Cairo University

Faculty of Engineering

Structural Department

2012
INTRODUCTION TO CONCRETE BRIDGES

Prepared by:
Ashraf Mohamed Abdel Hamid
Ali Mohamed Abdel Moniem Ali
Saied Salah Mohamed Hussien
Amr Gamal El-Din Radwan
6/20/2012
Cairo University

Faculty of Engineering

Structural Department

INTRODUCTION
TO CONCRETE BRIDGES

Prepared By:

Ashraf Mohamed Abdel Hamid Chapter 1, 2

Ali Mohamed Abdel Moniem Ali Chapter 3, 6
Saied Salah Mohamed Hussien Chapter 4
Amr Gamal El-Din Radwan Chapter 5
 ABSTRACT

This report has been made to give a simple idea on concrete bridges for 4th year students
or fresh graduate engineers from structural department in civil engineering.

It was consist of some information about concrete bridges such as:

1- Types of bridges.
2- Components of concrete bridges.
3- Loads acting on bridges.
4- Analysis of concrete bridge.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
Page
ABSTRACT i
TABLES OF CONTENTS ii
LIST OF FIGURES vi
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF SYMBOLS viii

Chapter 1: Introduction 1
1.1 General 1
1.1.1 What is a Bridge? 1
1.1.2 Purpose of Use 1
1.2 Objectives 1
1.2.1 Types of Bridges 1
1.2.2 Components of Concrete Bridges 1
1.2.3 Loads Acting on Bridges 1
1.2.4 Analysis of Bridges 1

Chapter 2: Types of Bridges 2

2.1 Introduction 2
2.2 Classification According to Traffic 2
2.2.1 General 2
2.2.2 Pedestrian Bridges 2
2.2.3 Roadway Bridges 3
2.2.4 Railway Bridges 3
2.3 Classification According to Structure 4
2.3.1 General 4
2.3.2 Beam “Girder” Bridges 4
2.3.3 Cantilever Bridges 4
2.3.4 Arch Bridges 5
2.3.5 Suspension Bridges 5
2.3.6 Cable-Stayed Bridges 6

Chapter 3: Bridge Components 7

3.1 Introduction 7
3.2 Main Components 7
3.2.1 General 7

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 3.2.2 Super-Structure 7
3.2.2.1 Shallow or Open Sections 8
3.2.2.2 Cellular or Closed Sections 8
3.2.3 Sub-Structure 8
3.2.3.1 Abutments 9
3.2.3.1.1 Closed Abutment 9
3.2.3.1.2 Open Abutment 9
3.2.3.2 Piers 9
3.2.3.2.1 Monolithic Columns 10
3.2.3.2.2 Frames 10
3.2.3.3 Foundations 10
3.2.3.4 Pylons 11
3.3 Necessary Components 11
3.3.1 General 11
3.3.2 Bearings 11
3.3.2.1 Function of Bearings 11
3.3.2.2 Types of Bearings 12
3.3.3 Expansion Joints 12
3.3.3.1 Function of Expansion Joints 12
3.3.3.2 Types of Expansion Joints 12

Chapter 4: Loads Acting on Bridges 13

4.1 Introduction 13
4.1.1 Main Loads 13
4.1.2 Secondary Loads 13
4.1.3 Special Loads 13
4.2 Loads on Roadway Bridges 13
4.2.1 Main Loads 13
4.2.1.1 Truck Load 13
4.2.1.2 Loads on Sidewalks and Median 14
4.2.1.3 Dynamic Effect on Roadway Bridges 14
4.2.1.4 Load Behind Retaining Walls and Abutments 15
4.2.1.5 Centrifugal Force 15
4.2.1.6 Pre-Stressing Load 15
4.2.2 Secondary Loads 16
4.2.2.1 Thermal Effect 16

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 4.2.2.2 Braking Force 16
4.2.2.3 Wind Load 17
4.2.2.4 Deferential Settlement Load 17
4.2.2.5 Earthquake Load 17
4.2.3 Special Loads 18
4.2.3.1 Vehicles Shocks 18
4.2.3.2 Construction Loads 18
4.3 Loads on Railway Bridges 18
4.3.1 Main Loads 18
4.3.1.1 Live Load 18
4.3.1.2 Dynamic Effect on Railway Bridges 21
4.3.1.3 Centrifugal Force 21
4.3.1.4 Pre-Stressing Load 21
4.3.2 Secondary Loads 21
4.3.2.1 Thermal Effect 21
4.3.2.2 Braking Force 22
4.3.2.3 Wind Load 22
4.3.2.4 Deferential Settlement Load 22
4.3.2.5 Earthquake Load 22
4.3.2.6 Lateral Shocks 22
4.3.3 Special Loads 22
4.3.3.1 Construction Loads 22
4.4 Load Combinations 23
4.4.1 Serviceability Limit State Load Combinations 23
4.4.2 Ultimate Limit State Load Combinations 23

Chapter 5: Bridge Analysis 24

5.1 Introduction 24
5.2 Grillage Model 25
5.3 Spine Model (Wire Model) 29
5.4 Shell Element Model 31

Chapter 6: Summary and Recommendations 33

6.1 Summary 33
6.2 Recommendations 34

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REFERENCES 36
APPENDIX I: Shapes of Frames 1-I
APPENDIX II: Shapes of Pylons 1-II
APPENDIX III: Causes of Relative Movement between
Piers/Abutments and Bridge Decks 1-III
APPENDIX IV: Types of Expansion Joints 1-IV

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2-1 An example of a pedestrian bridge 2

Figure 2-2 An example of a roadway bridge 3
Figure 2-3 An example of a railway bridge 3
Figure 2-4 Simple and continues beam bridge 4
Figure 2-5 Cantilever bridge 5
Figure 2-6 Arch bridge 5
Figure 2-7 Suspension bridge 6
Figure 2-8 Cable-Stayed bridge 6
Figure 3-1 The main component of concrete bridges 7
Figure 3-2 Different shapes of open sections 8
Figure 3-3 Different shapes of closed sections 8
Figure 3-4 Closed abutment 9
Figure 3-5 Open abutment 9
Figure 3-6 Monolithic column 10
Figure 3-7 An example of frame 10
Figure 3-8 Shapes of foundations 11
Figure 3-9 An example of pylon 11
Figure 3-10 Types of bearings 12
Figure 3-11 Some types of expansion joints 12
Figure 4-1 Live load distribution on the bridge 13
Figure 4-2 Characteristics of the design truck 14
Figure 4-3 Pre-tensioned beam during manufacturing 15
Figure 4-4 Post-tensioned beam 16
Figure 4-5 Train type “D” 18
Figure 4-6 Train type “H” 19
Figure 4-7 Train type “L” 19
Figure 4-8 Characteristics of the design train 20
Figure 5-1 Different parts of infinite element model 24
Figure 5-2 Example for position of elements in grillage model 25
Figure 5-3 Example for exterior longitudinal member properties 26
Figure 5-4 Example for interior longitudinal member properties 27
Figure 5-5 Example for transverse member properties 28
Figure 5-6 Types of statically determinacy of bridges 29
Figure 5-7 Spine 3d model for 3 box concrete 30
Figure 5-8 Spine 3D model for 3 box concrete using infinite element
analysis program 30

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Figure 5-9 Shell element 3D models 31
Figure 5-10 Model show the division of concrete box section shell
element 32
Figure 6-1 Approximate maximum spans for different types of bridges 33

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4-1 Thermal effect 16

Table 4-2 Wind pressure on roadway 17
Table 4-3 Load combinations for SLS 23
Table 4-4 Load combinations for ULS 23
Table 6-1 Classification of concrete bridge components 34
Table 6-2 Comparison between bridge deck analysis models 35

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 LIST OF SYMBOLS

A Longitudinal side area

BR Braking force
C Torsion constant
Cf Centrifugal horizontal force
DL Dead load
d’ Thickness of upper slab on box girder
d” Thickness of lower slab on box girder
dW Thickness of web in box girder
E Young’s modulus
EP Lateral pressure of liquids and soils
G Shear modulus
h Distance between center line of upper and lower slab on box girder
have Distance between center line of upper slab and c.g. on box girder
I Impact factor
IX Moment of inertia of section about X axis
IY Moment of inertia of section about Y axis
K Dynamic loads
L Total length of the bridge
LL Live load
Lcl-cl Distance between center line of webs
R Radius of curvature
S Seismic loads
T Temperature effect, creep, and shrinkage
V Maximum speed on the considered curve
W Wind pressure
WL Wind load
w Maximum axial load on bridge

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INTRODUCTION TO CONCRETE BRIDGES 2012

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 General:
The concrete bridge, is as any concrete structure, has different types, different
components, and subjected to some types of loading. We can define the bridge
and discuss its purpose of use as following:
1.1.1 What is a bridge?
In Merriam-Webster Dictionary, bridge was defined as “Bridge is a structure
carrying a pathway or roadway over a depression or obstacle.”
In AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials), bridge was defined as “Bridge is any structure having an opening
not less than 6100mm that forms part of highway or that is located over/under
a highway.”
1.1.2 Purpose of use:
The main purposes of use bridges are: 1) Solve of Intersections; 2) Connect
between two regions; 3) Passing above oceans, seas, rivers and canals; 4)
Passing above railways.

1.2 Objectives:
In this report we will take some information about concrete bridges such as: type
of bridges, components of bridges, loads act on bridges, and analysis of bridges.
1.2.1 Types of Bridges:
We will consider types of bridges according to some factors such as: its
material, usage, structure, and alignment.
1.2.2 Component of concrete bridges:
This report considered the different components of bridge either super-
structures (deck with its different types), or sub-structures (piers, abutments,
and foundations), and other necessary components.
1.2.3 Loads acting on bridges:
The different types of loading act on concrete bridges should considered under
two major classifications which are: 1) Main loads such as: dead load, live
load, pre-stressed load … etc.; 2) Secondary loads such as: wind loads,
earthquake loads … etc.
1.2.4 Analysis of bridges:
We will consider the common methods of analysis for concrete bridges by
using the structural infinite element analysis programs, those methods are
spine model, grillage model, and shell elements model.

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2 TYPES OF BRIDGES
2.1 Introduction:
There are many classifications for types of bridges, and these classifications can
be according to the following:

1-Material (wood, stone, steel, concrete bridges)

2-Traffic

3-Structure “Statical System”

4-Alignement (straight, curved, and skew bridges)

And we will discuss only two classifications in this report which are according to
“Traffic” and “Structure”.

2.2 Classification According to Traffic:

2.2.1 General:

In this type of classification we use the passing traffic as our guide and the
bridges are classified into three types [1]:

1-Pedestrian Bridges

2-Roadway Bridges

3-Railway Bridges

2.2.2 Pedestrian Bridges:

In this type the passing traffic are the people walking on foot to cross a road, or to
go from one side of a river, a sea, or an ocean to another (Fig. 2.1), or to pass
through an obstacle.

Fig. 2.1 An example of a pedestrian bridge [2]

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2.2.3 Roadway Bridges:

In this type the passing traffic are the people riding cars. This type of bridges is
made mainly to solve road intersections (Fig. 2.2), and also as in the pedestrian
bridges, to go from one side of a river, a sea, or an ocean to another, or to pass
through an obstacle.

Fig. 2.2 An example of a roadway bridge [2]

2.2.4 Railway Bridges:

In this type the passing traffic are only the trains if the bridge consists of one level
(Fig. 2.3), or the trains and the pedestrians if it has a side walk for them. If the
bridge consists of two levels, the other level will be for cars. And this kind of
bridges includes the three types of bridges in this classification. This type is used
to solve the same problems as in the previous two types but in the existence of a
railway.

Fig. 2.3 An example of a railway bridge

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2.3 Classification According to Structure:

2.3.1 General:

In this type of classification we use the structural system of the bridge as our
guide and the bridges are classified into five types [1]:

1-Beam”Girder”Bridges

2-Cantilever Bridges

3-Arch Bridges

4-Suspension Bridges

5-Cable-Stayed Bridges

2.3.2 Beam “Girder” Bridges:

A beam bridge is the most known type of bridges constructed. It consists of a

horizontal beam or box girder, either R.C. or pre-stressed, supported at the two
ends on the bearings placed on the piers making it of a simple span, it can also be
of continuous spans (Fig. 2.4). Another name of this type is “Girder Bridge”.

“When a weight pushes down on the horizontal beam, the beam stretches at the
bottom and compresses on the top. This is commonly called tension and
compression.” [3].

Fig. 2.4 Simple and continuous beam bridge [2]

2.3.3 Cantilever Bridges:

A cantilever bridge is another major type of bridges. It is, somehow, a

modification of beam bridges, but the support is not at the ends, it is placed in a

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INTRODUCTION TO CONCRETE BRIDGES 2012

place at the middle of the span as shown in (Fig. 2.5), This type made it easier to
make longer spans and wider clearance beneath.

Fig. 2.5 Cantilever Bridge [2]

2.3.4 Arch Bridges:

An arch bridge is the oldest type of bridges known in the history. It was
established in the pre-roman era, and consists of two main parts a curved bottom
across the landscape and a flat span (Fig. 2.6).

“The weight on the arch bridges is transferred outward along the curve of the arch
to the supports at each end.” [3].

These supports, abutments, keep the end of the bridge from spreading out.

Fig. 2.6 Arch Bridge [2]

2.3.5 Suspension Bridges:

Suspension bridges are too huge as they have the longest spans ever. They consist
of two main huge suspended cables, which extend from one end of the bridge to

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INTRODUCTION TO CONCRETE BRIDGES 2012

the other and secured by anchorages at each end. These two cables are rested on
high towers, and the deck is carried by many hunger cables (Fig. 2.7).

Fig. 2.7 Suspension Bridge [2]

The weight of the bridge is transferred by the hungers to the two main cables then
to the anchorages, which are embedded in solid rock or heavy concrete blocks at
which the cables evenly distribute the load preventing them from breaking free.

2.3.6 Cable-Stayed Bridges:

Cable-Stayed bridges also have huge spans. They consist of inclined cables,
towers, and the deck, which is suspended by the cables to the towers (Fig. 2.8).
They may look like the suspension bridges but they are different in the way of
supporting the load of the deck. The difference is in the way of connecting the
cables to the towers [3, 4].

Fig. 2.8 Cable-stayed Bridge [5]

In cable-stayed bridges the cables are attached to the tower directly, either parallel
attachment “harp type” or radial attachment “fan type”, transferring the load to
it, but as we said before in suspension bridges the cables rest on the towers
transferring the load to the anchorages[4].

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3 BRIDGE COMPONENTS
3.1 Introduction:
A bridge has the same components as a frame, but with different names and shapes. As
example, the pier in bridge is like the column in frame, and the deck in bridge is like the
beam in frame. In this chapter we will consider the different components of concrete
bridges, differences between them, reasons of using every type of them, and shapes of
each component.

3.2 Main Components:

3.2.1 General:

A bridge is divided into two main parts: 1) Super-structures: this part describes the upper
part of the bridge, which called deck (Fig. 3.1); 2) Sub-structures: this part describes the
lower part of the bridge, which contains piers, abutments, and foundations (Fig. 3.1) [2].

Fig. 3.1 The main components of concrete bridge [2]

3.2.2 Super-Structures:

This part describes the deck, and the deck is classified into two main types: 1) Shallow or
open sections (Fig. 3.2); 2) Cellular or closed sections (Fig. 3.3).

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3.2.2.1 Shallow or Open Sections:

This type of deck contains slab and girder type, and it is used for small spans until 40 m
approximately [2, 6]. And this classification has different shapes depending on the length
of deck (Fig. 3.2).

Fig. 3.2 Different shapes of open sections [2]

3.2.2.2 Cellular or Closed Sections:

This type of deck contains box girder type, and it is used in spans between 25 to 50 m
approximately [2, 6]. And it has different shapes chosen by knowing the deck length
(Fig.3.3).

Fig. 3.3 Different shapes of closed sections [2]

3.2.3 Sub-Structures:

This part contains piers, abutments, and footings [5]. Every item of them has different
types, and we will discuss every type as following:

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3.2.3.1 Abutments:

Abutments are used to carry the deck in first and last axis, and to support the fill of bridge
ramps [5]. They have two different types: closed abutment (Fig. 3.4), and open abutment
(Fig. 3.5).

3.2.3.1.1 Closed Abutment:

This type is as the retaining wall (Fig. 3.4), used when the fill of ramps can’t pass under
the bridge, and it is subjected to a big lateral load due to earth pressure and cause a big
moment on footings.

Fig. 3.4 Closed abutment

3.2.3.1.2 Open Abutment:

This type is as frames with multi columns (Fig. 3.5), used when the fill of ramps can pass
under the bridge, and it has a barrier above the frame girder to prevent the fill from
entering to the deck.

Fig. 3.5 Open abutment

3.2.3.2 Piers:

Piers are used to carry the deck at internal axes [5], and they have two different types:
monolithic column (Fig. 3.6), and frame (Fig. 3.7).

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3.2.3.2.1 Monolithic Columns:

This type is used when the deck is continuous (Fig. 3.6), and the reinforcement of
columns is extended through the deck as a frame connection.

Fig. 3.6 Monolithic column

3.2.3.2.2 Frames:

This type used when the deck was separated or continuous (Fig. 3.7) with using bearings,
and it has more shapes such as double cantilever frame, multi spans frame … etc. refer to
(Appendix I).

Fig. 3.7 An example of frame

3.2.3.3 Foundations:

There were two types of foundations (shallow foundations, and deep foundations) [5],
which used in bridges (Fig. 3.8). Choosing foundation type depends on three main
factors: 1) Type of soil; 2) Loads on foundations; 3) Allowed dimensions for footings.

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a) Shallow Foundation b) Deep Foundation

Fig. 3.8 Shapes of foundations

3.2.3.4 Pylons:

Pylons are used with cable-stayed and suspension bridges (Fig. 3.9) to carry the deck, and
to fix the cables [6]. Refer to (Appendix II).

Fig. 3.9 An example of pylon [6]

3.3 Necessary Components:

3.3.1 General:

These components are bearings (Fig. 3.10) and Expansion joints (Fig. 3.11), and it is used
to resist loads or movement resulted due to thermal effect, deflections, creep, and
shrinkage. Refer to (Appendix III).

3.3.2 Bearings:

3.3.2.1 Function of Bearings:

1- “Transfer forces from bridge deck to piers.”[6].

2- “Minimum restraining of the deck due to thermal effect, and shrinkage of concrete.”[6]

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3.3.2.2 Types of Bearings:

1- Cast iron bearings: such as roller, and hinged bearings; they are usually used with steel
bridges, but there used previously with concrete bridges (Fig. 3.10a).

2- Elastomeric bearing: it is the most type used in concrete bridges, and consists of rubber
and some steel plates in between (Fig. 3.10b).

3- Pot bearing: this type is used with big loads, and it is used usually with large spans
(Fig.3.10c).

a) Cast iron bearing b) Elastomeric bearing c) Pot bearing

Fig. 3.10 Types of bearings

3.3.3 Expansion Joints:

3.3.3.1 Function of Expansion Joints:

Bridge deck joints allow a bridge to expand and contract due to some factors such as:
temperature changes, deflections caused by live loads, creep, and shrinkage of concrete
[6].

3.3.3.2 Types of Expansion Joints:

1- Small expansion joints: with longitudinal movement UX up to 25 mm (Fig. 3.11).

2- Medium expansion joints: with longitudinal movement 25 mm ≤ UX ≤ 80 mm (Fig.3.11).

3- Large expansion joints: with longitudinal movement UX ≥ 80 mm (Fig. 3.11).

Refer to (Appendix IV).

Fig. 3.11 Some types of expansion joints [2]

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4 LOADS ACTING ON BRIDGES

4.1 Introduction:
This chapter is considered the loads acting on bridges, and the loads are divided to
main loads, secondary load, and special load and should be take the more critical
cases of loading for design.

4.1.1 Main Loads

It contains permanent load such as (self-own weight load-asphalt weight load-weight

of sidewalks and median-utilities load-etc.), live load including dynamic effect, pre-
stressing force, concrete creep, centrifugal force, earth pressure and hydrostatic
pressure [7].

4.1.2 Secondary Loads

It contains loads result from variation of temperature degrees, braking load,

earthquake load, and wind load, settlement of footing and concrete shrinkage [7].

4.1.3 Special load

It contains special load during construction stages and shock load due to collision

of vehicles with bridge piers [7].

4.2 Loads on Roadway Bridges:

4.2.1 Main Loads:

4.2.1.1 Truck Load:

It consists of two type of vehicles 600KN, 300KN [7] as shown in (Fig.4.1)

Fig. 4.1 Live Load distribution on the bridge [7]

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Fig. 4.2 Characteristics of the design truck [7]

4.2.1.2 Loads on sidewalks and Median:

It can be considered as the following two options

1-Uniform load =3.0 KN/m2 plus other live load mentioned in clause (4.2.1.1) [7].

2-Uniform load =5.0 KN/m2 without other live load [7].

3- Load of one wheel = 50 KN distributed on area equal 30cm x 40cm and without
the live loads and that for sidewalks without protection barriers or the height of the
sidewalk curb is less than 35cm above floor level and in this case the side rail is
designed as protection barrier [7].

4.2.1.3 Dynamic Effect on Roadway Bridges:

It can be considered that the main lane loads are increased by a factor called "impact
factor (I)" [7], which computed from the following equation:

I= 0.4- 0.008L ≥ Zero (Eq. 4. 1)

Where:

I=Impact factor

L =the loaded span (m)

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4.2.1.4 Load behind Retaining Walls and Abutments:

It consists of an equivalent load of 33.33KN/m2 and 16.67KN/m2 applied on an area of

3.0x6.0m without taking the dynamic effect [7].

4.2.1.5 Centrifugal Force

It occurs on curved bridge and applied every 50m (max two forces can be considered)
[7], and computed from the following equation:

Cf= 3000/(R+150) (Eq. 4.2)

Where:

Cf= Centrifugal horizontal force (ton)

R= Radius of curvature (m)

4.2.1.6 Pre-stressing Load:

It is usually used in long span bridge to have suitable concrete dimensions by reducing
tensile stress at the critical sections, and we pre-stressing systems are classified into
two main groups [8]:

1- Pre-tensioned, when the cable is stressed before casting of the concrete as shown
in (Fig. 4.2).

Fig. 4.3 Pre-tensioned beam during manufacturing [8]

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2-Post-tensioned, when the cable is stressed after concrete casting as shown in

(Fig. 4.3).

Fig. 4.4 Post-tensioned beam [8]

4.2.2 Secondary Loads:

4.2.2.1 Thermal Effects:

The thermal effects are to be taken according to the following table [6, 7]:

Table 4.1 Thermal effects

Reinforced concrete bridge

1-Uniform temperature variation ±20

2-Differance between upper to lower ±15

surfaces (Non-uniform temperature)

3-Difference between any two opposite ±5

sides of columns and abutments

4.2.2.2 Braking Force:

It can be considered as 25% of the main lane load without dynamic effect but not more
than 900KN and is computed from the following equation [7]:

BF= 0.25*[600+5(L-6)] ≤ 900KN (Eq. 4.3)

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Where:

BF=Braking force (KN)

L=Total length of the bridge

4.2.2.3 Wind Load:

In case there is no live load, the surface exposed to wind loads is the area of vertical
longitudinal projection of the bridge; and in case there is live load, it is taken as the
area of the continuous strip of the longitudinal vertical projection of the live load [7].

It can be computed from the following equation:

WL= W x A (Eq. 4.4)

Where:

WL= wind load

A= Longitudinal side area

W= wind pressure

The wind load is to be taken as a total horizontal force including suction and pressure,
and it is taken according to the following table:

Table 4.2 Wind pressure on roadway

Height above ground of Without live load (KN/m2) With live load (KN/m2)
bridge
0-20 2.00 1.00

20-50 2.25 1.25

50-100 2.50 1.50

4.2.2.4 Deferential Settlement Load:

It depends on the soil investigations, and it occurs usually due to elastic and inelastic
deformation of foundation.

4.2.2.5 Earthquake Load:

It can apply by two options and extreme values are using for design.

1-Static method: It can be considered as 6.5% of dead load of bridge elements [7].

2-Dynamic method: Using “Response spectrum method”

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 INTRODUCTION TO CONCRETE BRIDGES 2012

4.2.3 Special Loads:

4.2.3.1 Vehicles Shocks:

It can be considered at height 1.20m on column from ground level, and it takes as
1000KN in traffic direction and 500KN perpendicular to traffic direction [6].

4.2.3.2 Construction Loads:

It includes the weight of all permanent and temporarily material in addition to any force
created in any part during the construction of the bridge [6].

4.3 Loads on Railway Bridges:

4.3.1 Main Load

4.3.1.1 Live Load:

Design of railway bridges and sub-structures according to train type D or H or L shown

in (Fig. 4.5, Fig. 4.6, Fig. 4.7) and the clearance for single line railway and double line
railways is shown in (Fig. 4.8) [7].

Fig. 4.5 Train type D [7]

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Fig. 4.6 Train type H [7]

Fig. 4.7 Train type L [7]

Note:

In case of two railways, we take 90% for each one, if there are three railways we take
80% for each one, and if there is more than three, we take 75% for each one.

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a) Single line railway

b) Double line railway

Fig. 4.8 Characteristics of the design train [7]

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4.3.1.2 Dynamic Effect on Railway Bridges:

It is to be considered that the main lane loads are increased by factor (I) computed
from the following equation [7]

I= 24/ (24+L) (Eq. 4.5)

Where:

I= Impact factor (≥25%, ≤75%)

L = the loaded span (m)

4.3.1.3 Centrifugal Force

It occurs on curved bridge and applied at 2m above rail level, and computed from the
following equation [7]:

Cf= wV2/12.7R (Eq. 4.6)

Where:

Cf= Centrifugal horizontal force (KN)

w= maximum axial load (KN)

V= maximum speed on the considered curve (Km/hr)

R= Radius of curvature (m)

4.3.1.4 Pre-stressing Load:

As mentioned before in clause 4.2.1.6.

4.3.2 Secondary Loads:

4.3.2.1 Thermal Effects:

As mentioned before in clause 4.2.2.1.

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4.3.2.2 Braking Force:

It can be considered as the following equations [7]:

1- For single line railway

BF= 1/7*Live load (without dynamic effect) (Eq. 4.7)

2- For double line railway

BF= 1/7*Live load (for first way)

BF= 1/2*(1/7*Live load) (for the other way) (Eq. 4.8)

3- For more than two railway, the braking force is only considered on the most critical
two ways.

4.3.2.3 Wind Load:

It is acting at level 3.5m above rail level.

As mentioned before in clause 4.2.2.3

4.3.2.4 Deferential Settlement Load:

It depends on the soil investigations, it occurs usually due to elastic and inelastic
deformation of foundation.

4.3.2.5 Earthquake Load:

As mentioned before in clause 4.2.2.5

4.3.2.6 Lateral Shocks:

It can be taken as equivalent lateral static load applied on all elements that transfer this
force to the foundation, and it can be taken as 6 ton [7].

4.3.3 Special Loads:

4.3.3.1 Construction Loads:

As mentioned before in clause 4.2.3.2

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4.4 Load Combinations

4.4.1 Serviceability limits state load combinations [6]:

Table 4.3 Load combinations for SLS

Serviceability Load Combinations for Bridge Design

Eqn. Load Ultimate Load Factor Comment
No. Combination D.L L.L. EB WL S T K
1 D.L+L.L 1.0 1.0
2 D.L+L.L 1.0 1.0
3 D.L+L.L+EB 1.0 1.0 1.0
4 D.L+L.L+WL 1.0 1.0 1.0
5 D.L+L.L+S 1.0 1.0 1.0 D.L increase Stability
6 D.L+L.L+EB 0.9 1.0 D.L increase Stability
7 D.L+L.L+WL 0.9 1.0 D.L increase Stability
8 D.L+L.L+S 0.9 1.0 D.L increase Stability
9 D.L+S 0.9 1.0
10 D.L+L.L+T 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
11 D.L +T 1.0 1.0
12 D.L+L.L+K 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
T=effect of Temp, Changes, creep, shrinkage and settlement of supports

4.4.2 Ultimate Limit State load combinations [6]:

Table 4.4 Load combinations for ULS

Ultimate Load Combinations for Bridge Design

Eqn. Load Ultimate Load Factor Comment
No. Combination D.L L.L. EB WL S T K
1 D.L+L.L 1.4 1.6 LL. > 0.75 DL.
2 D.L+L.L 1.5 1.5 LL. < 0.75 DL.
3 D.L+L.L+EB 1.4 1.6 1.6
4 D.L+L.L+WL 1.28 1.28 1.28
5 D.L+L.L+S 1.28 1.28 1.28 D.L increase Stability
6 D.L+L.L+EB 0.9 1.6 D.L increase Stability
7 D.L+L.L+WL 0.9 1.6 D.L increase Stability
8 D.L+L.L+S 0.9 1.3 D.L increase Stability
9 D.L+S 0.9 1.3
10 D.L+L.L+T 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.28
11 D.L +T 1.4 1.4
12 D.L+L.L+K 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.6
T=effect of Temp, Changes, creep, shrinkage and settlement of supports

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5 BRIDGE ANALYSIS

5.1 Introduction:
There is no doubt that bridge analysis is one of complicated process which needs
advanced technique to achieve it.

In bridge analysis many ways was developed and different schools are appeared trying to
simplify the way of analysis, so we can easy reach the optimum straining action for the
structure.

In past the analysis process was done manually using influence line and charts ,which
take long time to reach to analysis results, by developing the computer and appearing of
infinite element programs it make it easy to build up models , which it have been solved
in short time .

According we discuss previously in chapter two, we have many different types of bridges
that needs variety of infinite element models which need to show.

Now, we will go on to discuss some of these methods, which will give us good idea for
how to analysis a bridge structure and put us on the way.

The infinite element model was consisting from three main parts (Fig. 5.1):

A- FRAME ELEMENTS
B- NODES
C- SHELLS

Fig. 5.1 Different parts of infinite element model

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There is one important thing we should know very well, which is the aim from doing
infinite element model.

The aim was to get the straining actions in structures which are mainly consisting of
moments, shear, torsion, and normal forces in the structure.

Now we will go on three main types of analysis.

5.2 Grillage Model:

Grillage modeling method for deck section of the bridge can be defined as a multi-frame
elements connecting together by nodes (Fig. 5.2).

Some frame elements in the model are applied in longitudinal direction of the bridge
which defines the main elements, while other frame elements are applied in transverse
direction of the bridge which defines slabs [9].

Fig. 5.2 Example for position of elements in grillage model [9]

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The longitudinal frame elements are defined the main girders of the bridge, there are
some equations to calculate the properties of section (Fig. 5.3) [9]:

a- Gross area
b- Torsion constant.
c- Inertia.
d- Shear area.

Fig. 5.3 Example for exterior longitudinal member properties

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The equations that calculate the properties of longitudinal member are differ according
the position of member interior or exterior (Fig. 5.4) [9].

Fig. 5.4 Example for interior longitudinal member properties

The equations also that calculate beams are differ from concrete box section.

One of important things in grillage model is that, we must take care very well from the
calculation of section properties as it is considered one of the most important things that
make us built up a good model.

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The transverse frame elements define the slab of the bridge, and there are some
equations to calculate the properties of section (Fig. 5.5) [9]:

a- Gross area.
b- Torsion constant.
c- Inertia.
d- Shear area.

WHERE:

E = Young’s Modulus

G =Shear Modulus

L =Distance between centre line

of webs

Fig. 5.5 Example for transverse member properties

The properties of transverse direction should be multiply by factor to decrease its inertia,
this lead to increase in distribution factor in which increase the factor of safety for the
main girder as it carry more loads.

The factor we multiply by the inertia is approximately 0.5 which is coming from past
experience, analysis, and codes.

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5.3 spine Model (wire model):

The spine model is a very simple idea for analysis as it defines the whole structure like
one beam and solves it (Fig. 5.7, and Fig. 5.8) [9].

There is some condition mentioned to accept the results from this model like the one
mentioned in AASHTO:

Length of one Span of the bridge must be greater or equal to 2.5 of its width.

One of the disadvantage of this model is didn’t take the effect of transverse member on
the longitudinal members in other words; it is ignore the distribution factor in transverse
direction.

Statically determinacy of bridges (Fig. 5.6):

a) Determine for bending and torsion.

b) Determine for bending only.
c) Multiple spans simply supported determinate for bending.
d) Multiple span continuous indeterminate.

Fig. 5.6 Types of statically determinacy of bridges [9]

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Fig. 5.7 Spine 3d model for 3 box concrete

Fig. 5.8 Spine 3d model for 3 box concrete using infinite element analysis program

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5.4 Shell Element Model:

The shell element model was developed to give us an accurate behavior for the structure
modeled by us.

Shell element model, sometimes take long time to build up model; although, there are
infinite element programs was developed to make it easier.

The time taken to run the model is depend on the division of shell element number and
size, which is recommended to be in range 1.0*1.0 meters according to past experience
(Fig. 5.9, and Fig. 5.10).

Fig. 5.9 Shell element 3d model

The results appear from shell element model, which compared to other models are within
acceptable range but they are most accurate and reliable.

These model is treat every part of the structure like shell element and give us more
benefit than other models in showing us stress in members, which help us to feel the
results.

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Fig. 5.10 Model show the division of concrete box section shell element

There is an important note we must insist on at the end of analysis of bridge section, it is
the manual calculation should be done by the engineers; even it is preliminary or final
calculations to ensure the computer analysis results.

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6 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Summary:
By reading previous chapters, you will get a good knowledge about concrete bridges.
This knowledge is summarized as following:

1- Knowing what is a bridge, and what is its purpose?

2- The different types of bridges according to some factors such as: a) Material:
wood, steel, stone, and concrete bridges; b) Usage: pedestrian, roadway, and
railway bridges; c) Structure: beam, cantilever, arch, cable-stayed, and suspension
bridges; d) Alignment: Straight, curved, and skew bridges; and chosen of the
suitable type is according to bridge length (Fig. 6.1).

Fig. 6.1 Approximate maximum spans for different types of bridges [1]

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3- The different components of concrete bridges, which are divided into two main
parts discussed in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1 Classification of concrete bridge components:

Main components
Necessary components
Super-structures Sub-structures
- Deck: shallow or open -Abutments: open, and - Bearings: cast-iron,
sections, and cellular or closed abutments. elastomeric, and pot
closed sections. bearings.
-Piers: monolithic column,
and frames. - Expansion joints: small,
medium, and long
-Foundations: shallow, and expansion joints.
deep foundations.

4- Loads acting on bridges: the main difference between these loads and loads on
buildings is live load, because live load on bridges is a moving load which
consist of two trucks (60, and 30 ton), and uniform load (0.30, 0.50 t/m’).
Other loads are: dead load, super imposed dead load, pre-stressed load, wind load,
earthquake load … etc.

5- Analysis of concrete bridges: we can analyze bridge deck by three methods using
infinite element analysis programs, which discussed in Table 6.2.

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Table 6.2 Comparison between bridge deck analysis models:

Models
Shell elements
Grillage model Spine model
model
Elements

- Multi frames in - One frame on - Shell elements in

Used elements
both directions. long direction only. both directions.

- Use shell
- Use frames which
elements which
defined the webs - Use one frame
defined slabs, and
Long direction on box section or which defined the
webs on box
beams or part of deck.
section or slab
deck on slab type.
type.

- Use frames which

defined slab on box - Use shells which
Short direction - Not used.
section or slab type defined slabs.
or beam type.

- Used to analyze - Used to analyze

- Used to analyze
Usage box girder type and box girder type and
any type of bridges.
slab type bridges. slab type bridges.

Note: In case of beams with slab type we can use combined model consist of: 1)
Frames which defined beams; 2) Shell elements which defined slab.

6- Finally, we can get internal forces for the bridges from the model to do the design
process for concrete bridge elements.

6.2 Recommendations:
We gave you an introduction to concrete bridges to know some information about its
types, components, and analysis, also you should have more details about all items
were discussed in this report.

We recommend you to read some books and notes to have more information about
concrete bridges such as: 1) Advanced design of concrete bridges for Dr. Fathy A.
Saad; 2) Bridge deck behavior for E.C. Hambly; 3) Design of concrete bridges for Dr.
Adel Al-Attar.

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REFERENCES

1. Champreda, P. (2007). “Bridge design.” Mahidol University.

2. O’Brien, E. J. and Keogh, D. L. (2005). “Bridge deck analysis.”
3. “A Decent Proposal” by Cheryl Balasubramanyam, www.eHow.com,
accessed on June 19th, 2012.
4. www.pbs.org/nova, accessed on June 20th, 2012.
5. Schlaich, J. and Scheef, H. (1982). “Concrete box-girder bridges.”
6. Saad F. A. (2003). “Advanced design of concrete bridges.” Lecture notes, Ain
Shams University.
7. ECP (2003). Egyptian code of practice to calculate loads and forces on
structural works (ECP-201).
8. Ghoneim, M. and El Mihilmy, M. “Design of reinforced concrete structures.”
Vol. 3.
9. Hambly, E. C. (1991). “Bridge deck behavior.”

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APPENDEX I
SHAPES OF FRAMES

1) Double cantilever frame 2) Frame with two column

3) Frame with multi spans

4) Cantilever Frame

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APPENDIX II
SHAPES OF PYLONS

1) Central single mast 2)Semi H tower 3) A tower 4) Single mast

5) Modified A tower 6) Diamond 7) H tower 8) Y tower

A) Shapes of tower in the elevation view

1) Single mast 2) A tower 3) Modified A tower 4) Y tower

B) Shapes of tower in the side view

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APPENDIX III
CAUSES OF RELATIVE MOVEMENT BETWEEN
PIERS/ABUTMENTS AND BRIDGE DECKS

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APPENDIX IV
TYPES OF EXPANSION JOINTS

a) Asphaltic plug joint b) Buried joint

1) Small Expansion Joints

a) Nosing joint b) Elastomeric in metal runners (single element)

c) Elastomeric in metal runners (multi elements) c) Thermal joint

2) Medium Expansion Joints

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a) Reinforced elastomeric b) Cantilever comb or tooth

c) Other types

3) Large Expansion Joints

1‐V