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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section Page

Introduction

I. Constructability Concepts During Conceptual Planning 5

Concept I-1: Constructability programs arc made an

integral part of project execution plans. 5

Concept I-2: Project planning actively involves

construction knowledge and experience. 13

Concept I-3: Early construction involvement is

considered in development of contracting strategy. 17

Concept 1-4: Overall project schedules are construction

sensitive. 21

Concept 1-5: Basic design approaches consider major

construction methods. 25

Concept 1-6: Site layouts promote efficient construction. 29

II. Constructability Concepts During Design and Procurement 35
Concept II-I: Design and procurement schedules are
construction sensitive. 35
Concept II-2: Designs are configured to enable efficient
construction.

Concept II-3: Design elements are standardized. 53

Concept II-4: Construction efficiency is considered
in specification development. 57

Concept II-5: Module/preasscmbly designs are prepared

to facilitate fabrication, transport, and installation. 67
Concept II-6: Designs promote construction accessibility
of personnel, material, and equipmen·t. 79
Concept II-7: Designs facilitate construction under
adverse weather conditions. 85

III. Constructability Concepts During Field Operations

------------------------------ --~--·--~-

INTRODUCTION

This publication is based on the experience of the owners and contractors

represented on the CII Constructability Task Force and on the findings of research

programs directed by the task force. The research convincingly shows that major cost

savings and schedule improvement can result from the effective implementation of the

principles of constructability. The task force defines constructability as "the optimum use

of construction knowledge and experience in planning, design, procurement, and field

operations to achieve overall project objectives."

Thirteen constructability concepts are presented in this report, along with sample

applications of the concepts. The first six concepts relate to the conceptual planning phase

of a project. The remaining seven relate to the design and procurement phase. Concepts

relating to field operations will be distributed at a later time.

Collectively, the concepts and their applications present representative good

practices in a manner that will enable practitioners in any organization to take advantage

of the lessons learned by others and apply them in their organizations and on their projects.

While the reader may find that some of the concepts or applications will be directly

applicable to their projects, the primary purpose of the Conce11ts File is to stimulate

thinking about constructability and how to make it work. This is not a checklist, nor is it a

cook book. Experienced people will have to study the concepts and the sample applications

to determine which will be best for their company and their projects.

I
 Conceptual planning involves defining functional and performance requirements,

evaluating project feasibility, and studying criteria for preliminary engineering. The

decisions made during this phase have a major impact during the remainder of the project,

particularly on construction. The, concepts concerning the benefits of construction

involvement in project planning, development of the contracting strategy, and selecting

major construction methods that influence the design approach clearly indicate the need to

involve those who will build the project as it is being defined.

Design and procurement is the phase in which most serious practitioners of

constructability have previously addressed their efforts. In comparison to the preceeding

phase of conceptual planning, the cost impact of decisions here is still very high and many

opportunities exist for enhancing constructability. The nature of these improvements,

however, can be quite different. While conceptual planning constructability tends to focus

on project objectives, organization, and execution plans, design/procurement

constructability is manifested in the form of drawings, specifications, purchase orders, and

schedules.

The task force research also identified the best practices in organizing for

constructability among many companies. These practices arc presented in Guidelines for

Implementing a Constructability Program, which will help the reader begin the

development of his own company specific programs. It will also be helpful in thinking

through the nature of the constructability efforts that may be appropriate for a given

company in the formulation of a policy statement, in the development of the

2
constructability organization, and in the establishment of the basic procedures to be

followed.

The task force believes that the adoption of new technology such as three-

dimcnsional computer aided designjdrafting (CADD), robotics, and automation in

construction will have a revolutionary impact on construction methods and techniques.

Constructability personnel must be prepared to adapt to these new approaches and provide

the appropriate planning input to all the participants who will impact directly and

indirectly on the construction process. This publication is designed to assist in the

dynamics of that important process.

The initial publication by the task force, Constructability: A Primer, and its second

publication, Guidelines For Implementing A Constructabilty Program, arc included with

this notebook'. Future research results on constructability will be forwarded by CII as

additions to the notebook.

3
--------

CONSTRUCTABILITY CONCEPTS

DURING CONCEPTUAL PLANNING

Concept I-1: Constr11ctability programs are made an integral part of project execution

plans.

Discussion

This concept establishes the position that if constructability is to be achieved on a

project, the plan for achieving it must be published as part of the project execution plan.

A project execution plan is an integrated and coordinated program for completing all

project activities and achieving all project objectives. In most cases these plans are

prepared by an owner project manager at a very early stage of the owner's project efforts.

These owner plans then influence the nature of the plans of the designers and constructors,

which will be coordinated with the owner's plan. In the absence of an owner plan,

designers and constructors each benefit from having their own project execution plans

governing their scope of work.

An execution plan is comprehensive, covering the project organization and its

operating procedures, the schedule and budget, and the overall project strategy. It also

5
includes the contracting/subcontracting plan, the procurement plan, and the construction

plan. It defines the project environment and identifies potential constraints to the

successful completion of the project. Project execution plans are prepared in different

ways by owners, designers, and constructors with varying degrees of formality according to

the nature and size of the project. The areas listed above are considered, however, in all

project execution plans - explicitly or implicitly. When a project manager wants a high

level of confidence that a functional area such as constructability will be addressed

effectively on a project, a written plan will be published for that area as an explicit part

of the overall execution plan.

Implementing constructability may mean implementing change in many

organizations. It will not happen unless the change is well planned and well managed.

While a corporate program is important to assure consistency in approach on all projects,

project-specific programs really make it happen. If a project-specific constructability

program is not totally integrated into the project execution plan, constructability will not

be achieved. If constructability is viewed as a special effort, not a regular part of project

planning, design, and construction, then its full benefits will not be achieved.

Constructability will not be achieved by a group of specialists trying to influence project

activities from the outside. They must be a part of the project team and work on the inside

of the project. This can only be achieved when the organization and procedures of doing

so are set forth in a constructability program that is published by the project manager as

an integral part of the project execution plan.

6
 A project-specific constructability program applies the general constructability

policies, organizational philosophy, and procedures of a company to the specific conditions

of a project. The purpose of the program is to make optimum use of construction

knowledge and experience to meet project objectives. The program should build a team

approach of "thinking of the effect on construction of all project decisions• in making

major decisions during all phases of a project, especially during conceptual planning and

preliminary engineering. These programs do not optimize construction at the expense of

other activities, but rather encourage decision-making based on the needs of the entire

project.

Constructability programs contribute to effective project execution in many ways,

including:

Helping to establish project goals and objectives. Goals of the engineering and

construction groups should support overall project goals, thus avoiding the pitfall of sub-

optimiza ti on.

Providing a logical and systematic manner for integrating design and construction.

The concept of constructability is as old as the engineering, design, and construction

process - it is nothing new. The problem lies in getting people (designers and constructors)

from diverse cultural backgrounds and with potentially different driving goals to work

together effectively. A constructability program can provide the mechanism for

effectively integrating design and construction • a •common sense• need that has been

recognized for a long time.

7
 Providing a mechanism for obtaining field. construction expertise as needed.

Problems or alternatives involving methods/techniques, materials, equipment, etc. can be

resolved before design is finalized in a manner that reduces field costs without adversely

impacting design cost/schedule. Better yet, a constructability program can be useful in the

development of project specifications, thus getting construction know'!edge into the design

effort at a very early stage.

Improving the understanding of design intent by construction personnel. This

shared understanding increases mutual respect, aids communication, and can prevent

construction from making a serious mistake from a seemingly insignificant field change.

Implementation of this concept will vary among owners, designers, and constructors,

and from one contracting approach to another. Regardless, it is important that a plan be

established to achieve constructability in all phases of a project by all participants within

the parameters of the overall project execution plan and the execution plans for the

separate phases.

Applications

Owner Constructability Programs. When an owner decides to proceed with a capital

project, a project execution plan to achieve the project objectives should be prepared early

in the project development effort. This plan defines how the necessary resources will be

brought to bear on the project, including in-house staff and contractor capabilities to

accomplish design and construction. A constructability program should be a part of the

8
owner's execution plan to establish how the owner will acquire and utilize construction

knowledge and experience during the early conceptual planning phase of the project, and

to define what the owner will require contractors to do to achieve constructability for their

respective areas of effort.

Design-Build Contractor. Where an owner assigns both design and construction

responsibility to a single firm, the contract should include a requirement for the contractor

to incorporate constructability into his execution plan. This provision is appropriate under

either a fixed-price or a cost-reimbursable contract. In either case, the owner can set forth

his minimum requirement and establish his right of approval.

Construction Management Contractor. Owners may employ a construction

management contractor to act for the owner in planning and achieving the project

objectives. The contract should establish the nature of the constructability program

required of the construction manager. The owner also can require the construction

manager to include a constructability program in other design and construction contracts,

all of which should be coordinated so that the set of execution plans effectively address all

actions required by all parties in executing the plan. In the absence of an owner plan or a

requirement by the owner for the construction manager to prepare an execution plan,

independent action by the construction manager will be beneficial in achieving an

effective constructability program.

Design Contractor. Designers prepare their own project execution plans, which

reflect their contractual commitments to owners and their own company approach to

9
---------- -----------------------------

planning and executing their work. These plans arc coordinated with owner execution

plans. Designers should include constructability in their execution plans. These plans will

reflect owner constructability requirements. If the owner has not established a

constructability requirement, the designer should establish his own constructability

program to improve the quality of his design products. The designer's program should

identify the source of construction knowledge and experience to be employed on each

project. This will be crucial in establishing the credibility of the designer's

constructability efforts.

Construction Contractor. Construction contractors prepare execution plans for their

projects. For cost-reimbursable contracts, these plans reflect the requirements of the owner

in detail and are coordinated with the owner's plan. One of the advantages of the cost-

reimbursable contracting approach is that it permits bringing the construction contractor

on board early. This enhances the effectiveness of the constructability program. If an

owner does not prepare an execution plan or does not require the contractor to prepare a

constructability program, contractors can prepare constructability programs as a part of

their execution plans and present them to the owners for their concurrence in the

reimbursable expenses involved. Under fixed-price contracts, the construction contractor

should be motivated to develop an effective constructability program for construction

activities to enhance his competitive position. The constructability program should be

published as a part of the contractor's overall execution plan.

Major Vendors of Sub-Units or Systems. Owners, designers, and construction

contractors should require major vendors of sub-units or systems to consider

10
constructability in the design, fabrication, and shipping of their products, whether shipped

as components or preassemblies. This can be accomplished by including specific

requirements in requisitions and purchase orders. Examples are water treatment plants,

steam generating units, prefabric.ated buildings, and packaged heating and cooling systems.

Constructability issues involve:

a. Compatibility of specifications contained in or referenced by the procurement

document with field construction specifications.

b. Obtaining advanced information on the degree of completeness, i.e., is the unit

complete or unassembled; is calibration and testing complete.

c. Obtaining vendor data and certified drawings relating to construction in a timely

manner. The key is the proper and detailed identification of the data in

procurement documents.

d. Logistical considerations, i.e., method of shipment, offloading and storage

requirements, special lifting or handling considerations.

e. The site need date should be specified in purchase orders to avoid delays and

costly work-around solutions.

11
Concept 1-2: Project planning actively involves construction knowledge and experience.

Discussion

This constructability concept addresses achieving cost and schedule benefits through

the inclusion of construction people in the early planning teams. When faced with a

decision to construct a new facility, owners establish formal or informal project planning

teams. These teams are responsible for determining how best to satisfy a business need, for

example the manufacturing of a new product, increasing existing capacity, reducing costs,

or improving quality. Many factors arc involved in these analyses with most being obvious,

including:

• Availability of raw materials

• A vaila bili ty of skilled Ia bor

• Cost of labor

•Costs of transportation of raw materials and finished products to market

• Plant capacity

• Manufacturing process

• Potential for plant expansion

Often these planning teams do not include members with significant construction

knowledge and experience. A number of construction sensitive factors can influence the

cost and time frame for completion of construction, and these can be acted upon during the

conceptual planning stage of a project when the potential for influence is greatest if people

13
who are sensitive to them participate in the planning process. It is critical that the right

kind of construction people be on the team at the beginning of a project.

Applications

Establishment of Project Objectives. One of the early efforts by the planning team

is establishing the overall project objectives. These objectives should address the balance

among such areas as cost, schedule, quality, and reliability. Clearly stated objectives and

relative priorities will be useful in development of project design criteria, specifications,

and the quality assurance program. These objectives also will be important in preparing

the project execution plan, including the budget and schedule. The participation of an

experienced construction person on the team will insure that all implications to

construction operations will be considered. The implications are not always apparent to

people without field construction experience. Highly competent executives and engineers

sometimes are not familiar with construction related issues that may have major cost and

schedule saving potential. It is important that these issues receive consideration during

early project planning.

Selecting Major Construction Methods. Early construction planning is necessary to

select major construction methods, and to assure that the design approach is both consistent

and supports these methods. Modularization and prefabrication/preassembly must be

considered during the early project planning. Such considerations are important when

selecting major construction methods.

14
 Site Selection. While business factors normally influence the general geographic

area for a new facility, the choice of a specific site in this area can in many cases impact

construction productivity, cost, and schedule. For example, subsurface conditions normally

are explored by gcotcchnical consultants, but only infrequer..tly are site logistics issues such

as access for heavy equipment, laydown areas for temporary storage, and local

transportation of the labor forces adequately examined. Experienced construction people

understand the importance of these and similar issues.

Schedule Feasibility. Most projects arc driven by market forces, and are considered

economical when they deliver a product or other value at the right time. This translates

into an overall project schedule that involves planning, design, procurement, and

construction. The schedule implicitly involves many assumptions and risks. A major risk

factor is the overall duration allowed for construction. Knowledgeable construction people

can minimize the risks and provide experienced input to schedule feasibility.

Productivity Assumptions. During early project planning, field labor productivity

assumptions must be made when developing project economic feasibility estimates. A

construction person, particularly one who has previous experience in the region, is well

qualified to prepare these estimates. The availability of skilled labor within commuting

distance, the need for training programs for specific crafts, the need for a construction

workers camp, .and the impact of adverse weather arc all important considerations for

productivity during the project. If these are not accurately assessed during early project

planning, later changes in costs are inevitable.

15
 Preparing Estimates and Budgets. Construction input is essential in preparing

estimates and budgets for the project. Without specific construction knowledge supported

by site surveys, there is a tendency to apply general company experience from seemingly

similar past projects without recognizing the differences of the current one. Specific

estimating assumptions regarding major construction methods, productivity of craft labor,

indirect costs, and the unique conditions of the site can be effectively made by a

construction person.

Developing the Contracting Strategy. Construction input can be helpful in

evaluating the alternative contracting strategies available to an owner and in the selection

of the strategy that best suits the ·project's needs. This will involve assessment and

allocation of risk, consideration of the urgency of the schedule, the degree of flexibility

that may be required during the project, and the objectives concerning project cost.

Sources of Commodity Materials and Engineered Equipment. While the selection of

vendors is primarily a project procurement responsibility, an experienced constructor can

provide valuable input to the owner, designer, and procurement agent concerning past

experience with specific sources, the need for in-plant quality surveillance, and the need

for special purchase order provisions to optimize the delivery of items as specified, on

time, and in the sequence required.

16
Concept .I-3: The source and qualifications of personnel with construction knowledge and

experience varies with different contracting strategies.

Discussion

This concept addresses how owners can obtain the assistance of experienced

construction personnel under different contracting strategics. In the preparation of project

execution plans, owners develop their contracting strategy. This is governed by the owner's

basic philosophies concerning cost-reimbursable, fixed-price, and other commercial

arrangements, and whether the owner prefers to concentrate responsibilities through

design-construct contracts or divide responsibilities through separate design and

construction contractors. A variety of strategies are available. The specific strategy for a

given project will be determined by the specific conditions and objectives of the project.

The contracting strategy will have a major influence on the availability of qualified

construction personnel to serve on constructability teams. The importance of early

construction input during conceptual planning has been addressed previously and cannot

be overemphasized. Owners must be particularly cognizant of this situation or the benefits

from constructability input will be lost. For instance, if the project delivery system

employs the traditional concept of separate contracts for the designer and general

contractor, the owner will have primary responsibility for coordinating early

constructability input. Since award of the general contract depends upon design

completion, special arrangements arc required to obtain knowledgeable construction

personnel during conceptual and early design phases.

17
 Some owners have in-house construction knowledge and experience, but many will

need to acquire this capability during the conceptual planning phase by some contractual

arrangement. This is possible through any contracting strategy if the need is recognized

early and specifically included in the strategy. Under any approach the right kind of

construction people must be involved and their qualifications must be clearly specified in

the contract documents. Personal qualifications are important, not just availability. Care

must be taken to avoid having someone who may be available between other assignments

simply plugged into the planning team in order to fill the constructability position. The

right kind of construction person will be mature and experienced, and command respect

from other team members. He should be a broad-gauged person who is able to understand

the full scope of project activities and their interrelationships. He should not be a zealot

who is concerned exclusively with construction needs. He must be able to work with people

from other disciplines and be able to communicate effectively. The need for the right kind

of construction people for early planning teams should be recognized, even if finding

people with these qualifications may be difficult.

Applications

Using Owner Construction Staff. While this concept addresses obtaining people

with construction knowledge and experience by contract, some owners maintain their own

construction staff that can develop and implement constructability programs without help

from other sources. Owners should be certain that their own staffs have the right

qualifications for constructability before relying on them exclusively.

18
 Using a Design-Construct Contractor. Construction knowledge and experience can

be obtained if the selection of a design-construct contractor is made early enough to assist

the owner during conceptual planning.

Using the Construction Contractor. An owner can select the construction contractor

early to provide constructability input during project planning.

Using a Construction Contractor as a Consultant. An owner can employ a

construction contractor as a constructability consultant during the conceptual planning

phase of a project with no commitment to using that contractor as the ultimate constructor.

Using a Construction Manager. An owner may elect to utilize a construction

manager. In this case, the construction manager's scope of work should clearly state his

constructability responsibilities of the construction manager.

Using the Design Contractor. An owner may select the design contractor early

enough to provide constructability services, but this approach requires great care to assure

that qualified people are available. In this case, the contract with the designer should

specify that the constructability advisor to the owner will be a member of the owner's

planning team, not a member of the designer's design team.

Using a Constructability Consultant. An owner may use a constructability

consultant who is independent of the designer or constructor. This has the advantage of

not requiring an early selection of either the designer or constructor.

19
 In all of the above cases, care is required to assure the qualifications of the people
provided.

20
Concept l-4: Overall project schedules are construction sensitive.

Discussion

This concept establishes the principle that the project completion date and the

requirements of the construction phase should be considered in optimizing the project cost

and schedule. This concept addresses the overall project schedule, which balances and

allocates durations of time among the major project activities. A design and procurement

concept, "Design and procurement schedules arc construction sensitive," addresses the

detailed sequencing of effort for these activities within their allocated durations. The

conceptual planning phase of a project establishes an overall project schedule by

optimizing time and costs to meet the owner's required date. While design, procurement,

and construction each has its own optimum sequence and duration, few overall project

schedules allow the optimization of all of them. Compromises are necessary and should be

made to the benefit of the overall project schedule and cost.

The planning process often uses the "forward pass" schedule technique: satisfying

planning, design, and procurement time frames first, then leaving the balance to

construction. This occurs because the owner and designer representatives generally are

involved in the conceptual

I
phase of a project and often tend to protect their respective

activities without sensitivity to construction needs. Owners and designers frequently

assume that construction has the flexibility to finish the field work in the remaining time.

To achieve the benefits of constructability, owners should guard against this approach and

require overall project schedules to be determined using a "backward pass" basis with an

21
analysis of the balance required among the times allocated to planning, design, procurment,

and construction.

Considering construction early in the development of the overall project schedules

has the potential of trading more costly field work for less costly planning, design, and

procurement activities. The result is a cost-effective overall project schedule. If the cost

of land and major engineered material and equipment items is set aside, field construction

activities result in about 40 percent of the project cost. There are many more construction

work-hours on a project than design and procurement work-hours. In addition,

construction work-hours are expended in an environment (weather, space limitation,

remoteness, etc.) less controllable than design and procurement. A construction sensitive

schedule will consider these factors.

A construction sensitive schedule emphasizes the importance of the timeliness of

conceptual planning. Insufficient or ineffective planning can severely inpact costs during

construction. Construction knowledge and experience as well as design and procurement

expertise must be involved in the conceptual planning effort to establish a balanced overall

project schedule. This involvement will best facilitate the allocation of the total time

available to the project among all of its activities.

The following items arc important conceptual planning considerations in developing

construction-sensitive schedules:

O The sequence of major construction activities and subcontracts.

22
 0 Establishment of realistic durations for construction activity to prevent costly

overtime, acceleration or counter-productive high levels of craft labor.

0 The effect of leveling construction resources on the accomplishment of design

and procurement tasks.

0 The impact of weather on construction activities including the definition of

construction seasons when necessary.

0 The lead times for delivery of major items of equipment under different

procurement approaches.

0 The allocation of sufficient time for mobilization in remote areas including the

time for recruiting and training craft labor when required.

0 The allocation of sufficient time for the contracting and subcontracting process.

In summary, to achieve the full benefit of constructability requires a balanced

allocation of overall project schedule time. Owners and planners must be sensitive to

developing construction-driven schedules during the conceptual planning phase of a

project.

23
Applications

1. Construction input should be continuous during the conceptual planning process,

not ad hoc to simply review the judgements formed by others. Construction

should address the several areas set forth as applications under Concept I-2,

"Project planning actively involves construction knowledge and experience."

2. Design/construct contractors should consider this concept in the development of

their overall design, procurement, and construction schedules.

3. In cost-reimbursable projects with separate designers and constructors, designers

should consider constructors' needs in preparing their design/procurement plans

and schedules.

4. When designs are prepared for single projects for which construction will be

competitively bid, owners must assure a proper balance among all project

activities, including their own planning phases, design, the contracting process,

and construction.

24
Concept 1-S: Basic design approaches consider major construction methods.

Discussion

This concept establishes the principle that major construction methods must be

considered during conceptual planning. These methods have significant influence on both

conceptual planning and design. Their consideration during conceptual planning, a brief

window of opportunity (as illustrated in Figure 1), raises cost effectiveness, design, and

construction performance and improves owner value.

HIGH

CONCEPTUAL PLANNING
1
§ DESIGN

i...
3... PROCUREMENT
!
.l2
!: CONSTRUCTION
=
•c

l
Lowl_~~~~~~~__::::::::::=~=----~
START
TIME
IST4RTUP I

COMPLETE

Figure 1. Ability to Influence Final Cost Over Project Life

25
 Major construction methods can be defined as the use of construction equipment,

labor, and work sequencing in such a way that the methods become a major design "driver."

In this case, a design driver is a construction method, condition, or technique that design

engineering must address, and which if exchanged later in the design or construction

process, could significantly impact cost, time, or performance results.

Major Construction Methods

Major construction methods for building and industrial projects relate to: site

grading and excavation; foundations; superstructure; enclosure; major building and process

equipment; modularization; preassembly; and heavy rigging.

Timing, an interactive planning process, and measuring effectiveness are keys to

constructability through major construction methods. Timing begins at project inception

during the start of conceptual planning. All members of the project team interact and

agree on the methodology that will quantitatively and qualitatively measure the output of

major construction methods as positive construction contributors to overall project

reQ uiremen ts.

Detailed design issues related to major construction methods are discussed later

under Concepts II·2 and II-5.

26
Applications

Modularization. Special construction methods include prefabrication, preassembly,

and modularization. This major construction method is attractive in certain conditions

where local labor, resources, remote locations, or adverse weather are limiting factors.

Excavation. A high water table focuses special considerations on excavation and

foundation construction. A common construction method used in high water table

conditions is a well point or other method for dewatering. A well point system can be

considered a major construction method because it can have significant implications in

excavation, foundation design, and construction engineering.

Foundation systems. The choice of a foundation system is primarily determined by

soils ananlysis. During evalution of alternatives, each option's impact on construction

operations to arrive at the most cost-effective method should be considered.

Mo du la ri za ti on /Preassemblv. Entire building floors including structural,

architectural, mechanical, and electrical features could be preassembled on the ground and

lifted into final position. Commercial or institutional buildings that consist of repetitive

rooms or other features could use modularization.

27
Concept 1-6: Site layouts promote efficient construction.

·Discussion

This concept addresses the principle that construction efficiency is an important

criteria in the layout of both permanent and temporary facilities.

Construction concerns often are neglected in the layout of permanent facilities, and

the layout of temporary facilities is seldomly integrated with that of permanent facilities.

Permanent facility layout should be reflective of construction concerns and well

coordinated with temporary facility plans. When temporary facilities are not well thought

out in advance and instead are "left to the field," the effects can be both costly and long-

term. Temporary facilities are expensive project clements that can adversely affect

construction productivity. They are too important to neglect.

Effective site layout can facilitate construction activities and thereby reduce cost in

a number of ways, including:

I. Provide adequate space for laydown and fabrication yards and give serious

consideration to the location of such yards relative to the work site. Consider the

impact of adjacencies of and the efficiencies associated with flow and traffic

patterns. Site temporary support facilities so as to avoid unnecessary relocation.

2. Facilitate access for construction equipment, materials, and personnel. In

29
 establishing clearances, give particular attention to heavy lift operations,

modularization needs, and potentially congested areas. Minimize interferences

among different types of traffic such as vehicular and pedestrian, and locate

heavy traffic paths in areas of stable ground.

3. Where economic alternatives exist, avoid costly and problematic types of

construction such as underground work, elevated work, or work adjacent to

existing construction. Avoid construction below the water table whenever

possible.

4. Allow for temporary construction uses of permanent facilities. The additional

expense of temporary construction facilities may be avoided when the design and

sequencing of related permanent facilities is structured to allow for usage during

field operations. Permanent utilities, enclosed space, and pavement should all be

considered.

5. In locating space for construction warehouse, construction parking areas, etc.,

give consideration to walking distance to the worksite. Locate construction

supervision facilities in close proximity to the work.

6. Provide an effective construction drainage plan, giving particular attention to

low areas and areas of heavy runoff. Where snowfall is heavy, make plans for its

stockpiling.

30
 7. Where pollutant emissions may adversely affect construction, seek alternatives in

which the effects are minimized. Where necessary, provide holding areas and

disposal means for construction-generated wastes.

8. Consider potential needs for emergency access and evacuations. Site layout

should also be reflective of construction safety, security, and theft prevention

considerations.

Layout plans for permanent and temporary facilities should be based on knowledge

of other subsidiary plans, such as the site organization, materials management plan,

manpower plan, and other elements of the project execution plan.

The broad issue of expanded vs. consolidated layouts is worthy of analysis. While

an optimal middle-ground approach is difficult to determine, extremes in either approach

can be very costly. Consolidated layouts, for example, can make accessibility problematic

and reduce productivity. On the other hand, cost savings may result from shorter piping

and electrical runs. Similarly, there are trade-offs in the vertical vs. horizontal layout

decision. This decision is often driven by land availability or the desire to minimize

elevated construction, but a detailed analysis may also be warranted.

The effects of poor site layout can be costly: reduced productivity, more frequent

accidents, and higher site utility expenses. The tactics described above reiterate the

importance of construction input during conceptual planning. Issues related to both

temporary and permanent facility layout often significantly impact constructability and in

31
many cases, up-front analyses of temporary facilities have a significant impact on the

layout of permanent facilities.

Applications

I. Site accessibility is often enhanced with a peripheral road.

2. The location of large engineered equipment should involve consideration of erection

sequence, material flow, and crane location. Arca sterilization should be avoided.

3. The shoring of adjacent buildings may often be avoided by distancing new construction

further from existing construction.

4. Analyze installation traffic paths, cross traffic, and conflict points and consider void

areas for, interim storage of materials.

5. Sites with adjacent railroad spurs and waterways should be considered for their

potential usage in the delivery of large or bulky materials and equipment.

6. Plans for temporary facilities should be compatible with project schedules, with

consideration being given to the timing of space needs among various organizations.

The allocation of laydown space should be treated as a scheduled, short-term

commitment.

32
7. Scaffolding requirements and the need for elevated pipe racks can be minimized by

supporting major pipe runs on sleepers at grade. In this scheme, road crossings can be

accomplished with ramps.

8. Simulation programs are available for modelling construction traffic. They should be

given serious consideration on projects where construction operations arc dense and

site traffic is complex. The use of block models may also be beneficial, especially for

confined sites, the placement of large equipment, or the sequencing of

building/structure enclosure.

9. Careful consideration in locating permanent outlying facilities generally reduces cost.

This decision is deserving of cost-benefit analysis.

10. Permanent facilities for temporary field uses:

a. Utilities: permanent fire protection water lines servicing hydro-testing needs for

water, electric supply, permanent site drainage system and sewage system in place early

to serve construction needs.

b. Enclosed space: permanent enclosed space constructed early to serve needs for

construction warehousing, contractor office space, service shops, or satellite tool rooms.

c. Pavement: roads, parking, and site pavement completed early to serve construction

needs.

33
 d. Other: security gates; fire stations.

11. Where crusher plants are involved, consider the effects of dust in determining their

location. Wind effects on stockpiling of loose materials (soil, fine aggregates, etc.)

should also be considered.

34
 II

CONSTRUCTABILITY CONCEPTS

DURING DESIGN AND PROCUREMENT

Concept II-1: Project constructability is enhanced when design and procurement schedules

are construction sensitive.

Discussion

As discussed in the concept, "Overall project schedules are construction sensitive,"

intitial project planning seeks to optimize the overall schedule for maximum benefit to the

entire project. This optimization almost always centers around cost or schedule issues.

Both design and procurement decisions have high cost and schedule leverage and should be

arrived at in a deliberate and accurate manner. The relatively large cost of construction

when compared to design and procurement, however, usually gives construction the greatest

weight in schedule optimization. Project planning should address these relationships and

cost values as early as possible. This analysis usually will confirm the generalization that

project cost effectiveness is best served when both design and procurement schedules

reflect the needs of the construction schedule.

The failure to consider the construction schedule and its momentum, characteristics,

and cost in relation to design and procurement is an expensive management error. Some of

35
the most frequent management problems in the design and procurement phase of project

development stem from incomplete planning, cost analysis, and schedule reconciliation for

the entire project. Often there is great pressure to get design started, which may create an

illusion of progress and efficiency.

The owner, the project manager, the construction manager, the designer, and the

contractor have three major areas to work with in optimizing a schedule: design;

procurement; and construction. Although each has a certain sequence for its most efficient

accomplishment, they must be integrated to provide the most efficient overall project

schedule.

Design. This cannot be started until basic criteria, space allocation, aesthetics,

functionality, capacity, flow size, or process parameters are fixed. Once started there are

multiple interactions and feedback among the design disciplines.

A reasonable level of flexibility in accelerating or retarding design speed along a given

path or area is possible if it is identified early and incorporated into the design work plan.

Design also can exert a strong impact on the schedules for both procurement and

construction through the choice of materials and equipment. Design choices also impact

the design schedule itself. For example, the design time required for a steel-framed

structure is less than the design time required for an equivalent concrete structure. These

trade-offs must be developed, analyzed, and implemented by a project management process

that considers benefit, cost, and impact to the entire project.

36
 From a cost viewpoint, design normally represents as much as 8 to 16 percent of the

total project cost, and thus lends itself to schedule adjustment to accomodate the more

costly area of construction, which typically accounts for approximately 40 percent or more

of project cost.

The largest opportunity for trade-offs between design choices and

construction/procurement schedule impact lies in design/construct contract situations.

Conversely, the worst impact of failure to consider construction schedules during design

may occur when design and construction are done separately. The risk here is that the

designer may neglect constructability considerations and unknowingly design inherent

obstacles to construction schedule enhancement. This highlights the need to incorporate

constructability analysis as a part of the design process regardless of the contractual

format for performance of the design.

Procurement. The procurement schedule for major items is generally fixed by vendor

production capacity and has relatively low flexibility to accelerate. Occasionally, payment

of large cost premiums can accelerate these major procurements, but is an exception.

The project critical path generally runs through a limited number of long lead, usually

big ticket, procurements. These procurements cannot be placed until sufficient design is

completed to describe and specify them adequately. The cost of tho procurement is usually

large compared to the cost of the design required to place the order, which suggests that

acceleration of design may be appropriate. There is also the option of shifting design to

utilize a more readily available item.

37
 Much of the remainder of the project procurement such as basic commodities of

cement, lumber, and cable is not particularly time sensitive, and can await the normal

description, quantity, and specification output from design.

Procurement, other than for long lead items, has moderate schedule flexibility. It can

be scheduled to optimize the construction schedule and cost, and can be largely sub-

optimized around minimum costs from vendors.

Construction. While considerable flexibility is available in construction scheduling

during conceptual planning, this flexibility may entail large cost penalties. A limited array

of construction sequencing options is associated with the lowest cost of construction.

Usually it is most cost effective to shape the design and procurement schedules to match

the needs of the construction schedule, where the major project costs are incurred.

Two factors limit the ability of construction to shift its schedule to match design or

procurement. First, there is generally the natural best fit physical sequence to the most

cost-effective construction - bottom to top or inside to out. To depart from this is

expensive. Second, construction has a large overhead or support component that once

started, entails large cost. From a cost viewpoint, it becomes very expensive to extend the

construction duration. Planning studies will almost always conclude that short construction

schedules are the most cost effective.

Summary. Construction normally is the largest cost segment of a project and thus

exerts great cost leverage on a "backward pass• schedule through both procurement and

38
design. Generally, construction has a natural sequence to its most cost-effective order of

operations. Construction also has a very large cost momentum that is hard to change once

started. Certainly there are many examples of the high cost penalties paid to change

construction sequences.

Procurement, other than for long lead times, has moderate ability to conform to the

needs of the construction segment of the overall schedule. Responsibility for managing

this interface with the construction schedule will vary with contractual format. It will

differ in Jump sum, design-construct, or owner furnished equipment situations.

Design has the greatest flexibility of all in accomodating the needs of both

procurement and construction. This may entail significant change in the level of effort of

the various design disciplines and may create the need for intense management of design

coordination. Design is a complex and demanding process, but frequently is the most

fruitful area in optimizing the entire project schedule. Unfortunately, design often has a

firm momentum of its own and departs from that only with difficulty. Additionally,

design generally is placed close to the planners and process or product groups, and it

becomes easy to get "design started" without the more thorough analysis and leveling of the

entire project schedule. This is a potential first step toward an undesirable cost or schedule

overrun.

Owners and their project managers should be sensitive to cost and schedule trade-offs

over the entire period of project activity. This analysis usually will conclude that the cost

leverage of construction operations supports the concept that the least cost project is

39
one in which the construction schedule is a principal driver of both the design and

procurement schedules.

Applications

I. The procurement schedule has a high cost impact linkage to the construction schedule.

For example, bulk materials such as cement or lumber may deteriorate if purchased too

early. Storage costs are increased if such bulks are ordered out of synch with

construction's needs. Incremental synchronized deliveries of bulk materials reduce

multiple handling and the need for storage facilities, and improve the quality of shelf

life sensitive commodities. Of course, the need for a surge inventory and the cost

impact of a shortage must be considered fully in setting procurement schedules.

2. Construction efficiencies may justify use of allowances in design. For example, HY AC

systems sometimes must be installed prior to major equipment or other systems. This

may be facilitated by early design of a "larger than precisely needed" system to enable

the fabrication and erection of HY AC systems to proceed early in construction. Such

trade-offs can only be made in an integrated planning environment with strong project

management.

3. Construction of modules of up to S,000 tons such as those for the Alaskan North Slope oil

projects has introduced new absolutes in project scheduling. Module launch dates to

meet ocean shipping windows geared to Artie ice pack movement leaves zero schedule

flexibility under penalty of losing an entire year. The "backward pass• from launch

40
 date through construction, procurement, and design has created an environment of

schedule absolutes that are regularly achieved. The intensive planning that wraps

design and procurement schedules around the very expensive and largely inflexible

needs of such modular construction will be increasingly needed in the future.

4. A major recurrent problem that affects construction schedule and costs is the

coordination of specific staged construction needs for single buy items such as structural

steel. Typically all the structural steel is purchased under a single purchase order from

a single supplier. Unless the detail delivery sequence for the steel components is

specified in the purchase order, the supplier may deliver in a sequence convenient to

him. If he is paid on a tons delivered basis, he may ship all the heavy members as early

as possible but not fabricate the lighter connecting steel until much.later. He may have

mill run scheduling problems for heavy steel and elect to ship all the handrails and

gratings first. He may have engineering/shop drawing approval problems and not ship

anything. All of these scenarios have a cataclysmic effect on construction, whose

critical path is heavily entwined with steel deliveries.

5. It is essential that the specific needs of the construction schedule be reflected in the

delivery schedule set forth in the purchase order. Delivery schedules affect supplier

prices, so there is significant cost impact to these schedule arrangements. Similarly there

is usually a loop of shop drawing preparation and engineer approvals that can impact

the fabrica.tion schedule. This cycle can involve procurement, engineering, the supplier,

and construction, and therefore must be closely managed so that the right steel is on the

scene at the right time. If it is not, the owner also risks an interlocking series of

41
 subcontractor schedule delay and impact claims.

This scenario applies not only to structural steel but also to other major areas such as

piping and HY AC, which arc subject to the same fabrication and delivery schedule

risks. The entire sequence of procurement brings into focus the necessity for total

schedule integration of construction, engineering, and procurement.

6. An increasingly popular technique in the integration of construction with design is to

move more of the design to the field. This is particularly effective if the project is

characterized by change and the need for rapid response. Joint planning and

communication are greatly enhanced by face-to-face communication. CADD enables the

field design effort to be integrated effectively with offsitc design.

7. Design and procurement usually operate on a mix of early and late finish schedules.

Focusing on the early finish schedule and managing on that basis will provide more

leeway in scheduling construction.

8. Procurement schedules for the major equipment items arc particularly critical. The ideal

situation is to deliver the major equipment directly to its final base plate location. This

eliminates the expensive and sometimes risky double handling that can entail large costs

for heavy rigging and set up. Construction has already adopted may "just-in-time• (JIT)

delivery sequences such as those used in manufacturing and delivering prccase segments.

This trend toward JIT deliveries in construction will accelerate, and thus increase the

linkage among design, procurement and construction. CADD and the use of an

42
 integrated project database will assist in this trend.

9. In seeking the most economical facilities owners sometimes use multiple fixed-price

designers and multiple fixed-price contractors. In such cases schedule development,

coordination, and optimization is very difficult. The owner or a surrogate construction

manager should develop the construction schedule for use in such project optimization.

10. Design schedules should also be keyed to purchase order and bid package advertising

dates. Design specifications, material descriptions, performance characteristics, or other

descriptions must be available to be part of the bid package provided to vendors. This

necessitates a close coordination of design with both the construction need date and the

procurement or advertising schedule.

11. Procurement activities after award of the purchase order are frequently complex and

subject to slippage. These activities include quality control surveillance, various shop

inspections, certifications, and expediting. These activities should be keyed to the

construction schedule and frequently require intensive management to preserve that

schedule.

12. Occasionally there are other schedule factors that must be factored into overall project

schedule optimization. The permit or licensing process is an example of such a

constraint that can have a major and sometimes unpredictable impact on a construction

release date and the overall schedule.

43
Concept 11-2: Designs are configured to enable efficient construction.

Discussion

This concept emphasizes constructability's input to the design effort. The major

construction methods established during the conceptual planning phase are at this stage

expanded and refined. The desired result is to facilitate the exchange of ideas between

construction and design before "pencil on paper" design activities.

Generally the concept of a facility is developed by process and design professionals to

conform to the criteria of the client. Plans and specifications are generated on this basis

by each design discipline. Aesthetics, operability, maintainability, and safety are project

objectives that heavily influence designs. Their respective layouts and possibly a project

model should be thoroughly studied for constructability.

The following paragraphs describe factors that should be kept up front in

constructability deliberations:

Simplicity is a desirable element of any constructable design. Unwarranted complexity

is in the best interest of no one and markedly increases the probability of an unsatisfactory

finished product. Special drawings and instructions may be required to improve the

constructability process. This process is particularly important in retrofit or rebuild

projects.

45
 Flexibility for the field construction forces to select alternative methods or innovative

approaches is highly desirable. Designs should specify the desired results and not limit

approaches to attain these results. In the fully open and competitive market, it is highly

desirable to provide designs that do not limit the construction methods or approaches.

Sequencing of installation is as much a design consideration as it is a procurement and

construction consideration. Many times designs have evolved so that during construction it

is discovered too late that 'we have built ourselves out of access to the next construction

operation" or because of the layout or spacing of facilities only one way remains to

execute. Configuration of the facilities should avoid limiting or restricting installation

sequences.

Substitutions or alternatives warrant attention, but too often are passed by with 'we

have always done it this way." Improperly considered material applications will impact

constructability, resulting in costly modifications. These impacts can be lessened and

elimated when addressed during the dc_sign time by constructability programs.

Labor skill/availability are often not considered early enough in a project life cycle.

The availability of labor and the skill level of the workers should be fully explored. The

absence of either skill levels or availability of the work force can have a costly impact on a

project and require consideration during the design phase. Use of shop

modularization/prefab/prcassembly as in Concept 11·5 addresses this problem also.

Designs that require special skills should be minimized in all cases, along with ones that arc

highly labor intensive.

46
 These factors will become even more important. CADD and simulation technologies are

useful tools in applying constructability to configure designs for efficient construction.

Constructability's purpose is not:

* to cheapen the design

* to modify project objectives

• to improve upon or take over the designer's responsibilities

The purpose is broader involvement in and the establishment of earlier control of the.

construction costs and schedule.

A major obstacle to effective constructability programs is the "review only" syndrome.

This occurs when completed or substantially completed products from design are merely

"reviewed" by construction. A constructability process based exclusively on review only of

design products is prima facie evidence that the program is not operating on an effective

basis. Contractual formats and personnel arrangements for constructabilty must facilitate

open communication and joint constructability evaluation of alternatives prior to start of

design.

47
 The end resJJlt is not to dictate the designs· that arc the easiest to bJJild. Consideration

of construction factors will assure that the completed designs and details recognize their

impacts on construction. These impacts have been controlled.

Applications

Architectural

Block-outs should be combined where possible.

Wall penetrations should occur at a uniform height to simplify support needs.

Show only dimensions and details required for installation; redundant information

increases opportunity for errors.

Concrete design always requires careful study. Since no standard manufactured

configurations are available to choose from, the design is quite critical. Form costs can

consume any savings arbitrarily recognized due to reduction in a specific concrete

quantity.

Concrete column dimensions remain the same from floor to floor.

48
 Concrete embediments should be checked for compatibility with surface finish

requirements -· walls, floors, ceilings, etc.

Structural

Detail simple, easy to execute connections with minimum requirements for highly skilled

labor or need for special enclosures, coverings, ventilation, lighting, etc.

Secondary structural connections should be specified as welded or bolted at option of

fabricator /constructor.

Use prefabricated L-shaped steel plates installed with the structural steel to eliminate.

field forming for exposed perimeter edges of elevated floor slabs.

Specify 'north' or 'east' end of beams for piece mark locations; this helps in orientation

during erection.

Mechanical

Preassemble as many components as practical.

Provide manufacturer's number,s when possible for items included in details.

49
Piping

Expansion joints for rack piping runs should be nested together in a common location.

This allows several join ts to be supported at a common point, and reduces the likelihood of

physical interferences in the pipe racks.

Underground piping and electrical conduit should each be run at consistent elevations in

zones whenever possible. Elevation changes should be minimized.

Electrical

Electrical grounds should be stub-up coiled cable in lieu of ground plates embedded in

concrete slabs. Ground plates are difficult to place correctly during a slab pour and

require special attachments.

Conduit runs should be grouped where possible.

Sequencing is usually improved when cable tray is used in lieu of conduit.

Conduit connections to equipment should be flexible as opposed to rigid. Rigid conduit

is difficult to align prior to equipment installation and requires more labor and material

than flexible conduit to make connections after the equipment is installed.

50
 Group elevated cable junctions in as few places as possible to minimize scaffolding

needs.

Instrumentation

Instruments that are precalibrated or self-calibrating can reduce testing and turnover

time.

Specify the orientation requirements for control valves upper works.

General

Coordinate specification requirements and drawing details. Items should be addressed

in only one place in the specifications.

If installation is to be in accordance with a code, specify particulars of that code which

apply.

Choose materials and required connecting arrangements such as welding, bolting,

splicing/terminating so that handling, inspection, and testing requirements arc simplified.

Complexity not only slows construction, but may make it difficult to verify integrity.

51
Concept 11-3: Constructability is enhanced when design elements are standardized.

Discussion

This concept addresses the achic:>'cmcnt of cost and schedule benefits through the use of

standardization, a process by which project clements are both regularly and widely used,

are available, or are readily supplied. Many of the project elements have standardization

potential. Dimensions, material types, design drawing format, construction details, and

building systems may all be standarized.

Standardization will result, with management support, through the efforts of design·

personnel, construction's hands-on experience, or adhering to vendor standards through the

selection of off-the-shelf material. The project execution plan that is discussed in Concept

1-1 of the conceptual planning phase should identify a commitment to standardization.

Appropriate levels of standarization are determined through examination of the relative

advantages and disadvantages to the project. Overall project objectives must remain

foremost in mind during this examination process. Usually the predominant trade-off is a

cost reduction that results from a time savings in construction and volume discounts in

material vs. an increase cost in materials due to a more conservative design.

53
 Some advantages of standardization are:

1. Benefits of the learning curve from repetitive field operations/increased

productivity /increased quality.

2. Volume purchase discounts (more of the same elements).

3. Simplified material procurement (fewer, different clements).

4. Simplified field materials management (fewer, different elements).

5. Reduction in design time.

6. Downstream operational benefits result by providing greater interchangeability of

spare parts and reducing the variety of spare parts stocked in the warehouse.

Some disadvantages of standardization are:

I. Increased material usage and weight of components could result.

2. Creativity may be stifled; a redirection of priorities of the design staff may be

required:

3. Volume purchase and early shipment of materials could increase field storage costs.

54
 In line with standardization, most manufacturers have established a limited number of

standard product designs. If the engineers specify changes to these designs, additional

costs and longer delivery times occur, depending on current marketplace demands, the

degree of change required, the nature of the change, and the number of items purchased.

Applications

I. Maximize the use of manufacturers' standards in the selection of piping systems

components, minimizing the number of variations used in such items as valves and pipe

supports where possible. This should simplify CADD on a project by reducing the

variables to be addressed.

2. A void the use of unique connections in the design of structural steel in an attempt to

save a slight amount of structural steel. Bolt sizes are particularly well suited for

standardization.

3. Electrical/instrumentation accessory items such as hangers/supports, junction boxes,

lighting fixtures, instrument manifolds, and instrument stands should be standardized.

4. Location standardization would reduce the number of interference problems. In

corridors or pipe racks, electrical junction boxes or panels, instrument junction boxes, and

piping utility stations could each be assigned to designated zones such as one particular

side of support columns.

55
5. Maximize the number of similar foundation sizes to permit the maximum reuse of form

work. Minimize the types and lengths of anchor bolts.

6. Structural members should be standardized for supporting piping, cable trays, and

platforms. T-supports are prime candidates for standardization.

7. Piping subassemblies such as those for vents, drains, pressure gauges, orifice taps, steam

tracing manifolds, steam traps, and sample connections should be standardized and

preassembled.

8. Standardizing dimensions for such things as foundations, supports, controls stations, and

material types such as valves and architectural components will assist computer aided

drafting by minimizing the number of variables that might be considered.

56
Concept 11-4: Project constructability is enhanced when construction efficiency is

considered in specification development.

Discussion

This concept discusses the role of construction input to specification development.

Construction knowledge and experience can contribute significantly to the generation of

specifications, which will promote efficiency in field construction operations.

One of the major factors affecting the efficiency and cost of field construction is the

character of the specifications being followed. Specifications arc a principal means by

which the designer conveys the detailed design intent to the constructor and the equipment

fabricator. Constructability helps produce specifications that are clear and complete,

which greatly facilitates both fabrication and construction efficiencies.

Constructability is only one of several considerations affecting specification

development. Owners frequently choose to consider such related features as operability,

maintainability, reliability, operating safety, aesthetics, expandability, and training

simultaneously with constructability. This document focuses on constructability. The

development of specifications for a specific project is closely linked to the corporate

standing or guide specifications from which the project specifications are derived. If the

underlying guide specification is cluttered or inefficient, the probability is that the

derived project specification will be likewise inefficient. Thus, the roots of

57
constructability .are intertwined with the structure and condition of the corporate standing

specifications.

A similar relationship exists with corporate standards. They can enhance or inhibit

constructability with a direct impact on construction costs. This includes the standard

design elements increasingly found in CADD system libraries.

Specification development. This process starts with the first feasibility or conceptual

study on a project. This start may not be recognized, but as soon as cost values start to be

assigned in preliminary planning there is an implicit recognition of the major underlying

specifications. Preliminary planning accuracy is enhanced when this relationship is

recognized and managed. It is never too early to recognize the intrinsic impact of

constructability and related issues on construction cost and schedule.

Constructability is enhanced if:

I. The underlying corporate guide specifications offer clear-cut options so that the

project team can readily match the needs of the project to an available specification or

to an option within a specification. The less new specification writing required, the

better -- and the probability of error and construction rework is diminished.

2. Specification development within a project is done as a distinct project activity with a

full and early involvement of personnel with appropriate construction knowledge and

experience.

58
3. Sufficient time is allowed to develop good project specifications. They will exert

great impact on efficiency, cost, and schedule during construction of the project. The

job site or the fabrication floor is no place to resolve specification ambiguities.

Rework, delays, and increased costs often have their roots in a specification that was

generated under too intense time pressure.

4. Clarity is sought as one of the prime characteristics of a good specification.

Maximum use of drawings, sketches, pictures, tabularized data, and formulas will help

convey precision of the design intent. Word descriptions that arc subject to

interpretation may not carry the message and should be avoided. Construction

personnel participation in the specification preparation process assists in achieving

clarity.

5. A single construction specification covers all appropriate aspects of a single subject or

component. Multiple specifications referring to a single subject may lead to conflicts,

contradictions, and misinterpretations. Additionally, the risk of missing one or more

of the additional applicable specifications is reduced when the primary specification is

comprehensive.

A particularly confusing practice is the use of additional specifications

incorporated by reference. Too often this simply passes the problem to the field,

which is not well equipped to resolve it.

59
 6. The cost saving potential of "or equal" specifications is balanced against the risk

involved. The specification should be clear as to intent and how that intent is

described and measured. The engineer/designer should be involved by construction in

final decisions where any question exists as to suitability of a substitution or waiver.

7. Specifications are up to date. Rapid changes in materials, methods, and equipment

make specifications obsolete with equal speed. Specifications should take advantage of

current technology and methods. Knowledgeable construction participation will assist

greatly in forming specifications that will allow the use of the latest and best

technology with resultant improved constructability.

Applications

a. Consider the need for soil stabilization of the construction operations area

simultaneously with finished facility soil stabilization needs.

b. Allow segmental testing of underground systems to prevent immobilizing large areas

by open trenches awaiting entire system tests.

c. Maximize use of site materials for backfill in lieu of imported select materials.

60
2. Structural

a. For safety and efficiency during erection, specify that seat angles be fabricated on all

column webs having through connections.

b. Steel fabrication tagging procedure - identifying piecemarks for erection of all

fabricated steel to be bead-welded on the members. Separate die-stamped metal tags

to be used to show individual piecemark number, shop order number, and project

number. This tagging method to be used on all fabricated steel items including

ladders and platforms.

c. Clearly define bolt torqueing procedures and values.

d. Careful attention to be given to fabrication and erection tolerances. Specification of

plus or minus tolerances where tolerance should be permitted in only one direction

can be a serious problem.

3. Electrica I

a. Consider cable tray systems in lieu of rigid conduit where permitted by the National

Electric Code (NEC).

b. Proposed specifications more stringent than NEC should be carefully scrutinized in

terms of risk and cost effectiveness.

61
4. Instrumentation

a. Instrument calibration requirements should be carefully considered to avoid

unnecessary calibrations prior to start-up.

b. Maximize the use of line-mounted instruments as opposed to stand mounts.

c. Define special maintenance requirements for instruments and operation.

5. Piping

a. Clearly specify hydro and pneumatic test requirements on all line classifications.

Treatment of valves and other instruments must be specified.

b. Use service testing of low pressure air and water systems in lieu of hydro testing.

c. Avoid the use of screwed piping above 2-inch diameter unless required by fire codes.

d. Permit the use of bent small bore pipe to minimize screw fittings and welds. Use bent

or welded pipe spools of maximum size consistent with construction efficiency.

6. Paint/coatings

a. Shop vs. fiela coating should be addressed to minimize work in the field.

62
 b. Engineered coating systems should specify time requirements between coats in view of

variable weather conditions.

7. Insulation

a. Use pre-insulated tubing in lieu of field installed insulation.

b. Permit the overlap in aluminum jacketing to be in the 45 degree position. This

facilitates installation and preserves weather protection integrity.

c. Maximize the use of a single layer of insulation as opposed to double layers. This

greatly reduces construction work-hour expenditure.

8. Prepackaged Engineered Equipment

a. Ensure that electrical, instrument, and mechanical specifications for vendor furnished

equipment are consistent with and to the same standards as construction specifications.

Inconsistencies between specifications causes confusion and added work when the

equipment arrives at site.

b. Requirements for vendor drawings and data including their submittal schedule should

be spelled out in the purchase order. Be specific regarding requirements for certified

shop drawings, electrical schematics, loop drawings, specification sheets, installation,

maintenance, and operating instructions.

63
 The need for bills of material and vendor drawings in advance of receipt of

equipment should be determined. Advance information in the field greatly

facilitates receipt of equipment and preparations for installation. It is good practice

to have a line item with a price or percentage of order to be withheld pending

receipt of specific vendor data.

c. In the case of fabricated components (e.g., superstructure steel and pipe spools), the

construction/assembly sequence must be carefully determined and accurately stated

on the purchase order or contract delivery schedule. Where schedules are tight,

premium costs may be involved and justified in order to maintain a logical

construction/assembly sequence.

d. Specifications and procurement documents should provide for multi-discipline in-

shop inspection where appropriate. Shop inspection should be conducted by

competent personnel familiar with project construction specifications. Inspection

hold points and requirements for witnessing including the documentation

requirements should be specified in the purchase order.

e. The purchase order should contain provisions for field actions in

handling/correcting misfabrications. As a minimum, such issues as notification,

documentation, cost (backcharges), timing, shipping instructions, etc. should be

addressed. This will save time, reduce confusion, and facilitate audit and purchase

order closeout.

64
 Packaging, transportation, and related logistical considerations must be addressed

and included in !he purchase order. Improper packaging or handling procedures can

result in product damage and construction schedule delay.

f. Lifting and rigging requirements should be specified on all major equipment

heavier than 25 tons.

9. General

a. Materials of construction and their procurement: Possible procurement problems

with particular construction materials may be solved by using other more readily

available alternate materials that meet the requirements.

b. Construction specifications vs. maintenance practices: Consider making the

construction specification match maintenance practices. Do not require

construction pump alignment, testing, or torque tolerances to be more stringent than

those inherent in on-going maintenance practice.

65
Concept 11-5: Constructability is enhanced when module/preassembly designs are prepared

to facilitate fabrication, transportation, and installation.

Discussion

This concept establishes the principle that when the decision has been made during

project conceptual planning to use special construction methods (modularization,

preassembly, and/or prefabrication), special factors must be addressed during design and

procurement to ensure that these methods will succeed. In particular, it is vitally

important on these projects to consider knowledge and experience in the fabrication,

transportation, and installation of modules and preassemblies.

When modules are mentioned, most people first think of the jumbo modules being

transported to the North Slope or offshore. Consider, however, a completely wired control

room no larger than a truck trailer that is delivered to the jobsite with only external

connections to be made. Is this a module or a preassembly? The factors that must be

addressed for both of these during design and procurement are essentially the same:

methods of fabrication, transportation, and placement. Insufficient attention in defining

these parameters and failure to incorporate them into the module design at an early stage

can cause extensive modifications, resulting in schedule delays and increased costs during

construction.

67
Fabrication

Designers should consider where the fabrication is to be performed. If in a vendor's

shop under controlled conditions, tolerances can be more stringent. If the work is

performed at the jobsite, however, the designer should incorporate flexibility into the

design due to the difficulties in achieving the same exacting standards that can only be

achieved in a shop environment. An example is designers providing for slotted holes on

interconnections of assemblies that are field-fabricated, thus compensating for greater

tolerances yet still allowing for easier field fit-up.

Requirements for lifting eyes and beams, weight limitations, hook capacity, impact, and

wind loads must be defined. Crane lifts are extremely sensitive to module weight and

center of gravity and require constant attention during the design and construction.

Selection of cranes should be based on a study of the effect of outriggers,

accessibility/maneuverability, and the lift capacity for the required angle of lift. If the

module is to be jacked into position, the position of each jacking point and its maximum

design load must be established.

Designers must consider the routing of underground services, drainage, and conduits.

The design of these services must include possible impose loads by site vehicles and cranes,

both during construction and normal operations.

The continuity between modules in a train or series of modules is achieved by the

joining of piping and utilities. Depending on the type of equipment used for module

68
placement and the degree of fabrication and setting tolerances achievable, piping may be

joined by a single buttweld or by employing a spacer piece of pipe. This will require

double welding. Using single-buttwelded joints reduces field labor, but requires more

stringent design, fabrication·, and erection tolerances for piping and structural steel to

achieve correct matching of pipe ends. The designer also needs to consider thermal

expansion and contraction occuring between the time of module fabrication and placement.

The operation for modularization usually requires a combination of two operations that

are normally handled as distinctly separate phases in the engineering-procurement-

construction (EPC) cycle of conventional projects, namely shop fabrication and field

erection. These two operations involve the shop fabrication, inspection, and expediting

normally associated with vendor supplied equipment and all of the planning and logistics

requirements normally associated with field construction management. Identifying a

fabrication organization qualified in this combination of skills is basic to a program of this

type.

Module/preassembly fabricators should possess the following attributes:

I. Skilled labor

2. Effective material inventory and delivery tracking control systems

3. Large open and enclosed material storage, fabrication, and assembly areas serviced

with the necessary heavy haul and lifting equipment

69
 4. Load-out facilities

5. An effective QA/QC program

6. Work-hour and commodity based progress reporting and control systems

7. Reputation for maintaining project schedules

8. A well qualified engineering staff familiar with projects of this type (if they are to

accomplish design also)

9. Prior experience in module/preassembly design and fabrication.

Transportation

Module/preassembly designs add requirements for transporting and handling large

assemblies. These activities will form a major new scope for the project and will introduce

key physical or schedule restraints based on the availability of transportation and handling

equipment.

Design criteria for land transporation will depend on the type and number of

transporters selected. The loads associated with land transportation are wind, roadway

gradient, braking, and traction forces. The criteria for marine shipment of modules are

70
 .. I

governed by the type of barge or heavy-lift ship selected, and by the equipment used to

load and offload the modules. At sea, modules are subjected to wind load and to inertial

forces caused by motion of the ship; sea-transferred modules themselves must meet

applicable maritime codes such as those of the American Bureau of Shipping.

The first step in a successful module transportation program is a thorough route survey

covering movement of the complete assemblies from fabrication yards to their installed

location at the construction site. Generally, these routes will involve both land and marine

transport, each of which requires the choice of one or more specialized types of heavy haul

vehicles or vessels. These choices must be made early since they impact design and

contracting of these transport services is a long-lead item.

Land Transoort. Land transport vehicle options usually include conventional trucks and

tractor-trailer units, rail cars, and heavy haul transporters. Since most assemblies will be

beyond the size and weight-carrying abilities of conventional truck and rail systems, land

transport generally will be accomplished by some combination of special purpose heavy

haul transporters. These versatile but expensive vehicles are available in two basic types:

crawler or rubber-tired. They also may be tractor-drawn or self-propelled. The rubber-

tired or crawler self-steering units are designed to be assembled in combinations to suit

load-size weight and route conditions. They also incorporate hydraulic jacking mechanisms

to raise and lower their load-carrying platforms, a useful feature in loading and unloading

operations. Items to be investigated for land transport include:

71
 I. Weight limits (gross and permissible wheel loads)

2. Length, width, and height limitations

3. Existing route surfacing, and grades with limiting situations and required

improvements identified

4. Choice of transport vehicle type

5. Traffic route restrictions

6. Prevailing weather conditions and/or restrictions

7. Construction site offloading and installation method and facilities (lifting, roll-off,

skidding, etc.)

8. Assembly storage area availability

Marine Transport. Heavy-lift vessels arc capable of using their own gear for loading and

discharge of assemblies. These self-propelled vessels are rated on the capacity of their

derricks. This type of vessel serves as a valuable tool for a project that has a few large

pieces to move over an extended period of time.

72
 Roll-on/roll-off heavy-lift vessels are powered vessels with a flat deck capable of

carrying heavy pieces. As the name implies, these vessels are loaded by moving the load on

wheeled vehicles over a ramp into the hold or onto the deck of the ship.

Roll-on/roll-off barges are non-powered, ocean going units that are towed from one

location to another.

Shipping protection is critical, especially for assemblies shipped on deck. Specifications

for exposure protection must be developed for use by the various design entities on the

project. Additionally, each module should be reviewed on an individual case basis to see if

additional protection is required.

Shipping stresses for which assemblies must be designed depend on the shipping route,

size and characteristics of the carrier, module characteristics, and the season of the

shipment.

Items to be investigated for marine transport include:

I. Module yard loadout method, facilities, and limitations

2. Roll-on/roll-off vs. lift-on/lift-off vessels

3. Barge vs. ship

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 4. Receiving port offloading methods, facilities, and limitations with required

improvements identified

5. Weather conditions and restrictions

6. Vessel and characteristics and associated acceleration forces

7. Vessel fastening and shipping protection methods and requirements

8. Stowage capacity and shipping schedules

9. Insurance

Installation

The installation method of modules affects the module design, the overall plot layout,

and the design of underground services and foundations. Thus, it is important to choose

the method of placement at the beginning of the project to minimize design changes.

Placement methods include jacking, crane lift, sliding, and placement directly by

transporters. Selection of the proper equipment depends on the module's final resting site,

weight, size, erection requirements and tie-in connections for piping between adjacent

modules is to be accomplished by single-weld or double-weld joints.

74
 When setting modules at grade, with single-weld joints between piping, jacks having the

capability of lowering the modules, as Well as aligning them in both horizontal and vertical

positions are ideal. Elevated modules can be set directly by transporters. Rubber-tired

transporters with sliding platform mechanisms can be used to achieve for single buttweld

joints between pipes of adjacent elevated modules. Cranes may be more practical for

setting smaller and lighter modules.

The delivery schedule of modules to the jobsite must be sequenced. This will minimize

double handling and storage requirements, both of which can be costly.

This discussion emphasizes the importance of incorporating constructability into

projects that use the special construction methods of modularization or preassembly.

Projects that do not incorporate input from persons possessing knowledge and experience of

these special construction methods cannot be as successful as projects that do reflect this

knowledge into their designs.

Applications

1. When a project involves several modules, standardization of dimensions, materials, and

installed equipment should be pursued to the maximum extent feasible. Specific

classes of modules should be developed enabling numerous repetitive lifts using the

same transportation and lifting equipment.

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2. Designs should reflect the entire transportation system including consideration of

clearances, bridge capacities, lifting capacities, and the characteristics of primary

movers, i.e., ships, barges, railcars, trucks, and special heavy transporters.

3. Designs should consider how modules and preassemblies will be installed with specific

consideration to clearances, tolerances for interfacing with other modules, permanent

plant structures, and lifting systems.

4. The procurement contracts or purchase orders for modules and preassemblies should

specify in detail the quality standards required to ensure compatibility with the

permanent facility.

5. The procurement system should provide for an appropriate vendor in-shop quality

assurance program.

6. The procurement control procedures should specify the required delivery dates of

modules and should be expedited so they will be delivered when needed. This also

allows them to be moved into place, immediately eliminating double handling, storage,

and additional costs for heavy lifting equipment.

7. Modularization and underground conduit must be designed for the additional loads

imposed by lifting equipment. Additional fill and matting may be required, which

might delay the lifts and increase costs. This additional field work may be eliminated

if designers substitute steel for underground plastic conduit in these lift locations.

76
8. Fabrication of the upper sections of piperack modules may be performed adjacent to the

workface. Designers can specify that these modules be supported on temporary supports

with sufficient elevation, allowing trailers access from below. This design would

eliminate additional handling otherwise required to load these modules onto trailers.

9. Pipe spools received from vendors can be preassembled into larger spools prior to field

erection, depending on jobsite access and handling requirements. Fabrication of

preassembled pipe spools should be determined and indicated on the design drawings.

10. Dressing out of all major vessels and equipment prior to erection can be performed in a

vendor shop or at the jobsite if sufficient laydown area is available. Dressing of

equipment includes ladders, platforms, pipe supports, pipe spools, instrumentation,

fireproofing of skirts, vessel internals (refractory linings, trays), and column davits.

11. Insufficient attention to fit-up of modules prior to shipment can cause the field to

expend 400 percent or more work-hours during field fit-up and installation than had

originally been estimated.

77
I
Concept II-6: Designs promote construction accessibility of personnel, material, and

equipment.

Discussion

This concept establishes the position that constructability will be enhanced when

adequate access of personnel, materials, and equipment are considered during the design

stage of a project. It is closely related to Concept I-6 under Conceptual Planning, which

addresses site layouts. Difficult access for personnel can severely impact productivity

since craft personnel must move to and from their work stations frequently. The time lost

in traversing slow, cumbersome paths is a direct loss. In addition, difficult access routes

frequently present unsafe working conditions with their adverse impacts. Similarly,

difficult access routes for high volume commodity materials such as steel, pipe, cable,

concrete, wall board, window frames, glass, and roofing materials will adversely impact

cost and schedule. Such routes may require addtional material handling, which could be

eliminated by a more careful design. In both personnel and high volume commodity

material there is a significant multiplier effect that justifies a close study of these

accessibility issues. These studies should also consider the several elements of the

construction plan of execution such as the material management plan to assure full

compatibility.

The need for accessibility studies for major pieces of equipm.~nt and temporary erection

access openings are as important as those for personnel and commodities. The need for

heavy lift studies to provide clear ·1aydown and lifting paths and location of temporary

79
erection access openings should be considered. This is particularly true when modules or

preassemblies are to be used.

The early design and installation of permanent services such as lighting, fire protection,

compressed air, and potable water can eliminate the congestion of temporary factilities in

access areas as well as facilitate cleanup and safety.

In all of the accessibility studies, the active participation of knowledgeable construction

personnel can result in a better understanding of the problems involved and in designs that

provide for the best possible accessibility within the overall project objectives.

Specific issues that should be considered in accessibility studies include:

I. Sequencing of erection work packages

2. Sequencing of work of subcontractors

3. Delivery schedules for major peices of equipment, modules, or

preassemblies so that multi-contractor interferences can be eliminated

4. Laydown areas on congested sites

5. Delivery routes to work fronts from laydown areas

6. Use of permanent elevators for personnel lifts

7. Number and spacing of temporary personnel lifts

8. Installation schedule and location of underground piping and electrical

under areas to be traversed later by heavy equipment

9. Type and location of major lifting equipment to service building areas

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 JO. Flow pattern of personnel to and from job site

11. Location and size of access openings to facilitate erection

The use of CADD techniques can be helpful in the analysis of accessibility problems.

In some cases, it may be possible to computer model access flow patterns in specific

complex areas. Accessbility is a multi-disciplinary problem with a signficant need for

construction input.

Applications

I. Layout of craft labor parking, access, change rooms, and eating areas should promote

short distances and easy movement to working areas.

2. Number, sizing, and spacing of personnel lifts should permit rapid access to and from

working areas.

3. Laydown areas and temporary warehouses should permit easy transfer of materials and

equipment to working areas and should be close to rail siding or truck delivery areas.

4. Structural designs, including ladders, are sized to permit easy access during construction

as well as operation and maintenance. Structural platforms can be extended to

accommodate construction activities and eliminate costly scaffolding. Minimum

spacing standards should be established for the project.

81
5. Access of late delivered large pieces of equipment should be determined to permit easy

installation when received.

6. Layout of underground installations should recognize the need to move heavy items of

equipment across the site in order to avoid difficult delivery routes or delays in

underground installations because of the possibility of damage to the underground

during transit of heavy items.

7. Space needed to perform welding and install insulation must be considered during

design.

8. Reel sizes and working space required around pull points must be considered during

design.

9. Stratification of electrical and mechanical systems should be considered.

10. The design of structural system should consider how it may be used. to facilitate

scaffolding during construction.

11. Specify access lanes that can be used for construction and maintenance.

12. Separate space envelopes for pipe and electrical raceway.

13. Place structural steel to support tower crane loads when supported from structural steel.

82
14. Consider available locations of major lifting equipment adjacent to and within building

structures to avoid access problems.

15. Early design and use of permanent facilities such as office, warehouse, shops, and

paved roads and laydown areas during construction should be considered to avoid site

congestion.

16. Interface problems with existing plant operations regarding access needs and

interferences should be considered.

83
Concept 11-7: Designs facilitate construction under adverse weather conditions.

Discussion

This concept establishes the principle that weather conditions influence and/or dictate

many decisions on a project. It should be recognized that adverse weather conditions can

have significant impact on construction costs and schedule. To some degree, adverse

weather conditions must be accepted as an additional challenge for the particular project.

In many cases, however, the effects of adverse weather can be alleviated with proper

consideration in the design of the project.

The designers need to investigate and be fully aware of the weather conditions that will

be encountered at the construction site. With this knowledge and with input from

construction, the weather should be considered in all areas of design to alleviate the effects

of adverse weather conditions on construction. Typical areas of consideration are:

I. Providing the site layout that is accessible in adverse weather.

2. Providing protection to personnel from the clements anc; exposure to temperature

extremes.

3. The selection of materials of construction that are the most acceptable insofar as

deterioration before and after installation and are the most compatible for

installation during the weather to be encountered during construction.

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4. The degree of utilization of offsite preassembly and or modules to reduce

construction requirements at the site.

5. The scheduling of design to allow flexibility in the construction activities and in

particular to allow the maximization of construction during the most opportune

weather.

6. The design of equipment and the selection of materials of construction that can be

reliably delivered to meet limited construction schedule windows within extreme

restrictions.

7. Construction lighting for shorter days in winter and/or for night work.

8. Adequate site drainage during the construction phase of the project.

9. Scheduled and controlled delivery of equipment/materials to avoid unneccessary

protection requirements of weather sensitive equipment/materials at the

construction site.

10. Adequate temporary protected storage at the construction site for weather sensitive

equipment/materials.

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Applications

I. Schedule and configure designs to enable early enclosure of permanent facilities to

permit construction to proceed as the weather becomes inclement.

2. Consider the use of enclosed permanent spaces to double as temporary fabricating shops

and equipment storage during construction.

3. Accelerate and possibly alter design of permanent heating systems so work areas may be

heated.

4. Provide for early paving, early installation of rode base, temporary surfacing, and mud

pads to eliminate muddy·operations.

5. Layout staging area for materials and equipment in manner that provides surfaced areas

from staging area to work site.

6. Specify concrete admixtures and curing techniques to overcome effects of heat or cold.

7. Utilize antifreeze or install temporary heating systems to enable hydrotesting of systems

during freezing weather.

8. Specify systems that will cure and/or do not require curing during cold weather.

87
9. Modularize systems so that they can be built, tested, painted, insulated, and

completed except for final field connections at other locations.

I 0. Provide temporary windbreaks to protect personnel.

11. Utilize permanent lighting facilities if tem.porary lighting will be required during

the construction period.

12. Assure adequate drainage of construction site, including staging areas. Incorporate

designs that allow utilization of permanent drainage systems, which may include

over designing the permanent system to. meet construction needs.

13. Schedule deliveries of weather sensitive equipment/materials such as pumps within

reasonable periods of construction's actual needs to minimize the maintenance and

protection time requirements.

14. Where permanent facilities provide necessary protection, schedule equipment

deliveries after these structures have been constructed.

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 ABOUT YOUR CONSTRUCTABILITY IDEAS

The Construction Industry Institute is interested in your opinion of this and other Cn

publications on constructability. If you have any comments, criticisms, or additions to

this Concepls File, write to:

Publications

Construction Industry Institute

3208 Red River, Suite 300

Austin, TX 78705

Further results of CII research on constructability will be forwarded to you by en.

--~-~----~~·1
 III

FIELD OPERATIONS

Concept 111-1: Constructability is enhanced when innovative construction methods are

utilized.

Discussion

Just as there is a need to draw upon construction knowledge and experience during

conceptual planning, design, and procurement in order to enhance constructability, there

is also a need to apply this knowledge and experience to improve the effectiveness of

field operations. Accordingly, while previous constructability concepts have been

primarily directed toward owners and designers, this concept is primarily directed toward·

constructor organizations.

The term "construction methods" is broad in scope and refers to the technical manner

in which the various construction resources are employed. Innovative construction methods

are methods that are not generally considered common practice and which are creative

solutions to field challenges.

Construction method innovations are numerous and are typically "small" advances.

These should not be overlooked however. Collectively, the ·potential benefit is substantial.

89
Innovative construction methods may involve:

1. Innovative sequencing of field tasks

2. Innovative uses of temporary construction materials/systems

3. Innovative uses of hand tools

4. Innovative uses of construction equipment

S. Constructor-optional preassembly

6. Innovative temporary facilities directly supportive of field methods

7. Post-bid constructor preferences relevant to the layout, design, and selection

of permanent materials

Examples of innovation in these areas are presented in the Applications section of

this concept.

Applications

Innovative Sequencing of Field Tasks

The effective sequencing of activities is significant in achieving enhanced

constructability in all phases of a project. It was treated in Conceptual Planning concept

I-4 and in Engineering & Procurement concept II-I. Sequencing can also improve Field

Operations as exemplified below:

I. Repetitive operations, with learning-curve benefits, can be developed with a

deliberate approach to sequencing. The benefits arc particularly significant for

skill-intensive work, such as mechanical equipment installation, instrumentation

90
 installation, architectural concrete, fine wood mill work, and others. Mock-ups may

be useful in fine-tuning a sequence. Example application: repetitive, congested

plumbing/mechanical equipment installation in hotel construction.

2. Sequencing can serve to minimize congestion and keep access routes open.

3. Construction equipment/systems that arc shared by several subcontractors such as

scaffolding, hoisting equipment, and cranes involve sequencing considerations.

Scheduling large cranes should occur as early as possible.

4. Stairs and platforms may be erected early to reduce scaffolding needs.

5. Permanent lighting systems may be installed early to reduce temporary lighting

requirements.

6. Early installation of pavement can minimize mud problems and facilitate the use of

rolling scaffolding.

7. Late sequencing of finishing activities in heavily traveled corridors and stairwells can

minimize damage and rework.

8. A checkerboard sequencing of slab pavement construction can minimize formwork

and speed construction.

91
Innovative Uses of Temporary Construction Materials/Systems

Temporary construction materials and systems arc important elements for many

construction methods. In this area, new technology developments can often be employed

with significant benefits. Selected applications include the following:

I. The use of seal slabs or polyethylene sheet beneath foundation rcbar or underground

concrete can be effective in protecting excavations and supporting reinforcing steel.

2. Modular, easily transportable, and easily ercctablc forms and scaffolding such as

Golden Gate Bridge Restoration scaffolding systems, flying formwork systems, and

slipforming systems can reduce set up and take down times.

3. Advances in consumable temporary construction materials include such developments

as tunneling foams which serve as fluidizing agents in soft-ground tunneling, foamed

polyurethane grouts for stabilizing fissured rock, and advanced cable-pulling

lubricants with low coefficients of friction.

4. Advances in temporary construction systems include high-speed steam curing, and

ground freezing.

5. Advances in temporary construction systems include fire blankets in lieu of a

standard spark boxes for the containment of welding spark, eliminating the need for

scaffolding; and tents used to shield underwater concrete placement from fast

currents.

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Innovative Uses of Hand Tools

Constructability is enhanced with the use of tools that reduce labor intensity, increase

mobility, increase accessibility, increase safety, or increase reliability. Innovative Hand

Tools may be "off the shelf," require some modification of an available tool, or be

entirely locally originated.

Construction templates or "jigs• collectively represent a common type of field

innovation that can significantly enhance constructability. For example, on one project a

template was devised to enable workers to install four uplift connectors (chucks) with a

single jacking. In making the operation more efficient, costs were cut in excess of

$50,000.

I. Labor-reducing power hand tools such as the automatic nailing gun and the

pneumatic caulking gun.

2. Cordless power hand tools that enhance mobility.

3. Craftsman stilts that enhance accessibility for elevated work.

4. Extended hand drill for at-grade installation of hanging wire for suspended ceilings,

eliminating the need for a ladder or scaffolding.

5. Pulling wheels to facilitate cable installation.

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---------- ·-~--··

6. Pipe carriers to facilitate short-distance transport of spools.

7. P-shooter made out of small bore pipe with an inserted rebar for the purpose of

driving nails through several layers of obstructing rebar.

Construction Equipment Innovations

Constructability has been enhanced with the customization or upgrading of existing

equipment by contractors themselves. On one project, steel rods were attached to the ends

of a dozer blade to facilitate fine grading relative to a stringline. A more advanced

solution to the same problem was devised by a contractor who attached a laser sensor to a

grader, which was then operated relative to a laser datum. In another case, constructors

responded to the challenge of achieving a smooth slab underside which would receive a

ceiling finish. By using a pivoting grinder mounted on a rolling tripod.

Increased attention is being directed toward the development of automated

construction equipment. While most construction automation developments will require

extensive planning, design, and procurement consideration prior to field operations, many

equipment developments will not.

I. Laser-equipped surveying and alignment equipment

2. Micro-tunneling systems and horizontal drilling systems

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3. Mobile, hydraulic man-lifts in lieu of scaffolding

4. Hydraulic and induction pipe bending machines

5. Pipe manipulators

6. Welding systems such as the plate-crawler welder and shielded active gas forge

welding

7. Pavement systems such as the sloped pavement system and the narrow, single-lane

paver

8. Remote, non-destructive sensing and inspection systems such as the nuclear soil

density meter, infrared thermography, ground penetration radar, and the cable-stay

bridge inspection trolley

9. Automated construction equipment:

a. Fully automated concrete batch plant

b. Automated welding machine and remote-controlled welding system

c. Automated concrete floor finisher

d. Spray robot for structural steel fireproofing

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 e. Shotcrete robot

f. Automated rebar machine

g. Remotely operated equipment for underwater construction activities, such as

trenching and rubble clearing

Constructor-Optional Preassembly

While most modularization/preassembly work requires extensive design and

procurement support for effective execution, constructor-optional preassembly work

consists of that which does not require such support. Such preassembly work is strictly at

the option of the constructor, and may offer substantial opportunity for enhancing

constructability during field operations.

Constructors may be motivated toward preassembly for several reasons. Elevated

work is typically more constructable at grade, and eliminates the need for scaffolding.

Productivity and safety can be enhanced by transferring work in congested areas to less

congested areas, and quality-sensitive work is more easily accomplished in shop-like

conditions. Shop preassembly is beneficial under adverse weather conditions.

I. Elevated pipe spool welding and pipe/valve assemblies

2. Concrete reinforcement steel cages

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3. Anchor bolt grouping

4. Cable tray runs and turns

5. HV AC duct work

6. Silo and storage tank sections

Innovative Temporary Facilities

Innovative ways of providing for temporary facilities can have the effect of reducing

labor intensity, reducing the likelihood of delays in providing for utilities, or improving

the construction work environment. Several examples are cited below:

I. In adverse weather conditions, enc1osure of work spaces such as transportable, easily

erectable means of enclosure including the attachment of canvas or sheet plastic to

the permanent structural frame; the use of large shipping containers; and the use of

ribbed tents or air-inflated bubbles for moderately large enclosures needed over

extended periods of time. On one project, space was inexpensively enclosed by

bridging the area between two trailers with roof trusses and tent cloth.

97
2. Centralized utility supply networks when outlet demands are high, or where access

for conventional systems is difficult. Applications include welding utilities,

compressed air, and electricity. On one building site, welding gas was contained in

one large tank adjacent to the building, with outlets on each floor. The need to

periodically transport several smaller tanks from floor to floor was eliminated.

3. Where conditions tend to be muddy, inexpensive, locally available material should be

considered for temporary pavement to provide a clean and firm work surface. Shell

is commonly used for such a purpose in coastal areas; culm in mining areas; and

crushed, recycled highway pavement is available in some urban areas.

Post-Bid Constructor Preferences

Constructability occasionally can be enhanced with the solicitation and

implementation of post-bid constructor preferences related to the layout, design, and

selection of permanent materials. Ideally, however, as discussed elsewhere in this

Conszructabi/ity Concepts File, constructor preferences arc identified early-on, prior to bid,

and are effectively treated during design and procurement and reflected in the initial

issue of drawings and specifications. Under such ideal circumstances, "design breakage" is

minimal and the preferences are given full considerations by design and procurement

personnel.

While post-bid constructor preferences arc often of limited value due to their

untimeliness, such options are introduced with open "or equal" specifications, value

engineering clauses, and deliberate solicitations of alternates, and can substantially

98
enhance constructability. In addition, the reality of design is such that post·bid

preferences are sometimes remedial tactics that are desirable, if not required, for project

constructability.

The solicitation of constructor preferences need not be a costly effort, and should not

be discouraged. Of course, the decision to implement preferences should be based on

thorough analysis. As a minimum, constructor preferences that do not sacrifice quality

should be documented for the benefit of future projects. In this way, future

opportunities for constructability enhancement may be exploited in an optimal manner.

99