LOGIC DESIGN

NUMBER SYSTEMS & BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

INTRODUCTION ABOUT DIGITAL SYSTEM

A Digital system is an interconnection of digital modules and it is a system that manipulates discrete
elements of information that is represented internally in the binary form.
Now a day’s digital systems are used in wide variety of industrial and consumer products such as
automated industrial machinery, pocket calculators, microprocessors, digital computers, digital watches,
TV games and signal processing and so on.
Characteristics of Digital systems
 Digital systems manipulate discrete elements of information.
 Discrete elements are nothing but the digits such as 10 decimal digits or 26 letters of
alphabets and so on.
 Digital systems use physical quantities called signals to represent discrete elements.
 In digital systems, the signals have two discrete values and are therefore said to be binary.
 A signal in digital system represents one binary digit called a bit. The bit has a value either 0 or
1.
Analog systems vs Digital systems
Analog system process information that varies continuously i.e; they process time varying
signals that can take on any values across a continuous range of voltage, current or any physical
parameter.
Digital systems use digital circuits that can process digital signals which can take either 0 or 1
for binary system.
Advantages of Digital system over Analog system
 Ease of programmability
The digital systems can be used for different applications by simply changing the program without
additional changes in hardware.
 Reduction in cost of hardware
The cost of hardware gets reduced by use of digital components and this has been possible due to
advances in IC technology. With ICs the number of components that can be placed in a given area of
Silicon are increased which helps in cost reduction.
 High speed
Digital processing of data ensures high speed of operation which is possible due to advances in Digital
Signal Processing.
 High Reliability
Digital systems are highly reliable one of the reasons for that is use of error correction codes.
 Design is easy
The design of digital systems which require use of Boolean algebra and other digital techniques is easier
compared to analog designing.
 Result can be reproduced easily
Since the output of digital systems unlike analog systems is independent of temperature, noise, humidity
and other characteristics of components the reproducibility of results is higher in digital systems than in
analog systems.
Disadvantages of Digital Systems
 Use more energy than analog circuits to accomplish the same tasks, thus producing more heat
as well.
 Digital circuits are often fragile, in that if a single piece of digital data is lost or misinterpreted the
meaning of large blocks of related data can completely change.
 Digital computer manipulates discrete elements of information by means of a binary code.
 Quantization error during analog signal sampling.
NUMBER SYSTEM
Number system is a basis for counting varies items. Modern computers communicate and operate with
binary numbers which use only the digits 0 &1. Basic number system used by humans is Decimal
number system.
For Ex: Let us consider decimal number 18. This number is represented in binary as 10010.
We observe that binary number system take more digits to represent the decimal number. For large
numbers we have to deal with very large binary strings. So this fact gave rise to three new number
systems.
i. Octal number systems
ii. Hexa Decimal number system
iii. Binary Coded Decimal number(BCD) system. To define any
number system we have to specify
 Base of the number system such as 2,8,10 or 16.
 The base decides the total number of digits available in that number system.
 First digit in the number system is always zero and last digit in the number system is always
base-1.
Binary number system:
The binary number has a radix of 2. As r = 2, only two digits are needed, and these are 0 and 1. In binary
system weight is expressed as power of 2.

The left most bit, which has the greatest weight is called the Most Significant Bit (MSB). And the right
most bit which has the least weight is called Least Significant Bit (LSB).
For Ex: 1001.012 = [ ( 1 ) × 23 ] + [ ( 0 ) × 22 ] + [ ( 0 ) × 21 ] + [ ( 1 ) × 20 ] + [ ( 0 ) × 2-1 ] + [ ( 1
) × 22 ]
1001.012 = [ 1 × 8 ] + [ 0 × 4 ] + [ 0 × 2 ] + [ 1 × 1 ] + [ 0 × 0.5 ] + [ 1 × 0.25 ]
1001.012 = 9.2510
Decimal Number system
The decimal system has ten symbols: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. In other words, it has a base of 10.
Octal Number System
Digital systems operate only on binary numbers. Since binary numbers are often very long, two
shorthand notations, octal and hexadecimal, are used for representing large binary numbers. Octal
systems use a base or radix of 8. It uses first eight digits of decimal number system. Thus it has digits
from 0 to 7.
Hexa Decimal Number System
The hexadecimal numbering system has a base of 16. There are 16 symbols. The decimal digits 0 to 9
are used as the first ten digits as in the decimal system, followed by the letters A, B, C, D, E and F, which
represent the values 10, 11,12,13,14 and 15 respectively.

Decima Binar Octal Hexadeci

l y mal
0 0000 0 0
1 0001 1 1
2 0010 2 2
3 0011 3 3
4 0100 4 4
5 0101 5 5
6 0110 6 6
7 0111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F

Number Base conversions

The human beings use decimal number system while computer uses binary number system.
Therefore it is necessary to convert decimal number system into its equivalent binary.
i) Binary to octal number conversion
ii) Binary to hexa decimal number conversion
 iii) Octal to binary Conversion

Hexa to binary conversion

iv) Octal to Decimal

conversion Ex: convert
4057.068 to decimal
=4x83+0x82+5x81+7x80+0x8-1+6x8-2
=2048+0+40+7+0+0.0937
=2095.093710

v) Decimal to Octal
Conversion Ex: convert
378.9310 to octal
37810 to octal: Successive division:

8 | 378
|
8 |47 --- 2
|
8 |5 --- 7 ↑
|
0 --- 5
=5728

0.9310 to octal :
0.93x8=7.44
0.44x8=3.52 ↓
0.53x8=4.16
0.16x8=1.28
=0.73418
Complements:
In digital computers to simplify the subtraction operation & for logical manipulation complements are
used. There are two types of complements used in each radix system.
i) The radix complement or r’s complement
ii) The diminished radix complement or (r-1)’s complement
Binary codes
Binary codes are codes which are represented in binary system with modification from the original
ones.
Weighted Binary codes

Non Weighted Codes

Weighted binary codes are those which obey the positional weighting principles, each position
of the number represents a specific weight. The binary counting sequence is an example.

Reflective Code
A code is said to be reflective when code for 9 is complement for the code for 0, and so is for 8 and 1
codes, 7 and 2, 6 and 3, 5 and 4. Codes 2421, 5211, and excess-3 are reflective, whereas the 8421 code is
not.
Sequential Codes
A code is said to be sequential when two subsequent codes, seen as numbers in binary representation,
differ by one. This greatly aids mathematical manipulation of data. The 8421 and Excess-3 codes are
sequential, whereas the 2421 and 5211 codes are not.
Non weighted codes
Non weighted codes are codes that are not positionally weighted. That is, each position within
the binary number is not assigned a fixed value. Ex: Excess-3 code
Excess-3 Code
Excess-3 is a non weighted code used to express decimal numbers. The code derives its name
from the fact that each binary code is the corresponding 8421 code plus 0011(3).
Gray Code
The gray code belongs to a class of codes called minimum change codes, in which only one bit
in the code changes when moving from one code to the next. The Gray code is non-weighted
code, as the position of bit does not contain any weight. The gray code is a reflective digital
code which has the special property that any two subsequent numbers codes differ by only one
bit. This is also called a unit- distance code. In digital Gray code has got a special place.
BCD Addition:
It is individually adding the corresponding digits of the decimal no,s expressed in 4 bit binary
groups starting from the LSD . If there is no carry & the sum term is not an illegal code , no
correction is needed .If there is a carry out of one group to the next group or if the sum term is an
illegal code then 610(0100) is added to the sum term of that group & the resulting carry is added
to the next group.
 Ex: Perform decimal additions in 8421 code
(a)25+13
In BCD 25= 0010 0101
In BCD +13 0011
=+0001

38 0011 1000
No carry , no illegal code .This is the corrected sum

BCD Subtraction:

Performed by subtracting the digits of each 4 bit group of the subtrahend the digits from the
corresponding 4- bit group of the minuend in binary starting from the LSD . if there is no borrow
from the next group , then 610(0110)is subtracted from the difference term of this group.

(a)38-15
In BCD 38= 0011 1000
In BCD -15 = -0001 0101

23 0010 0011
No borrow, so correct difference.
.(b) 206.7-147.8
206.7 = 0010 0000 0110 . 0111 in BCD
-147.8 -0001 0100 0111 . 0110 in BCD
=
_ _ _______________ _
58.9 0000 1011 1110 . 1111
borrows are present
-0110 -0110 . -0110 subtract 0110

0101 1000 . 1001

Ex: 267-175
267 = 0101 1001 1010
-175= -0100 1010 1000
_ _ ___ ___

0000 1111 0010

+0011 -0011 +0011

0011 1100 +0011 =9210

Error – Detecting codes: When binary data is transmitted & processed,it is susceptible to noise
that can alter or distort its contents. The 1‘s may get changed to 0‘s & 1‘s .because digital
systems must be accurate to the digit, error can pose a problem. Several schemes have been
devised to detect the occurrence of a single bit error in a binary word, so that whenever such an
error occurs the concerned binary word can be corrected & retransmitted.

Parity: The simplest techniques for detecting errors is that of adding an extra bit known as parity
bit to each word being transmitted.Two types of parity: Oddparity, evenparity forodd parity, the
parity bit is set to a ‗0‘ or a ‗1‘ at the transmitter such that the total no. of 1 bit in the word
including the parity bit is an odd no.For even parity, the parity bit is set to a ‗0‘ or a ‗1‘ at the
transmitter such that the parity bit is an even no.

Decimal 8421 code Odd parity Even parity

0 0000 1 0
1 0001 0 1
2 0010 0 1
3 0011 1 0
4 0100 0 1
5 0100 1 0
6 0110 1 0
7 0111 0 1
8 1000 0 1
9 1001 1 0
15-bit Hamming Code: It transmit 11 data bits, 4 parity bits located 20 21 22 23
Word format is
P1 P2 D3 P4 D5 D6 D7 P8 D9 D10 D11 D12 D13 D14 D15
12-Bit Hamming Code:It transmit 8 data bits, 4 parity bits located at position 2 2 2 2 0 1 2 3

Word format is
P1 P2 D3 P4 D5 D6 D7 P8 D9 D10 D11 D12
Alphanumeric Codes:
These codes are used to encode the characteristics of alphabet in addition to the decimal digits. It
is used for transmitting data between computers & its I/O device such as printers, keyboards &
video display terminals.Popular modern alphanumeric codes are ASCII code & EBCDIC code.
Digital Logic Gates

Boolean functions are expressed in terms of AND, OR, and NOT operations, it is easier to
implement a Boolean function with these type of gates.

Properties of XOR Gates

 • XOR (also ) : the “not-equal” function
• XOR(X,Y) = X  Y = X’Y + XY’
• Identities:
– X0=X
– X  1 = X’
– XX=0
– X  X’ = 1
• Properties:
– XY=YX
– (X  Y)  W = X  ( Y  W)

Universal Logic Gates

NAND and NOR gates are called Universal gates. All fundamental gates (NOT, AND, OR) can be
realized by using either only NAND or only NOR gate. A universal gate provides flexibility and
offers enormous advantage to logic designers.

NAND as a Universal Gate

NAND Known as a “universal” gate because ANY digital circuit can be implemented with NAND
gates alone.
To prove the above, it suffices to show that AND, OR, and NOT can be implemented using

NAND gates only.

Boolean Algebra: In 1854, George Boole developed an algebraic system now called Boolean
algebra. In 1938, Claude E. Shannon introduced a two‐valued Boolean algebra called switching
algebra that represented the properties of bistable electrical switching circuits. For the formal
definition of Boolean algebra, we shall employ the postulates formulated by E. V. Huntington in
1904.

Boolean algebra is a system of mathematical logic. It is an algebraic system consisting of the set
of elements (0, 1), two binary operators called OR, AND, and one unary operator NOT. It is the
basic mathematical tool in the analysis and synthesis of switching circuits. It is a way to express
logic functions algebraically.

Boolean algebra, like any other deductive mathematical system, may be defined with aset of
elements, a set of operators, and a number of unproved axioms or postulates. A set of elements is
anycollection of objects having a common property. If S is a set and x and y are certain objects,
then x Î Sdenotes that x is a member of the set S, and y ÏS denotes that y is not an element of S.
A set with adenumerable number of elements is specified by braces: A = {1,2,3,4}, i.e. the
elements of set A are thenumbers 1, 2, 3, and 4. A binary operator defined on a set S of elements
is a rule that assigns to each pair ofelements from S a unique element from S._ Example: In
a*b=c, we say that * is a binary operator if it specifies a rule for finding c from the pair (a,b)and
also if a, b, c Î S.

Axioms and laws of Boolean algebra

Axioms or Postulates of Boolean algebra are a set of logical expressions that we accept without
proof and upon which we can build a set of useful theorems.

AND Operation OR Operation NOT

Operation
Axiom1 : 0.0=0 0+0=0 0=1
Axiom2: 0.1=0 0+1=1 1=0
Axiom3 1.0=0 1+0=1
: 1.1=1 1+1=1
Axiom4
:

AND Law OR Law

Law1: A.0=0 (Null law) Law1: A+0=A
Law2: A.1=A (Identity law) Law2: A+1=1
Law3: A.A=A (Impotence law) Law3: A+A=A (Impotence law)
CLOSURE: The Boolean system is closed with respect to a binary operator if for every
pair of Boolean values,it produces a Boolean result. For example, logical AND is closed
in the Boolean system because it accepts only Boolean operands and produces only
Boolean results.
A set S is closed with respect to a binary operator if, for every pair of elements of S, the
binary operator specifies a rule for obtaining a unique element of S.
For example, the set of natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, 4, … 9} is closed with respect to the binary
operator plus (+) by the rule of arithmetic addition, since for any a, b Î N we obtain a unique c Î N by the
operation a + b = c.
ASSOCIATIVE LAW:

A binary operator * on a set S is said to be associative whenever (x * y) * z = x * (y * z) for all

x, y, z Î S, forall Boolean values x, y and z.
COMMUTATIVE LAW:

A binary operator * on a set S is said to be commutative whenever x * y = y * x for all x, y, z є S

IDENTITY ELEMENT:
A set S is said to have an identity element with respect to a binary operation * on S if there exists an
element
e є S with the property e * x = x * e = x for every x є S
BASIC IDENTITIES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
• Postulate 1(Definition): A Boolean algebra is a closed algebraic system containing a set K of
two or more elements and the two operators · and + which refer to logical AND and logical OR
•x + 0 =x
• x ·0=0
• x+1=1
• x·1=1
• x+x=x
• x·x=x

• x + x’ = x

• x · x’ = 0
• x+y=y+x
• xy = yx
• x+(y+z)=(x+y)+z
• x (yz) = (xy) z
• x ( y + z ) = xy + xz
• x + yz = ( x + y )( x + z)
• ( x + y )’ = x’ y’
• ( xy )’ = x’ + y’
• (x’)’ = x
DeMorgan's Theorem

(a) (a + b)' = a'b'

(b) (ab)' = a' + b'
Generalized DeMorgan's Theorem
(a) (a + b + … z)' = a'b' … z'
(b) (a.b … z)' = a' + b' + … z‘

Basic Theorems and Properties of Boolean algebra Commutative law

Law1: A+B=B+A Law2: A.B=B.A

Associative law

Law1: A + (B +C) = (A +B) +C Law2: A(B.C) = (A.B)C

Distributive law

Law1: A.(B + C) = AB+ AC Law2: A + BC = (A + B).(A +C)

 Absorption law

Law1: A +AB =A Law2: A(A +B) = A

Solution: A(1+B) Solution:

A.A+A.B
A A+A.B
A(1+B)
A
The function F1 is equal to 1 if x is equal to 1 or if both y’ and z are equal to 1. F1 is equal to O
otherwise. The complement operation dictates that when y’ = 1, y = O. Therefore, F1 = 1 if x = 1
or if y = 0 and z = 1.
A Boolean function expresses the logical relationship between binary variables and is evaluated
by determining the binary value of the expression for all possible values of the variables.
A Boolean function can be represented in a truth table. The number of rows in the truth table is 2n,
where n is the number of variables in the function. The binary combinations for the truth table are
obtained from the binary numbers by counting from 0 through 2 n - 1.
Truth Table for F1

x y z F1
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 Gate Implementation of F1 = x + y’z

1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
Note:
Q: Let a function F() depend on n variables. How many rows are there in the truth table of F() ? A:
2n rows, since there are 2n possible binary patterns/combinations for the n variables.

Truth Tables

 Enumerates all possible combinations of variable values and the corresponding

function value
 Truth tables for some arbitrary functions
F1(x,y,z), F2(x,y,z), and F3(x,y,z) are shown to the below.

x y z F1 F2 F3

0 0 0 0 1 1

0 0 1 0 0 1
 0 1 0 0 0 1

0 1 1 0 1 1

1 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 1 0

1 1 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 0 1

 Truth table: a unique representation of a Boolean function

 If two functions have identical truth tables, the functions are equivalent (and
vice- versa).
 Truth tables can be used to prove equality theorems.
 However, the size of a truth table grows exponentially with the number of
variables involved, hence unwieldy. This motivates the use of Boolean Algebra.
Boolean expressions-NOT unique Unlike
truth tables, expressions epresenting a Boolean
function are NOT unique. x y z F G
• Example:
– F(x,y,z) = x’•y’•z’ + x’•y•z’ + 0 0 0 1 1
x•y•z’
0 0 1 0 0
– G(x,y,z) = x’•y’•z’ + y•z’
• The corresponding truth tables for 0 1 0 1 1
F() and G() are to the right. They
are identical. 0 1 1 0 0
• Thus, F() = G()
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
Algebraic Manipulation (Minimization of Boolean function)
1 1 1 0 0
• Boolean algebra is a useful tool for simplifying digital circuits.
• Why do it? Simpler can mean cheaper, smaller, faster.
• Example: Simplify F = x’yz + x’yz’ + xz.
F= x’yz + x’yz’ + xz
= x’y(z+z’) + xz
= x’y•1 + xz
= x’y + xz
• Example: Prove
x’y’z’ + x’yz’ + xyz’ = x’z’ + yz’
• Proof:
x’y’z’+ x’yz’+ xyz’
= x’y’z’ + x’yz’ + x’yz’ + xyz’
= x’z’(y’+y) + yz’(x’+x)
= x’z’•1 + yz’•1
= x’z’ + yz’

Complement of a Function
 The complement of a function is derived by interchanging (• and +), and (1 and
 O), and complementing each variable.
 Otherwise, interchange 1s to 0s in the truth table column showing F.
 The complement of a function IS NOT THE SAME as the dual of a
function. Example
• Find G(x,y,z), the complement of F(x,y,z) = xy’z’
+x’yz Ans: G = F’ = (xy’z’ + x’yz)’
= (xy’z’)’ • (x’yz)’ DeMorgan
= (x’+y+z) • (x+y’+z’) DeMorgan again
Note: The complement of a function can also be derived by finding the function’s dual, and then
complementing all of the literals
MINIMIZATION TECHNIQUES
Two-variable k-map:

A two-variable k-map can have 22=4 possible combinations of the input variables A and B
Each of these combinations, B, A, AB(in the SOP form) is called a minterm. The minterm
may be represented in terms of their decimal designations – m0 for m1 for B,m2 for A and m3 for
AB, assuming that A represents the MSB. The letter m stands for minterm and the subscript
represents the decimal designation of the minterm. The presence or absence of a minterm in the
expression indicates that the output of the logic circuit assumes logic 1 or logic 0 level for that
combination of input variables.

The expression f = ,+ B+A +AB , it can be expressed using

min term as

F= m0+m2+m3=∑m(0,2,3)

Using Truth Table:

Minterm Input Outpu

sA B tF
0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
2 1 0 1
3 1 1 1
A1 in the output contains that particular minterm in its sum and a 0 in that column indicates that
the particular mintermdoes not appear in the expression for output . this information can also be
indicated by a two-variable k-map.

Mapping of SOP Expresions:

A two-variable k-map has 22=4 squares .These squares are called cells. Each square on the k-
map represents a unique minterm. The minterm designation of the squares are placed in any
square, indicates that the corresponding minterm does output expressions. And a 0 or no entry in
any square indicates that the corresponding minterm does not appear in the expression for
output.

The minterms of a two-variable k-map

Limitations of Karnaugh maps:

 Convenient as long as the number of variables does not exceed six.
 Manual technique, simplification process is heavily dependent on the humanabilities.

Quine-Mccluskey Method:

It also known as Tabular method. It is more systematic method of minimizing expressions of even
larger number of variables. It is suitable for hand computation as well as computation by
machines i.e., programmable. . The procedure is based on repeated application of the combining
theorem.

PA+P =P (P is set of literals) on all adjacent pairs of terms, yields the set of all PI‘s from which
a minimal sum may be selected.

Consider expression

∑m(0,1,4,5)= + C+A +A C
First, second terms & third, fourth terms can be combined

( + )+ (C+ )= +A

Reduced to ( + )=
The same result can be obtained by combining m0& m4 & m1&m5 in first step & resulting terms
in the second step .

Procedure:

 Decimal Representation
 Don‘t cares
 PI chart
 EPI
 Dominating Rows & Columns
Determination of Minimal expressions in complex cases.

Combinational Logic

 Logic circuits for digital systems may be combinational or sequential.

 A combinational circuit consists of input variables, logic gates, and output variables.

For n input variables,there are 2 n possible combinations of binary input variables .For each
possible input Combination ,there is one and only one possible output combination.A
combinational circuit can be described by m Boolean functions one for each output
variables.Usually the input s comes from flip-flops and outputs goto flip-flops.
Design Procedure:
1. The problem is stated
2. The number of available input variables and required output
variables is determined.
3.The input and output variables are assigned lettersymbols.
4. The truth table that defines the required relationship between inputs and outputs is derived.
5. The simplified Boolean function for each output is obtained.
SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS
The Basic Latch
 Basic latch is a feedback connection of two NOR gates or two NAND gates
 It can store one bit of information
It can be set to 1 using the S input and reset to 0 using the R input
The Gated Latch
 Gated latch is a basic latch that includes input gating and a control signal
 The latch retains its existing state when the control input is equal to 0
 Its state may be changed when the control signal is equal to 1. In our discussion
we referred to the control input as the clock

 We consider two types of gated latches:

 Gated SR latch uses the S and R inputs to set the latch to 1 or

reset it to 0, respectively.
 Gated D latch uses the D input to force the latch into a state that has
the samelogic value as the D input.

Gated S/R Latch

 Gated D Latch

Setup and Hold Times

 Setup Time tsu

The minimum time that the input signal must be stable prior to the edge of the clock signal.
 Hold Time th
The minimum time that the input signal must be stable after the edge of the clock signal.
Flip-Flops
 A flip-flop is a storage element based on the gated latch principle
 It can have its output state changed only on the edge of the controlling clocksignal
We consider two types:
 Edge-triggered flip-flop is affected only by the input values present
when theactive edge of the clock occurs

 Master-slave flip-flop is built with two gatedlatches

 The master stage is active during half of the clock cycle, and the slave
stage is active during the other half.

 The output value of the flip-flop changes on the edge of the clock that
activates the transfer into the slave stage.

Master-Slave D Flip-Flop
A Positive-Edge-Triggered D Flip-Flop
 Master-Slave D Flip-Flop with Clear and Preset

T Flip-Flop
Excitation Tables
Conversions of flip-flops
 Sequential Circuit
Design

• Steps in the design process for sequential circuits

• State Diagrams and State Tables

• Steps in Design of a Sequential Circuit

o 1. Specification – A description of the sequential circuit. Should include a
detailing of the inputs, the outputs, and the operation. Possibly assumes
that you have knowledge of digital system basics.
o 2. Formulation: Generate a state diagram and/or a state table from the
statement of the problem.
o 3. State Assignment: From a state table assign binary codes to thestates.
o 4. Flip-flop Input Equation Generation: Select the type of flip-flop for the circuit
and generate the needed input for the required state transitions
o 5. Output Equation Generation: Derive output logic equations for
generation of the output from the inputs and current state.
o 6. Optimization: Optimize the input and output equations. Today, CAD
systems are typically used for this in real systems.
o 7. Technology Mapping: Generate a logic diagram of the circuit using
ANDs, ORs, Inverters, and F/Fs.
o 8. Verification: Use a HDL to verify the design

Registers and Counters

• An n-bit register is a cascade of n flip-flops and can store an n-bit binary data

• A counter can count occurrences of events and can generate timing intervals for control
purposes
A Simple Shift Register
Parallel-Access Shift Register