CHAPTER-5

CONCLUSION
 CONCLUSION

Vaishnavism is a very popular and very primitive religious sect of Hinduism

in India. The Cult of Krishna in India could be traced back to the Mahabharat time.
The saga of Krishna as the cowherd boy, destroyer of demons, as the divine lover, the
philosopher and the warrior in the Mahabharata war who fought for the sake of truth
and justice is well reflected in the Bhagavat Gita. Epic-Puranic, Buddhist and Jaina
traditions and historical literature agree to the existence of Krishna-Vasudeva and
Balarama. The Mahabharata is the earliest source of his life where he is defined both
as man and God. From the very beginning of the Krishna concept it is difficult to
separate the human aspect of his life from the divine one. The yogis find him to be the
absolute truth, the gopis the highest object of love. Krishna in all his acts breathed the
same principle of fighting the evil and fostering the good. Mathura and Brundabana in
Uttar Pradesh were the cradles of Krishna Cult in India and in Odisha its popularity is
evident from a numerous sculptures, images, and literature and Krishnalila scenes
which finds expression on Odishan temples. The songs of the South Indian Alvaros,
the enchanting theme of the Bhagavata Parana followed by the devotional
compositions of Jayadeva and Lilasuka, namely the Gita Govinda and
Krishnakarnamrita respectively were mainly responsible for popularizing the Krishna
theme throughout the length and breadth of India. The Gita Govinda was regarded as
the Vaishnava-Veda in Gujrat during the time of Sarangadeva of 13th Century A.D.
Jayadeva has described the Radha-Krishna sports in a fascinating manner. The Gita
Govinda has provided a great inspiration to the growth of Medieval Vaishnavism.
Roy Ramananda, Nimbarka, Ramanuja and Sri Chaitanya are some of the prominent
Vaishnava saints whose names have been written in golden letters in the history of
Vaishnavism. They have played very responsible role for the propagation and
popularization of Krishna Cult, His doctrines and philosophy.

In Odisha the earliest Krishnalila scene is found on the temple walls of

Simhanath temple at Badamba in Cuttack district situated on the bank of river
Mahanadi datable to late 9th Century A.D, if the Kaliyadamana panel from the
perhaps from Swamajaleswar temple now preserved in the Odisha State Museum is
not taken into consideration which is assignable a date earlier than that of Simhanath
temple. Krishnalila scenes continued to adorn temple walls as a decorative
programme even up to 18th Century A.D. On the 13th Century Sun temple at Konark

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which stands as the highest water-mark of Odishan temple architecture we will come
across artistic expressions of Krishna holding flute and flanked by female consorts on
one axle medallion, Krishna dancing with flute to his lips in two arms and Krishna
uplifting mount Govardhana amidst the crowd of sculptures here. It is also interesting
to note here the fact that many Saivite and Sakta shrines of early and medieval Odisha
also exhibit such Krishnalila scenes which definitely suggests the eclectic spirit that
was prevailing in Odisha. Besides these Krishnalila scenes we also come across a
number of Krishna, Krishna-Vishnu, Krishna-Gopinath, Bal Gopal Krishna images
and numerous masterpieces of literary works on Krishna that speaks the intensity of
popularity of the Cult in Odisha. Jayadeva’s magnum opus, Gitagovinda sings the
divine love song of Krishna which ultimately inspired the artists to conceive exquisite
and magnificent images of Krishna. The life of Krishna from childhood to his last
days has been a source of perennial inspiration to the poets and the artists, as he
represents the perfection of human character and endeavour. He is the embodiment of
the intellectual and spiritual glory. The sublime images of Krishna reflect eternal
romanticism that often associated with the alluring flute and astapatapatavamsis
(eight chief consorts). The Odishan artists perpetuated the Radha-Krishna theme in
their artistic creations. Their treatment of the theme in different mediums like stone,
wood, ivory, metal and on paper has earned them wide reputation for their artistic
excellence.

The warm and royal patronage given to Vaishnavism by the Matharas in

Odisha was accelerated by the succeeding dynasties and reached its peak of glory
during the Gangas who were also definitely great protagonists of Krishna Cult in
Odisha. The Gangas came from Gangavadi in Mysore ruled over Odisha for over 500
years (circa 895-1435 A.D). It is the Gangas who built magnificent temples and
sculptures of Krishna. The fact is supported by the epigraphic evidences and literary
works. Many Vaishnavite saints, prominent among them are Nityananda Puri,
Madhavendra Puri, Ramanuja and Sri Chaitanya who came to Odisha in medieval
times have left their foot-prints here through their metaphysical philosophy,
devotional doctrines and concept of eternity that galvanized the socio-cultural
chemistry of the State. For instance the gospels of Sri Chaitanya and his emphasis on
namasankirtana and bhakti to attain God broke the barrier of casteism and fostered
unity of human beings. The monasteries founded by the Vaishnava saints especially

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Gaudiya Vaishnavas helped transforming socio-religious life style of the common
masses. Chaitanya’s advent brought to the forefront the worship of Krishna as the
supreme deity in Odisha. Sri Chaitanya found Krishna in the enshrined Lord
Jagannath at Sreekshetra-Puri and consequently Krishna consciousness and Jagannath
consciousness were rolled into one. Sree Mandira is also known as Gupta
Vrindabana.

Epigraphic references like Dasagoba Copper Plate Grant of Rajaraja Deva,

Alarpur Copper Plate of Narasimha Deva-I and Ananta Vasudev temple inscription of
Chandrika Devi tells the height of the popularity of Krishna in Odisha. Later Jayadeva
and his creation Gitagovinda, distinguished Vaishnavite saint Sri Chaitanya and his
gospels gave a major boost to the Cult. They found Krishna and Lord Jagannath in
Sreekshetra are same but different manifestations. The deplastered vimana of
Jagannath temple at Puri exhibits a series of Krishnalila scenes in its exterior wall
signifying the close association of the Krishna Cult with the enshrined Jagannath.
Infact, Lord Jagannath is the final embodiment of all Cults and all Sects in Odisha.
The worship of Krishna in Odisha today remains very popular as is evident from the
majestic shrines of Krishna like Gopinath temple at Kakudia, Khirachora Gopinath
temple at Remuna Katak, Sakhi Gopal temple at Satyabadi and many others as
discussed in the foregoing chapter.

That the Krishna-Vishnu theme was gaining in popularity is evident also from
the occurrence of the scenes from Krishna’s life on various temples. Mention may be
made of the Simhanath temple at Badamba in Cuttack district situated on the bank of
river Mahanadi, stylistically ascribable to the 9th Century A.D., though dedicated to
Siva contains among other representations on its wall scenes from Krishna’s life such
as the killing of Dhenuka and Arishta and the subjugation of the Naga King Kaliya.
An impressive stone relief of circa Century A.D from Odisha now preserved in
the State Museum, Bhubaneswar showing Kaliyadamana scene is again an eloquent
testimony to the popularity of the Krishna story in Odisha during this time.
Dadhimanthana scene in the Lingaraj temple and Brahmeswar temple compound,
both ascribed to 11th Century A.D, vastraharana in the Megheswar temple of 12th
Century A.D, the Giri Govardhana scene and representation of Gopinath in Sun
temple at Konark, also Krishna accompanied by cows and delighting the gopis in the
13 th Century Chitrakarini temple at Bhubaneswar further provide evidence of wide

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popularity of Krishna Cult. An important evidence of the popularity of Krishna
worship in Odisha is the Ananta Vasudev temple datable to 1278 A.D. The main deity
enshrined in the sanctum is the Krishna trinity, i.e. Ekanamsa, Krishna and Balarama.
The Bhubaneswar inscription composed by Umapati, a court poet of the Ganga King,
Bhanudeva, describes Chandrikadevi, daughter of Ananga Bhimadeva-III as a devout
worshipper of Krishna and as one expert in music and dance which enhanced her
natural beauty. The inscription further tells us that Chandrika built at Ekamra
(Bhubaneswar) a temple of Vishnu. She visited the temple and worshipped the gods,
Baladeva, Subhadra and Krishna.

Here it is deemed necessary to mention the composite Krishna-Vishnu images

found in Odisha which came into existence under the influence of Srimad Bhagavat,
Shri Gitagovindam, and Shri Krishnacharitamrutam. The worship of Vishnu which
had strong footing on the religious life of the people of Odisha was conjoined with
Krishna and gave to a new conception of Krishna-Vishnu.The Krishna-Vishnu images
in Odisha State Museum, at Jagannath Ballava matha and at Sadabhuja Gauranga
matha at Puri deserve mention. The iconography of the Krishna-Vishnu image of
Odisha State Museum is four-armed, the upper two arms hold chakra and sankha and
other two arms hold the flute and stands in tribhanga pose. The figure of an
Anantasayana Vishnu is carved on the right left, ten avataras on two sides, cows and
gopis on the pedestal. The four female figures two on each side may be identified as
Shri and Sarasvati, associated with Vishnu; Rukmini and Satyabhama, associated with
Krishna.

The manifestation of Vishnu whose ten incarnations are depicted around the
pedestal with Krishna who is proclaimed as Dasakrutikrut or the orginator of the
incarnations in Gitagovinda clearly exhibit in this icon.

Scholars like P. Acharya and Shri K.N. Mohapatra hold the view that the Cult
of Vishnu lost the importance and the Cult of Krishna gained popularity. In order to
save the Cult of Vishnu from decline and to satisfy the followers of Krishna a Cult of
composite figure of Vishnu-Krishna was conceived. Here it may be pointed out that
the Cult of Vishnu which crept into Odisha in earlier stage continued to flourish in
multi-dimentional proportions under the royal patronage. In the 13th Century
Vaishnavism was at the apex of its glory and the view of the scholars that the Cult of
Vishnu was at a waning stage is not tenable. Diffusion and assimilation of cultural

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traits are the processes of history. Hence it is apt to conclude that the composite figure
of Krishna-Vishnu represents a trend of fusion or assimilation. Moreover, the Cult of
Vishnu was further accentuated in association with characteristic features of Krishna.
In the similar way we may mention the composite figures of Ardhanarisvara, Uma-
Mahesvara and Laxmi Narayan which represent the fusion of two cults.

In his immortal lyric Gitagovindam, Jayadeva addreses Krishna as Madhav.

Radha, the divine consort is identical with Laxmi, Kamala and Padma as revealed in
Gitagovindam. After the composition of Sri Gitagovindam, the Krishna Cult had
celebrated a greater popularity. As a result of which a number of images of Sri
Krishna in tribhanga pose started to be produced. However, it is striking to note that
although the worship of Madhav and the worship of Krishna-Gopinath were highly
popular in Odisha, Radha was overshadowed by the worship of Laxmi as the consort
of Purusottama. It is interesting to note that in the whole range of Odishan inscriptions
from the earliest times till the end of the Gangas, the name Radha never appear except
the Phulsara copper plate grant of Kirtirajadeva, in which the queen is mentioned as
Mahadevi Sriradha, who was obviously a princess of a country other than Odisha.

One of the Simhachalam temple inscriptions of Anangabhima Deva-III and

another of Narasimha Deva-I, indicate the celebration of birth day of Sri Krishna.
Besides Srikurma temple inscriptions, the Varaha Nrusimha temple inscription of
Simhachalam also indicates the life of Sri Krishna. The temple was renovated during
the reign of Narasimha Deva-I in the middle of 13th Century A.D.

There are two inscriptions which are ascribed to 13th Century A.D.; one is
noticed at Simhachalam and the other at Vizianagaram. These inscriptions refer to the
appearance of Krishna in the form of Gopinath, the beloved of the gopis. The
Vizianagaram inscription refers to the enshrinement of the image of Gopinath while
the Simhachalam temple record opens with invocation to Gopinath. These are the
earliest known epigraphic references to Krishna as the beloved of gopis or Gopinath.

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GLOSSARY
 GLOSSARY

abhaya mudra hand pose indicative of protection, in which the

hand is raised with its palm outward and fingers
stretched.
anga Division
anga sikhara miniature representation of the rekha on the spire of
a temple.
Alasakanya indolent or playful maiden, nayika
alidha a particular pose, or attitude of legs in the posture of
an archer with the right leg outstretched and the left
slightly bent.
amalaka or amla fluted disc, resembling an amalaka fruit, crowning
the top of the gandi or spire,
anjali mudra a gesture of veneration and worship in which the
palms are joined.
anuraha narrow vertical recess separating the projecting
pagas.
anuratha paga vertical wall projection (ratha) running from the
base of the bada to the bisama, situated between the
kanika and raha.
apsara angel.
ardhaparyanka a seated pose in which both legs are on the seat.
One of the legs is under the body as in padmasana
but the knee of the other is raised and generally
supports an outstretched arm.
asana a seated posture; seat; pedestal
avatara Incarnation
ayudha symbolical weapons and attributes in the hands of
the divinities
bada wall portion of the temple below the curvilinear
spire or pyramidal roof, consisting of pabhaga,
jangha, badhana and baranda.

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balaya the ornament worn in hand.
bandhana string course: series of horizontal mouldings.
baranda crowning set of mouldings in the bada of a temple
beki neck of the temple between the spire and the
amalaka.
bhararaksaka atlantid gana (weight protector) generally carved on
the capital of pilasters or placed in horizontal
recesses. Also known as bharavahaka (weight
carrier)
bho a decorative motif with a highly stylised chaitya
window
bhogamandapa the refractory hall of a temple; hall pf offering
bhumi alma fluted disc demarcating one bhumi from another on
the kanika.
bhumi barandis horizontal mouldings forming a bhumi.
bisama capstone on the gandi.
chaitya ornamental motif resembling the window of a
Buddhist rock-cut chaitya hall, in the shape of a
stylized horse shoe.
chakra wheel or disc.
chart dham four centres of pilgrimage.

chauri flywhisk: fan made with the tail hair of a yark.

chandrahara the necklace worn by the deity made of pearl,
dadhimanthana churning of the milk pot
daksinapath south Indian.
deul general name for a temple as a whole, when used
alone it refers to the sanctum as distinguished from
the jagamohan.
dhvaja flag; finial

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dikpalas : guardians of the eight quarters housed in niches of
the kanika of most later temples. They are Indra
(east); Agni (south-east); Yama (south); Nirritti
(south-west), Varuna (west); Vayu (north-west),
Kubera (north); and Isana (north-east)

dopichha lion : lion with one head and two bodies placed at comers
of architectural elements, particularly in the baranda
recess and in the beki.
dravida : a South Indian temple architecture style with
pyramidal roof and ornate gateway
dvarapala : door guard at the entrance to the shrine, are placed
on either side of the door.
goda : Mace
gaja-kranta ; motif of a lion seated with three legs on the back of
an elephant. The other front paw is held inffont of
the chest ready to strike.
gaja-laksmi : auspicious motif of Laksmi seated on a lotus and
flanked on either side by an elephant bathing her
with water from ajar held in their proboscis.
gaja-virala : a rampant leonine monster with the head of an
elephant triumphantly standing above a crouching
or prostrate demon-warior.
gcmas : host of inferior deities attending on Siva.
gandharvas : celestical musicians.
gandi : “trunk”, curvilinear spire or pyramidal roof above
the bada, sikhara.
garva-griha : innermost chamber, or womb of the simple
containing the image or symbol of the main deity
gavaksa : mullioned window on the north and south centre
projections of the jagamohana. It is usually
rectangular and is filled with screen (fall) work or
lattice on early temples and with balusters on later
temples.

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ghanta bell, bell-shaped member in the mastaka of a pidha
temple.
golaka paradise
gopi female counterpart of Krishna,
guru preceptor

jangha “shin”, vertical portion of the bada, between the

pabhaga and the baranda. On later temples it
generally is divided into two stories by a bandhana.
jagamohana rectangular or square hall infront of the sanctum,
jagrata leonine monster leaping on its hind legs above a
crouching elephant on a demon warrior,
kakapaksa coiffure arranged in three tufts with the side tufts
fanning out like the wings of a crow and hanging
down to the shoulders; generally worn by the
youthful Krishna.
kalasa water jar; crowning element of the mastaka in the
form of a stone vase, figuring as the container of the
nectar of immortality (amrita-kalasa).
kani projecting edge or profile.
kanika-paga comer vertical segment running up the height of the
structure. The niches on later temples house the
dikpalas.
katisutra a thin waist belt.
khadu an ornament worn in the wrist.
khakhara semi-cylindrical member resembling the fruit
kakharu or vaita-kakharu, a variety of pumpkin
gourd.
khakhara-mundi miniature representation of the khakhara temple
carved as a decorative motif on the pAgas, its niche
housing figure motifs.
khura first basic element of the pabhaga, in the form of a
leaf.
kirita-mukuta conical coiffure studded with jewels.
N

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kirtimukha “face of glory”, decorative motif showing the
grinning face of a lion with festoons of pearls
dripping from its mouth.
krishnalila sports of Krishna
kundala ear rings.
lalitasana relaxed pose with one leg pendent while the other is
placed horizontally on the seat beneath the body.
mandapa hall inffont of the main shrine; mukhasala or
jagamohan.
magara crocodile motif.
makara legendary aquatic animal with the head of a
crocodile, a small proboscis and the body of a fish.
makara-torana torana with a makara in each side at the base of the
arch while a kirtimukha is generally at the apex.
mastaka crowning elements above the spire of the gandi.
matha a Hindu monastery.
mohana banshi- magical flute.
mudra symbolic hand gesture.
naga serpent, fabulous creature with a human bust,
serpent tail and a canopy of serpent hoods. Its
female counterpart is nagi.
nagar order of temple with cruciform ground plan and
curvilinear spire.
nama sankirtana- singing of Lord’s name and glory.

nata-mandira festive hall, dance hall.

navagraha planet slab on the architecture of the portal with the
nine planetary representations. According to Hindu
astronomy they are Ravi (Sun), Soma (Moon),
Mangala (Mars), Budha (Mercury), Bruhaspati
(Jupiter), Sukra (Venus), Sani (Saturn), Rabi
(ascending node) and Ketu (descending node).

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%
nava-ratha temple with nine projecting pages (rathas) on each
side.
pabhaga division corresponding to “foot”, a set of lower
most mouldings at the base of the temple,
padapadma foot-frint.
padmasana lotus seat; sitting posture in which the legs are
crossed and the feet brought to rest on the thighs;
yogasana; dhyanasana; vajraparyanka.
paga vertical projecting division of the wall and spire of
the temple; ratha.
pancha-ratha temple with five projecting pages on each side,
panchayatana five shrine complex with small shrines at the four
comers of the compound.
panchasakha five eminent literary personalities in Odia literature,
pancha viras five heroes
parsva-devata devas (deities) connected in doctrine with the main
divinity of the temple, placed in the raha niches of
the deal.
patta flange, plain broad stone band.
pauji the ornament worn by the deity in the ankle.
pidha wooden seat; projecting members constituting the
pyramidal roof of a pidha-deula.
pidha-deul temple with a roof made of pidhas aligned in steps
forming a pyramidal silhouette. This generally
limited to the jagamohan, bhogamandapa and nata
mandira.
pidha-mundi miniature representation of the pidha temple carved
on the pagas as a decorative motif,
potala group ofpidhas.
puranakaras scholars who have compiled the Puranas.
raha centre vertical projection on the deal, much wider
than the other pagas; the parsva devatas are housed
in its niche; bhadra.
ratha vertical projections of the temple; paga; temple car.

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rekha-deul type of temple characterized by a curvilinear spire
which presents the appearance of a continuous
silhouette.
rekha-mundi miniature representation of a rekha temple carved
as a decorative motif. When appearing on the gandi
it is referred to as anga-sikhara.
sakatasura demon Sakata.

sakti “energy”, the supreme power, the creative principle;

the goddess and source of existence. Female
counterpart to the god. A spear wielded primarily
by Karttikeya.
samabhanga to stand straight without any bend to the body.
sankha conch shell, one of the emblems of Vishnu.
sapta ratha temple with seven pagas on each side.
sayana sleeping pose.
sebayat servitor
sikhara spire of the temple; gandi.
sikhadana motif of a guru instructing his disciples or a Raja/
Rani surrounded by ministers and attendants.
silpa sastra Sanskrit manual giving general principles and rules
of architecture and allied arts.
simhadwara lions gate.

simhasana seat with legs carved in the shape of lions.

stambha pillar, column.
sthanaka standing pose.
tanku small projection of various shapes at the edge of
pidhas or mouldings.
tarjani- mudra hand pose in which the extended forefinger points
upward, frequently employed for warning or
scolding.

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tala garbhika decorative motif below the niches of the lower
jangha, inserted into or over the pabhaga
mouldings, generally consists of a mundi which
may be flanked on either side by a naga stambha.
toranaa gateway in the form of an arch spinning from two
pillars; portal; entrance design carved on the slab of
parsva-devatas.
tribhanga standing pose in which the body has three bends,
tri-ratha temple with three pagas on each side,
udyata lion seated on a platform appearing ready to jump;
generally placed on the gandi above the vajra-
mastaka design.
vajra mastaka prominent ornament on the gandi, smaller examples
on other parts of the temple, consisting of caitya-
medallions formed by pearls or ribbons issuing
from a kiritimukha or lotus design at the apex,
vajra-mundi miniature shrine with vajra-mastaka its crowning
element carved as a decorative motif on the pagas
or jambs.
vanamala garland of wood flowers worn by Vishnu.
varada mudra of bestowing boons; the right arm is lowered
and the open palm is turned downward towards the
observer.
vesara a style of temple architecture found in Deccan,
vidyadhara supernatural being who flies in the sky, usually
holding a garland.
vimana sikhara or spire of the temple; sometimes refers to
the whole temple.
vira hero
virala a rampant lion springing on a crouching elephant or
a demonic warrior. It is known as a nara-virala
when it has the head of a man and as gaja-virala
when it has the head of an elephant.
visvapadma double lotus seat with petals pointing up on the top
row and down on the bottom row.

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yajnopavita sacred thread; also upavita.
yaksha a demi-god associated with fertility; yakshi is the
female counterpart,
yugala murti joint worship

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