Nuclei

One atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12th of the mA

ρ=
mass of an atom of 6 C 12 isotope. 4 3
πR
3
1amu = 1.66 × 10 −27 kg 3m
ρ= 3
{R = R A }
0
1/ 3

4πR0
1ev = 1.6 × 10 −19 Joule
7 1 4 4
# Density ρ of nuclear matter is the same for
3 Li + 1 H → 2 He + 2 He all elements.
80 Hg 200 + 1 H 1 → 79 H 197 + 2 He 4 Proton → Z mass number = A
(mercury)( proton)( gold )(α − particle) Electron → Z
Newtron → (A-Z)
Be 9 + 2 He 4 → 6 C 13 + γ − rays Atomic Number → Z
4
Mass number → A
4 Be 9 + 2 He 4 → 6 C 12 + 0 n1
(carbon)(neutron) Number of protons in an atom = Z
1 1 0
0 n + 1 H → −1 B + ν
Number of Electrons in an atom = Z
Number of Nucleons in an atom = A
( proton)(electron)(anti − neutrino)
Number of Neutrons in an atom = A-Z
# The half-life of neutrons has been estimated to Isotopes:-
be 12.8 min. Isotopes of an element are the atoms of the
element which have the same atomic number but
Positron:- different atomic weights.
It is a positively charged particle having a
same mass and charge as (negative) electron.
Ex. 1 H 1 ,1 H 2 ,1 H 3 are isotope of Hydrogen
Thus it is the anti-particle of electron and is also
called “positive electron.” 2 He 3 , 2 He 4 , 2 He 6 are isotope of Helium
C 10 , 6 C 11 , 6 C 12 , 6 C 14 are isotope of
6
Nuclear Size:- Carbon
Volume of a nucleus is proportional to its
mass number A. Isobars:-
4 3 R  A1  
1/ 3
Isobars are the atoms of different elements
⇒ πR ∝ A  1
=    which have the same atomic weight, but different
3  R2  A2  
atomic number.
⇒ R ∝ A1 / 3
1/ 3
Ex. { Na & Ne }
11
22
10
22
{ Ca & Ar }
20
40
18
40

R = R0 A { Cl & S }
17
37
16
37
{ H & He }
1
3
2
3

Where R0 is an emperical constant whose value is {C & N }

6
14
7
14

found to be 1.2 × 10 −15 m

Isotones:-
Nuclear Density:- Isotones are the nuclides which contain
Density of nuclear matter is the ratio of the same number of neutrons.
mass and its volume.
mass Ex. Cl 37 &19 K 39
ρ= mass = mA 17
Volume 1 H 3 & 2 He 4

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Isomers:- B.E. = ∆mc 2
These are the nuclear with same atomic
number and same mass number but existing in
[
= Zm p + ( A − Z )mn − m c 2 J ]
different energy states. B.E. = ∆m × 931MeV
Ex. γ Decay 1amu=931 MeV
Binding Energy per Nucleon:-
Binding Energy:- (1) Average B.E./nucleon for light nuclei
The binding energy may be defined as the 1 2 3
energy required to breakup a nucleus into its 1 H ,1 H ,1 H is small.

constituent protons and neutrons and to separate (2) For mass numbers ranging from 2 to 20, there
them to such a large distance that they may not are sharply defined peaks corresponding to
4 12 16
interact with each other. 2 He , 6 C , 8 O etc. The peaks indicate that
these nuclei are relatively more stable than
Mass Defect:- other nuclei in their neighbourhood.
It is found that the mass of a stable (3) The B.E. curve has a broad maximum in the
nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses range A=30 to A=120 corresponding to
of its constituent protons and neutrons in their average binding energy per nucleon = 8.5
free state. This difference is called mass defect. MeV. The peak value of the maximum is 8.8
[
∆m = Zm p + ( A − Z )m n − m ] MeV/A for 26 Fe 56 .
m p − mass of proton (4) As the mass number increases, the
m n − mass of neutron B.E./nucleon decreases gradually falling to
m − mass of nucleus about 7.6 MeV per nucleon for 92 U 238 . The
decrease may be due to Coulomb repulsion
Packing Fraction:- between the protons. The heavy nuclei are
The P.F. of a nucleus is its mass defect per therefore, relatively less stable.
nucleon or mass number.
Mass Defect
=
Mass Number

∆m
P.F . =
A

Mass Energy Relation:-

Einstein was the first to establish the
equivalence of mass and energy through the
famous relation.
c = 3 × 10 8 m / s E = mc 2

The law of conservation of mass energy:- Nuclear Force:-

“According to this law, the sum of the It is a force which holds the nucleons all
mass-energy of a system of particles is the same, together inside the nucleus. It acts between
before and after an interaction.” proton-proton, neutron-neutron & proton-neutron.
E = mc 2 = m0 c 2 + T * It is the strongest force in nature.
* It is attractive in nature.
m > m0 * It is independent of charge.
Expression for Nuclear Binding Energy:- * It does not follow inverse square law.
We prove that * It is called as short range force. It is operated
∆m = Zm p + ( A − Z )mn − m over very small distance of the order of few
Fermi (10 −15 ) .
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 the half-life of that substance.

Relation between Half-Life and Decay

Constant:-
Let N 0 be the number of atoms present in
a radioactive substance at time t=0 and N the
number at a later time t.
But N = N 0 e − λt
Radioactivity:- N0
= N 0 e −λt1 / 2
“Radioactivity is the property by virtue of 2
which a heavy element disintegrates itself and 1
element is called Radioactive Element.” e −λt1 / 2 =
2
238
92 U → 2 He 4 + 90Th 234 e λt1 / 2
=2
Th 234 →1 B 0 + 91 Pa 234 + v log e 2
90
λt1 / 2 = log e 2 ⇒ t1 / 2 =
(antineutron) λ
“Radioactive decay is a nuclear process, 0.6931
t1 / 2 =
that is the radioactive rays are emitted from the λ
nucleus of the atom.”
Activity of Radioactive substances:-
# Spontaneous disintegration of nucleus. The rate of decay of a radioactive
substance is called the activity (R) of the
Law for Radioactive decay:- substance, i.e.
“The rate of decay of radioactive atoms at dN
any instant is proportional to the number of atoms R=−
dt
present at that instant.” Unit → 1 becquerel (Bq)
dN  dN 
− ∝N But − ∝ N
dt  dt 
dN
dN R=− = λN
− = λN R∝N dt
dt
Where λ is decay constant and has unit (Time )
−1 n
1
N = N0  
dN 2
= −λdt
N
Integrating t = nT
N t
dN
∫ N = λ ∫0 dt
N0

[log e N ]NN 0
= −λ [t ]0
t
Average Life or Mean Life of R.E. (τ ) :-
 N  Average life of radioactive element can be
log e   = −λt
 N0  obtained by calculating the total life time of all the
atoms of the element and dividing it by the total
N = N 0 e − λt number of atoms present initially in the sample of
the element.
Half-Life (T1 / 2 ) :-
Total life time of all the atom
“The time-interval in which the mass of a τ=
Total no. of atoms
radioactive substance, or the number of its atom,
is reduced to half its initial value is called
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 N0
X A → Z +1Y A + −1 e 0 + Q
∫ tdN
Z

0
i.e. τ= Gamma Decay:-
N0
It is the phenomenon
dN of emission of gamma ray
= −λ N but ⇒ N = N 0 e − λt
dt photon from a radioactive
dN = −λ (N 0 e − λt )dt nucleus.
A A
t = 0 N = N0 Z X →Z X +γ
t=∞ N =0
0
1
τ= ∫
N0 ∞
(
t − λN 0 e −λt dt )
− λN 0 0 − λt
N 0 ∞∫
= te dt
Nuclear Fission :- It is the
0 process in which a heavy
 e − λt 0 e − λt 
= −λ t −∫ dt  nucleolus (A > 230) when
 − λ ∞
− λ ∞ excited gets split up into two
0 smaller nuclei of nearly
1
= − ∫ e − λt dt +
λ
[e ]
− λt 0
∞
comparable masses. For
∞ example –
1
=+ [1 − 0] = 1
λ λ
1
τ=
λ
Hence average life of a radioactive element is
reciprocal of the decay constant of the element.
t
τ = 1/ 2
0.6931
τ = 1.44t1 / 2

Alpha Decay:- E2 > E1 > E3

It is the phenomenon of emission of an α- 235
particle from a radioactive nucleus. 92 U + 01n→141 92 1
56 Ba + 36 Kr +30 n + Q
A− 4
A
Z X → Z − 2Y + 2 He 4 + Q

Ex. 92 U 238 → 90Th 234 + 2 He 4

Beta Decay:-
Beta decay is the phenomenon of emission
of an electron from a radioactive nucleus. It is a Nuclear Fusion :- It is the
process in which either a neutron is converted into process of fusion of two
proton or a proton is converted into neutron. smaller nuclei into a heavier
When a neutron is converted into a proton, an nucleus with the liberation of
electron and a new particle named antineutrino are large amount of energy. For
created and emitted from the nucleus. example-
n → p + e− + v 2 2 4
1 H + 1 H → 2 He + 2 MeV
p → n + e+ + v 2
H + 13H → 24 He + n
1

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 Question Bank

Q1. Calculate binding energy of an α-particle The mass number and atomic number of A are
from the following data- 180 and 72 respectively. What are these
Mass of free proton = 1.007825 amu numbers for A4 .
Mass of free neuton = 1.008665 amu Q8. The sequence of decay of radioactive nucleus
Mass of helium neuton= 4.002800 amu is-
1 amu = 931 MeV D α
→ D1  β
→ D2 α
→ D3  α
→ D4
Q2. Calculate the binding energy per nucleus of
40
20 Ca nucleus. Given
If nucleon number and atomic number of
m ( 20 Ca )
40
= 39.962589u D2 are 176 and 71 respectively, what are their
m n = 1.008665u values for D and D4 .
m p = 1.007825u Q9. What is the nuclear radius of Fe125 , if that of
Q3. How long will a radioactive isotope, whose Al 27 is 3.6 fermi.
half life is T years take for its activity to Q10. Calculate the binding energy per nucleus of
reduce to 1/8th of its initial value. 40
nucleus. Given
20 Ca
Q4. Nuclei of a radioactive element A are being
produced at a constant rate α. The element has Mass of 20 Ca 40 = 39.962589 u
a decay constant λ. At time t=0 there are no Mass of proton= 1.007825 u
nuclei of the element. Mass of neutron= 1.008665 u
(a) Calculate the number N of nuclei of A at Q11. The mass of nucleus of 17 Cl 35 is 34.9800
time t. amu. Calculate the average energy required to
(b) If α = 2 N 0 λ , calculate the number of extract a nucleon from the nucleus. Use 1
nuclei of A after one half-life of A, and amu=931.5 MeV. Given mass of proton =
also the limiting value of N as t → ∞ . 1.007825 u, and mass of neutron = 1.008665
Q5. A heavy nucleus X 240 of B.E./A 7.6 MeV is u.
split into fragments Y and Z of mass numbers Q12. A radioactive isotope has a half-life of 5
110 & 130. The B.E./A in Y and Z is 8.5 MeV years. How long will it take the activity to
per nucleon. Calculate the energy Q released reduce to 3.125%?
per fission in MeV. Q13. Half life of a certain radioactive material is
Q6. 100 days. After how much time the undecayed
fraction of material will be 6.25%?
Q14. A radioactive nucleus can decay by two
different processes. The half-life for the first
process is t1 and that for the second process is
t 2 . Show that the effective half life t of the
nucleus is given by –
1 1 1
(a) The energy levels of an atom are shown in = +
t t1 t 2
figure. Which of them will result in the
emission of a photon of wavelength 275 nm.
(b) Which transition corresponds to emission of
radiation of maximum wavelength.
Q7. A radioactive nucleus ‘A’ undergoes a series
of decays according to the following scheme:
α β α γ
A → A1 
→ A2 → A3 
→ A4

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Branches : (1)SI-12, Shastri Nagar (2) D-37/38, Govindpuram, Mob.- 9313964472 5