Chaps 1-4!

Chapter 1- Textbook info

Psychology is a social science

KEY TERMS:
●​ Behavior
○​ Any observable or quantifiable activity of an organism
●​ Clinical psychology
○​ The branch dedicated to the diagnosis and treatment of psychological
problems/disorders
●​ Cognition
○​ Mental processes such as problem solving and memory
●​ Empiricism
○​ Knowledge should be acquired through observation
●​ Psychoanalytic Theory
○​ Attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on
unconscious determinants of behavior

The Evolution of Psychology

●​ William Wundt (1832-192o)
●​ Made a campaign to make psychology an individual discipline as opposed to a stepchild from
philosophy (similar to physics and chemistry)
●​ Created first formal lab @ the University of Leipzig (1879) (psychology DOB)

John B. Watson-dismissed the importance of genetic inheritance while arguing traits are shaped by
experience

STRUCTURALISM: based on the idea that psychology was meant to analyze consciousness and
investigate how the elements are related
●​ Created by Edward Titchener who trained in Wundt's lab

FUNCTIONALISM: based on the belief that psychology should investigate the function/purpose of
consciousness rather than the structure
●​ Created by William James
○​ He commented negatively on the idea of “structuralism”
●​ How people adapt to their behaviors to the real world around them
●​ View of consciousness was a “continuous flowing stream”
BEHAVIOURISM:
Theoretical orientation is based on the premise that scientific psychology should only study the
behavior we can see
Founded by John B. Watson (1878–1958),

PSYCHO-ANALYSIS: A set of theories and therapeutic techniques

●​ The origin of these ideas came from Sigmund Fraud
●​ The belief that all people possess unconscious thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories

BEHAVIOUR: refers to any observable or activity by an organism

Sigmund Freud 1856-1939)

●​ Austrian physician-most controversial and influential
●​ Treated people troubled by psychological problems such as obsessions, fears, and anxiety

The unconscious contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are below the surface of awareness
Freud's psychoanalytic theory tries to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing
on the unconscious behavior

B.F. Skinner 1904-1990

Evolutionary Psychology examines the behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive value for
members of a species over the course of many generations
●​ Emerged in middle the to late 1980s
●​ Mating preferences, jealousy, aggression, sexual behavior

Positive Psychology: uses research and theory to better understand the positive, adaptive, creative, and
fulfilling aspects of human life
●​ Humanistic: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow came up with this theory, and was based on one’s
self-concept and sense of self.
●​ Carl Rogers came up with the approach known as the person-centered therapy

Research Areas in Psychology

1.​ Developmental
i.​ Looks at human development across the lifespan
b.​ Vocabulary in toddlers
c.​ Peer influence on risk-taking behaviors
2.​ Social
i.​ Focuses on interpersonal behavior and the rule of social forces in governing
behavior
b.​ One-sided vs two-sided arguments
 c.​ If males/females look for different qualities
3.​ Experimental
i.​ The core of topics that psychology first focused on (motivation, emotion,
perception,
b.​ Age and gender differences in identifying different odors
c.​ How people figure out what direction sound is coming from
4.​ Behavioral Neuroscience
i.​ Examines the influence of genetic factors on behavior and the role of the
nervous system, bodily chemicals, and the regulation of the brain
5.​ Cognitive
i.​ Focuses on “higher” mental processes such as memory, reasoning, language,
problem-solving, decision making, and creativity
6.​ Personality
i.​ Interested in describing and understanding individuals consistency in behavior
b.​ Also concerned with factors that shape personality
7.​ Psychometrics
a.​ How damage in certain areas of the brain can relate to memory tasks
b.​ If eating disorders are influenced by genetics
c.​ Educational
i.​ Studies how people learn and the best ways to teach them
d.​ Teacher training, student motivation
8.​ Health
i.​ Focuses on how psychological factors relate to the maintenance of physical
health
b.​ Factors such as optimism could relate to overall physical health
c.​ If measures of stress can predict immune function

Chapter 2- Textbook Info:

The Scientific Approach to Behaviour:

Goals of Scientific Enterprise:
1.​ Measurement and description
2.​ Understanding and prediction
3.​ Application and control
Hypothesis:
-​ A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more
variables. Variables are any measurable conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviors
that are controlled or observed in a study.
Theory:
-​ Is a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations.

Step 1:
Formulate A Testable Hypothesis:
 -​ To be testable, scientific hypotheses must be formulated precisely and the variables
under study must be defined clearly.
-​ Researchers achieve this by operational definition
-​ Operational definition: describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure
or control the variables.

Step 2:
Select The Research Method and Design the Study:
-​ Figure out how to put the hypothesis into an empirical test.
-​ The research method chosen depends on the nature of the question under study.
-​ Check for pros and cons.
-​ Then select the strategy that best fits the research at hand.
-​ Once researchers have chosen how to conduct the research you choose the
participants.
-​ Participants: are the persons or animals whose behaviour is systematically observed in a
study.

Step 3:
Collect the data:
-​ Researchers use data collection techniques, which are procedures for making empirical
observations and measurements.
-​ Collecting data comes in many forms; direct observation, questionnaire, interview,
psychological test, physiological/neural recording, examination of archival records.

Step 4:
Analyze the data and Draw conclusions:
-​ The observations made in a study are usually converted into numbers, which constitute
the raw data of the study..
-​ Based on the statistical analysis, the researchers come to a conclusion.

Step 5:
Report the finding:
-​ Write up a concise summary of the study
-​ Researches prepare a report that is delivered at a scientific meeting to a journal for
publication
-​ A journal is a periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material, usually in a
narrowly defined area of inquiry.

Advantages of Scientific Approach:

-​ Clarity and pre​cesion yield better communication
-​ Intolerance of error yields more reliable results

Experimental Research:
Elements:
 -​ Independent variable (IV) : condition or event manipulated by the independent variable
-​ Dependant variable (DV) : aspect of behaviour thought to be affected by the IV
-​ Experimental group: participants, or subjects who receive special treatment
-​ Control group: similar subjects who do not receive the treatment given to the
experimental group.
-​ Extraneous variable: factors besides the IV that might affect the DV; hence, they need to
be controlled.

Variations:
-​ Can have one group of subjects serve as their own control group
-​ Can manipulate more than one independent variable in a study.

Advantages:
-​ Permits conclusions about cause and effect relationships

Disadvantages:
-​ Manipulations and control often make experiments artificial.
-​ Practical realities and ethical concerns make it impossible to conduct experiments on
many issues.

Descriptive/Correlational Research:
Correlation:
-​ Exists when two variables are related to each other.
Types:
-​ Positive (variables covary in the same direction)
-​ Negative (variables covary in the opposite direction)
Correlation coefficient:
-​ Numerical index of degree of relationship between two variables.
Strength:
-​ The closer the correlation, to either -1.00 or +1.00, the stronger the relationship
Prediction:
-​ The stronger the correlation, the better one can predict.
Causation:
-​ Correlation is not equivalent to causation.

Examples of specific correlational/descriptive methods:

-​ Naturalistic observation: careful, systematic observation but no intervention with
subjects
-​ Case study: in depth investigation of a single participant, typically, involving data from
many sources.
-​ Survey: questionnaire and interviews are used to gather information about specific
aspects of participants' behaviour.

Advantages:
 -​ Broadens the scope of the phenomena that psychologists can study (can explore issues
that could not be examined with experiential methods.)

Disadvantages:
-​ Can not demonstrate the two variables are causally related.

Common Flaws in Research:

-​ Sampling Bias: exists when a sample is not representative of the population.
-​ Placebo effects: occurs when the participants expectations lead them to experience
some change even though they receive empty or fake treatment.
-​ Distortions in self-report data: results from problems such as social desirability bias and
halo effects, that happen when participants give verbal accounts of their behaviour.
-​ Experimenter bias: occurs when a researcher expectations or preference about the
outcome of study influences the results obtained.

The importance of Replication:

-​ Replication: is the repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated.
-​ You do not want inconsistent results so the closer the results are there is more proof of
valid

Ethics in Research:
Key principles: to ensure the welfare of both human and animal participants.
1.​ Respect for the dignity of persons
2.​ Responsible caring
3.​ Integrity in relationship
4.​ Responsibility to society

Chapter 3: The Biological Bases of Behaviour

Introduction:
●​ The chapter starts off by explaining how amygdala is located within both halves of the brain
and is referred to as the experience of fear
●​ Also, touches upon Sandra Witelson who is well known for her research in exploring human
brains and studied one of the most famous brains that of Albert Einstein.
●​ Brain was removed by Tom Harvey who injected malin to preserve the brain
●​ Einstein's brain was more fascinating than any other brain because it had a wider parietal lobe
and a distinct sylvian fissure that separates the frontal lobe from the temporal lobe.
●​ It involved more mathematical thought, cognition and imagery of movement
●​ Adrian Owen of Western University explained how Scott Routley suffered a chronic vegetative
state after experiencing a head injury. They used the method FMRI to check if he was still
conscious
Anatomy of the Nervous System:
●​ Believe it or not the brain weight is about 1300-1400 grams that is composed of jelly like
material.
●​ Consists of two types of protective cells neurons and glia
 ●​ Neurons: Individuals cells in the nervous system that can initially receive, integrate and transmit
information
●​ Glia Cells: Are found throughout the nervous system and provide various types of support and
protection for the neurons.
●​ Example: Einstein’s brain contained plenty of glia cells, compared to an average human being
●​ Glia cells produce what is known as cerebrospinal fluid that is a colourless fluid that surrounds
the brain and spinal cord. It works as a cushion to the brain during an impact or injury.
●​ They can also form blood brain barrier, which prevents the brain from attracting viruses and drugs
●​ And contribute to a healthy immune system of the brain
●​ They also play a pivotal role in the development of neurons in the human embryo
●​ Plays a role in memory formation
●​ Allows for neurons to process information faster while requiring less energy
●​ Another example: glia cells also contribute to the impairment seen in schizophrenia disorders
Neurons:
●​ There are about 86,000 billion neurons in the human brain
●​ Synapse: a junction where information is being transmitted from one neuron onto the next
●​ Small amount receive the signals from outside of the nervous system (sensory organs) and carry
messages from the nervous system to the muscles that control the body
●​ Cell membrane: contains small molecules or gates that prevent molecules from entering or
leaving the cell.
●​ Cell body: also called (soma) which contains the nucleus and acts as a tiny factory where proteins
and neurotransmitters are manufactured.
●​ Dendrites: Gather much of the information from other cells (receive). It looks like a tree
●​ Axon: long thin fibre that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons that also go to
the muscles. (sends information)
●​ Axon terminals: where the chemicals are related by the neuron that inhibits the neuron's activity.
●​ Myelin sheath: insulating material that is derived from glia cells. It’s a white fatty substance.
●​ The loss of muscle control can result from the multiple sclerosis due to the loss of myelin sheaths
The functions of Neurons: Information transmission
●​ Resting potential: when the cell is at rest and there are an unequal amount of molecules being
distributed outside and inside the cell. Stable negative charge, when the cell is inactive
●​ Gained or possess an electron (electrical charge) which can be referred to as an ion
●​ Positive sodium and potassium ions and negative charged chloride are constantly flowing back
and forth at the same rate within the cell membrane
●​ Potassium(K+) and sodium (Na +) is required for a resting potential
●​ To create resting potential there is a system that pumps sodium ions out of every potassium cell
that pumps in. Also, called sodium-potassium pump.
Action Potential:
●​ A slight shift within a neuron's electrical charge that travels along an axon
●​ Example: when fans stand up raising their arms, the wave creates an electrical charge that races
down the axon.
●​ All or none law: a neuron either fires or does not
●​ The greater the rate, the greater the intensity of the stimulus
 ●​ Absolute refractory period: minimum length of time after an action potential during which
another action potential cannot begin.
●​ Myelination: produces myelin sheath which is an insulating material derived from the glial cells
that encode some axons of neurons.
●​ Back to how the action potential allows for more communication of information from one area of
a neuron typically from the dendrites and cell body to the terminal button.
●​ Communication between two or more cells is largely chemical in nature and involves synaptic
transmission
Synaptic transmission:
●​ Example: learning how to drive a car etc
●​ The action potential can be released into tiny gaps between the neuron and adjacent neurons also
known as synaptic cleft.
●​ First neuron is called presynaptic neuron: this usually occurs before the synapse which separates
neurons
●​ The adjacent is called post-synaptic neuron because it occurs after the synapse.
●​ Neurotransmitters: transmit information from one neuron to another
●​ Steps:
1.​ Transportation and storage: molecules of the neurotransmitter

Chapter 4 Sensation and Perception

Extra Terms
phi phenomenon is the illusion of movement created by presenting visual stimuli in rapid
succession.
The kinesthetic system monitors the positions of the various parts of the body.
vestibular system, which responds to gravity and keeps you informed of your body’s location
in space.
Thresholds
●​ Dividing point between energy levels that do + dont have a detectable effect

Absolute threshold
➢​ Minimum amount of stimulation an organism can detect
➢​ Define the boundaries of an organism's sensory capabilities
➢​ JND ( Just Noticeable Difference) is the smallest difference in the amount of stimulation
that a sense can detect
➢​ Weber's Law states that the size of a JND is proportional to the size of the initial
stimulus
 Vision Candle flame seen in dark (50km)

Hearing Tick of a watch in silence 6m away

Taste 5ml of sugar in 7.5L of water

Smell One spray of perfume in a 3 bed app

Touch Fly falling on cheek from 1cm

Signal Detection Theory

●​ Proposes that the detection of stimuli involves decision + sensory processes which are
influenced by different factors

Perception
●​ Subliminal Perception- the registration of sensory input without conscious awareness

Sensory Adaptation
●​ Gradual decline in sensitivity due to prolonged stimulation
○​ If you leave smelly garbage in your kitchen for too long, over time you will
adapt to the smell and not smell it anymore

The Visual System

THE STIMULUS: light

●​ There must be light for people to see
●​ Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation that travels as waves (wavelengths)
●​ Amplitude affects the perception of brightness
THE EYE; a living optical instrument
Lens- the transparent structure that focuses the light rays falling on the retina
Pupil- opening in center of the iris that regulates the amount of light passing into the rear
chamber of the eye
Saccades- Rapid eye movement between fixation points

THE RETINA: the brains envoy in the eye

- is the neural tissue lining the inside back surface of the eye; it absorbs light, processes
images, and sends visual information to the brain
optic disk- a place in the retina where the optic nerve fibres exit the eye
Visual Receptors: Rods and Cones
Cones: specialized visual receptors that play a role in daylight vision + color vision
●​ Provide better visual acuity
●​ Stubby
●​ 6.4 million
●​ Foeva- tiny spot in the center of the retina that contains only; visual activity is greatest
at this spot
Rods: specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision.
●​ Handle night vision (more sensitive)
●​ Elongated
●​ 125 million

Receptive Field: Retinal area that when stimulated affects the firing of that cell

Vision + the Brain

optic chiasm —the point at which the optic nerves from the inside half of each eye cross over and
then project to the opposite half of the brain.
●​ This arrangement ensures that signals from both eyes go to both hemispheres of the brain.

The Stimulus for Colour

Additive colour mixing: works by superimposing lights, putting more light in the mixture
than exists in any one light by itself
●​ red+green+blue= additive colour mixture

Subtractive colour mixing: works by removing some wavelengths of light, leaving less light
than was originally there.
●​ Yellow + blue = green

Trichromatic Theory of Colour Vision

 ➔​ holds that the human eye has three types of receptors with differing sensitivities to
different light wavelengths.

Colour-blindness encompasses a variety of deficiencies in the ability to distinguish among

colours.

Opponent Process Theory of Colour Vision

➔​ holds that colour perception depends on receptors that make antagonistic responses to
three pairs of colours

Complementary colours are pairs of colours that produce grey tones when mixed together.
●​ Arranged on a colour wheel

afterimage —a visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed

Perceptual Process
perceptual set —a readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way
●​ Creates a slant in how someone interprets sensory input

Distal stimuli are stimuli that lie in the distance (i.e., in the world outside the body).
●​ In vision, these are the objects that you’re looking at.
proximal stimuli: the stimulus energies that impinge directly on sensory receptors.
●​ What your eyes do “touch” are the images formed by patterns of light falling on your
retinas.

a perceptual hypothesis is an inference about which distal stimuli could be responsible for the
proximal stimuli sensed.

Perceiving Depth and Distance

Depth perception: involves interpretation of visual cues that indicate how near or far away
objects are.
●​ To make judgments of distance, people rely on quite a variety of clues, which can be
classified into two types: binocular and monocular

Binocular depth cues are clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes.
●​ 3D movies; two cameras are used to record slightly different angles of the same scene
retinal disparity, which refers to the fact that objects project images to slightly different
locations on the right and left retinas, so the right and left eyes see slightly different views of
the object

Monocular depth cues are clues about distance based on the image in either eye alone

pictorial depth cues —clues about distance that can be given in a flat picture

A perceptual constancy is a tendency to experience a stable perception in the face of

continually changing sensory input

A visual illusion involves an apparently inexplicable discrepancy between the appearance of a

visual stimulus and its physical reality.

The Auditory System

Sensory Processing in the Ear

External Ear: pinna, a sound-collecting cone

Middle Ear: Ossicles: mechanical chain made up of bones that that transmits vibrations
inward

Inner Ear: Cochlea: a fluid-filled, coiled tunnel that contains the receptors for hearing.
Basilar membrane: runs the length of the spiralled cochlea, holds the auditory
receptors.
Theories of Hearing

Place Theory
●​ holds that perception of pitch corresponds to the vibration of different portions, or
places, along the basilar membrane.
●​ Place theory assumes that hair cells at various locations respond independently
and that different sets of hair cells are vibrated by different sound frequencies.

Frequency Theory
●​ holds that perception of pitch corresponds to the rate, or frequency, at which the entire
basilar membrane vibrates
●​ According to frequency theory, the whole membrane vibrates in unison in response to
sounds

Auditory Perception
●​ auditory localization —locating the source of a sound in space.
○​ The process of recognizing where a sound is coming from is analogous to
recognizing depth or distance in vision.
○​ Both processes involve spatial aspects of sensory input.

Chemical Senses
●​ gustatory system -the sensory system for taste—and its close cousin,

●​ olfactory system-the sensory system for smell.

○​ Pheromones are chemical messages, typically imperceptible, that can be sent

by one organism and received by another member of the same species