating. The tempera- where {L} is vector operator.
8 9
ture distribution due to friction process necessitates a good
< mx >
> =
knowledge of the contact parameters. In fact, the interface is al-
fmg ¼ my ð4Þ
ways imperfect – due to the roughness – from a mechanical and >
: > ;
thermal point of view. Recent theoretical and experimental mz
works [10,11] have been developed to characterise the thermal where {m} is vector speed of mass transport.The law of Fourier
parameters which govern the heat transfer at the vicinity of a (2) can be written in the following matrix form:
sliding interface. In certain industrial applications, the solids
are provided with surface coating. A recent study has been car- fQg ¼ ½KfLgT ð5Þ
ried out to analyse the effect of surface coating on the thermal With:
behaviour of a solid subjected to friction process [12]. In the 2 3
Kxx 0 0
braking phase, temperatures and thermal gradients are very 6 7
½K ¼ 4 0 Kyy 0 5 ð6Þ
high. This generates stresses and deformations whose conse-
quences are manifested by the appearance and the accentuation 0 0 Kzz
Investigation of temperature and thermal stress in ventilated disc brake based on 3D thermomechanical coupling model 477

where [K] is matrix conductivity.

Table 1 Geometrical dimensions and application parameters
kxx, kyy and kzz Represent the conditions along axes x, y
of automotive braking.
and z, respectively. In our case, the material is isotropic thus
kxx = kyy = kzz. Item Values
By combining two Eqs. (2) and (5), we obtain: Inner disc diameter, mm 66
  Outer disc diameter, mm 262
@T
qCp þ fmgT fLgT þ fLgT ð½KfLgTÞ ð7Þ Disc thickness (TH), mm 29
@t Disc height (H), mm 51
By developing Eq. (7) we obtain: Vehicle mass m, kg 1385
  Initial speed m0, km/h 28
@T @T @T @T Deceleration a, m/s2 8
qCp þ mx þ my þ mz
@t @x @y @z Effective rotor radius Rrotor, mm 100.5
      Rate distribution of the braking forces U, % 20
@ @T @ @T @ @T
¼ kx þ ky þ kz ð8Þ Factor of charge distribution on the disc ep 0.5
@x @x @y @y @z @z Surface disc swept by the pad Ad, mm2 35993

2.2. Initial Conditions

According to the experimental tests evoked in the literature, in Table 2 Thermoelastic properties used in simulation.
our study, one considers that the initial temperature is equal: Material properties Pad Disc
Tðx; y; zÞ ¼ 60  C at time t ¼ 0 ð9Þ Thermal conductivity, k (W/m °C) 5 57
Density, q (kg/m3) 1400 7250
Specific heat, c (J/kg °C) 1000 460
2.3. Boundary conditions
Poisson’s ratio, m 0.25 0.28
Thermal expansion, a (106/°C) 10 10.85
In general, in a thermal study, one finds three types of bound- Elastic modulus, E (GPa) 1 138
ary conditions: Coefficient of friction, l 0.2 0.2
Operation conditions
1. Temperature specified on a surface Angular velocity, x (rd/s) 157.89
ST : T ¼ T ð10Þ Hydraulic pressure, P (MPa) 1

2. Heat flux specified on a surface

SQ : fQgT fng ¼ Q ð11Þ ranging from 300 °C to 800 °C. Generally, the thermal conduc-
3. Convection specified on a surface tivity of material of the brake pads is smaller than that of the
disc (kp < kd). We consider that the heat quantity produced
Sc : fQgT fng ¼ hðTp  Tf Þ ð12Þ will be completely absorbed by the brake disc. The heat flux
emitted by this surface is equal to the energy generated by fric-
tion. The initial heat flux q0 entering the disc is calculated by
the following formula [16]:
3. Heat flux entering the disc
1  / mgmz
q0 ¼ ð13Þ
In a braking system, the mechanical energy is transformed into 2 2Ad ep
a calorific energy. This energy is characterised by a total heat- Fig. 1 shows the ventilated disc – pads and the applied forces.
ing of the disc and pads during the braking phase. The energy The loading corresponds to the heat flux on the disc sur-
dissipated in the form of heat can generate rises in temperature face. The dimensions and the parameters used in the thermal
calculation are recapitulated in Table 1.
The disc material is grey cast iron (GFC) with high carbon
content [17], with good thermophysical characteristics, and the
Brake
brake pad has an isotropic elastic behaviour whose thermome-
chanical characteristics adopted in this simulation in the tran-
F sient analysis of the two parts are recapitulated in Table 2.
Pads
4. Modelling in ANSYS CFX
F
The first stage is to create the CFD model which contains the
Angular ω
fields to be studied in Ansys Workbench. In our case, we took
velocity
only one quarter of the disc; then, we defined the field of the air
Disc surrounding this disc. ANSYS ICEM CFD will prepare vari-
ous surfaces for the two fields in order to facilitate the mesh
on which one will export the results towards CFX using the
Figure 1 Disc-pads assembly with forces applied to the disc. command ‘Output to cfx’ [18] (Fig. 2). After obtaining the
478 A. Belhocine, M. Bouchetara

Symmetric wall air

Outlet

Air at
20 °C
Disc

Input Adiabatic wall air

Figure 2 Definition of surfaces of the ventilated disc. Figure 4 Brake disc CFD model.

model on CFX Pre and specifying the boundary conditions, we

must define these physical values come into play on CFX to
start calculation.
The disc is related to four adiabatic surfaces and two sur-
faces of symmetry in the fluid domain whose ambient temper-
ature of the air is taken equal at 20 °C [19]. In order not to
weigh down calculation, an irregular mesh is used in which
the meshes are broader where the gradients are weaker (non-
uniform mesh), (Fig. 3).
Fig. 4 shows the elaborate CFD model which will be used in
ANSYS CFX Pre.
In this step, one declares all of the physical characteristics
of the fluid and the solid. We introduce into the library the
physical properties of used materials. In this study, we selected
three cast iron materials (FG 25 Al, FG 20 and FG 15) with
their thermal conductivity, respectively (43.7 W/m °C, 55 W/
m °C and 57 W/m °C). Since the aim of this study is to deter- Figure 5 Distribution of heat transfer coefficient on a ventilated
mine the temperature field in a disc brake during the braking disc in the stationary case (FG 15).
phase of a vehicle of average class, we take the following tem-
poral conditions:
Before starting the calculation and the analysis with
 Braking time = 3.5 (s). ANSYS CFX PRE, it is ensured that the model does not con-
 Increment time = 0.01 (s). tain any error.
 Initial time = 0 (s). After verification of the model and boundary conditions,
we run the calculation by opening the menu ‘File’ and clicking
on ‘Write solver file’. The values of the coefficient of exchange
will be taken average values calculated by the minimal and
maximum values obtained using ANSYS CFX POST as it is
indicated in Fig. 5.
Figs. 6 and 7 show the variation in the heat transfer coeffi-
cient (h) of different surfaces, respectively, for a full and ven-
tilated disc in cast iron (FG 15) in transient state. We found
that after a short time, all the curves of h are decreasing with
time.

5. Meshing of the disc

The elements used for the meshing of the full and ventilated
disc are tetrahedral three-dimensional elements with 10 nodes
(isoparametric) (Fig. 8). In this simulation, the meshing was re-
fined in the contact zone (disc-pad). This is important because
in this zone, the temperature varies significantly. Indeed, in this
Figure 3 Irregular mesh in the wall. strongly deformed zone, the thermomechanical gradients are
Investigation of temperature and thermal stress in ventilated disc brake based on 3D thermomechanical coupling model 479

120
SC1 110

Coefficient of transfer h [W.m-2.°C-1]

SC2 100
SC3 90
SC4
80
SF1
SF3 70
ST2 60
ST3 50
ST4
40
SV1
SV2 30
SV3 20
SV4 10
0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5
Time [s]

Figure 6 Variation in heat transfer coefficient (h) of various surfaces for a full disc in the non-stationary case (FG 15).

250
SC1
SC2 225
Coefficient of transfer h [W m-2 °C-1]

SC3
200
SF1
SF3 175
SPV1
SPV2 150
SPV3
SPV4 125
ST1
ST2 100
ST3
ST4 75
SV1
50
SV2
SV3 25
SV4
0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5
Time [s]

Figure 7 Variation in heat transfer coefficient (h) of various surfaces for a ventilated disc in transient case (FG 15).

The initial and boundary conditions are introduced into mod-

ule ANSYS Workbench. The thermal calculation will be car-
ried out by choosing the transient state and by introducing
physical properties of the materials. The selected data for the
numerical application are summarised as follows:

 Total time of simulation = 45 (s).

 Increment of initial time = 0.25 (s).
 Increment of minimal initial time = 0.125 (s).
 Increment of maximal initial time = 0.5 (s).
Figure 8 Meshing of the disc (a) full disc (172103 nodes-114421
 Initial Temperature of the disc = 60 (°C).
elements) (b) ventilated disc (154679 nodes-94,117 elements).
 Materials: three types of Cast iron (FG 25 AL, FG 20, FG
15).
very high. That is why the correct taking into account of the
contact conditions involves the use of a refined mesh.
7. Results and discussions
6. Loading and boundary conditions
The modelling of temperature in the disc brake will be carried
The thermal loading is characterised by the heat flux entering out by taking account of the variation in a certain number of
the disc through the real contact area (two sides of the disc). parameters such as the type of braking, the cooling mode of
480 A. Belhocine, M. Bouchetara

the disc and the choice of disc material. The brake discs are 8. Coupled thermomechanical analysis
made of cast iron with high carbon content; the contact surface
of the disc receives an entering heat flux calculated by the rela- 8.1. FE model and boundary conditions
tion (13).
A commercial front disc brake system consists of a rotor that
7.1. Influence of construction of the disc rotates about the axis of a wheel, a caliper–piston assembly
where the piston slides inside the caliper, which is mounted
Fig. 9 shows the variation in the temperature versus time dur- to the vehicle suspension system, and a pair of brake pads.
ing the total time simulation of braking for a full disc and a When hydraulic pressure is applied, the piston is pushed for-
ventilated disc. The highest temperatures are reached at the ward to press the inner pad against the disc, and simulta-
contact surface disc-pads. The strong rise in temperature is neously, the outer pad is pressed by the caliper against the
due to the short duration of the braking phase and to the speed disc [20]. Numerical simulations using the ANSYS finite ele-
of the physical phenomenon. For the two types of discs, one ment software package were performed in this study for a sim-
notices that starting from the first step of time, one has a fast plified version of a disc brake system which consists of the two
rise of the temperature of the disc followed by a fall of temper- main components contributing to squeal the disc and the pads.
ature after a certain time of braking. Various boundary conditions in embedded configurations im-
We quickly notice that for a ventilated disc out of cast iron posed on the model (disc-pad), taking into account its environ-
FG15, the temperature increases until Tmax = 345 °C at the ment direct, are, respectively, the simple case as shown in
moment t = 1.85 s, and then, it decreases rapidly in the course Fig. 10. The initial temperature of the disc and the pads is
of time. The variation in temperature between a full and ven- 20 °C, the surface convection condition is applied at all sur-
tilated disc having same material is about 60 °C at the moment faces of the disc with the values of the coefficient of exchange
t = 1.88 s. We can conclude that the geometric design of the calculated previously, and the convection coefficient (h) of
disc is an essential factor in the improvement of the cooling 5 W/m2 °C is applied at the surface of the two pads. The heat
process of the discs. flux into the brake disc during braking can be calculated by the

400

375

350
Temperature [°C]

325
Ventilated disc
300 Full disc

275

250

225

0 2 4 6 8 10
Time [s]

(a) (b)
Figure 9 Temperature distribution of a full (a) and ventilated disc (b) of cast iron (FG 15).
Investigation of temperature and thermal stress in ventilated disc brake based on 3D thermomechanical coupling model 481

formula described in the first part. The FE mesh is generated

using three-dimensional tetrahedral element with 10 nodes (so-
lid 187) for the disc and pads. There are about 185901 nodes
and 113367 elements are used (Fig. 11). The thermal coupling
will be carried out by the thermal condition at a temperature
non-uniform all takes the thermal environment of the model
of it. For this reason, the order ‘thermal condition’ will be used
to deal with the thermomechanical coupled problem and to
manage the transient state.

8.2. Thermal deformation

Fig. 12 gives the distribution of the total distortion in the

whole (disc-pads) for various moments of simulation. For this
figure, the scale of values of the deformation varies from 0 lm
Figure 10 Boundary conditions and loading imposed on the to 284 lm. The value of the maximum displacement recorded
disc-pads. during this simulation is at the moment t = 3.5 s, which corre-
sponds to the time of braking. One observes a strong distribu-
tion which increases with time on the friction tracks and the
external crown and the cooling fin of the disc. Indeed, during
a braking, the maximum temperature depends almost entirely
on the heat storage capacity of disc (on particular tracks of
friction); this deformation will generate an asymmetry of the
disc following the rise of temperature which will cause a defor-
mation in the shape of an umbrella.

8.3. Von Mises stress distribution

Fig. 13 presents the distribution of the constraint equivalent of

Von Mises stress to various moments of simulation, and the
Figure 11 Refined mesh of the model. scale of values varies from 0 MPa to 495 MPa. The maximum

Figure 12 Total distortion distribution.

Figure 13 Von Mises stress distribution.

482 A. Belhocine, M. Bouchetara

Figure 14 Contact pressure distribution in the inner pad.

value recorded during this simulation of the thermomechanical Through the numerical simulation, we could note that the
coupling is very significant compared to that obtained with the quality of the results concerning the temperature field is influ-
assistance in the mechanical analysis under the same condi- enced by several parameters such as the following:
tions. One observes a strong constraint on the level of the bowl
of the disc. Indeed, the disc is fixed to the hub of the wheel by  Technological parameters illustrated by the design,
screws preventing its movement. In the present of the rotation  Numerical parameters represented by the number of ele-
of the disc, the effects of torsional stress and sheers generated ments and the step of time.
at the level of the bowl which are able to create the stress con-
centrations. The repetition of these requests will involve risks With regard to the results of the coupling, we made the fol-
of rupture on the level of the bowl of the disc. lowing conclusions:

8.4. Contact pressure  The Von Mises stress and the total deformations of the disc
and contact pressures of the brake pads increase in a nota-
Fig. 14 shows the contact pressure distribution in the friction ble way when the thermal and mechanical aspects are
interface of the inner pad taken for at various times of simula- coupled.
tion. For this distribution, the scale varies from 0 MPa to
3.34 MPa and reached a value of pressure at the moment The various interactions between the thermomechanical
t = 3.5 s, which corresponds to the null rotational speed. It phenomena generally correspond to damage mechanisms:
is also noticed that the maximum contact pressure is located deformations generate cracking by tiredness, rupture or wear.
on the edges of the pad decreasing from the leading edge to- About the results obtained, in general, one can say that they
wards the trailing edge from friction. This pressure distribution are satisfactory in comparison with already carried out re-
is almost symmetrical compared to the groove, and it has the search tasks. Compared to the prospects, one finds interesting
same tendency as that of the distribution of the temperature to also make an experimental study of the disc of brake, for
because the highest area of the pressure is located in the same example, on test benches in order to show a good agreement
sectors. Indeed, at the time of the thermomechanical coupling between the model and reality.
3D, the pressure produces the symmetric field of the tempera-
ture. This last affects thermal dilation and leads to a variation
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