EVERGREEN COLLEGE OF

EDUCATION
SECONDARY TEACHERS DIPLOMA BY
DISTANCE LEARNING

KNOWLEDGE FOR GROWTH

HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF

EDUCATION
MODULE 3 (2017)

MAKOTA . I . K (MB)
Copyright
©Evergreen College of Education 2017
No part of this module may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval
system, without permission.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
 Definition of philosophy and philosophy of education

 Ancient Greek and Roman Education

 Contemporary Educational Philosophers

 Philosophy of Idealism

 Philosophy of Realism

 Pragmatism in education

 Existentialism in education

 Naturalism in education

 Feminism in education

 Module summary
INTRODUCTION
Philosophy is a search for a general understanding of values and reality by chiefly speculative
rather than observational means. It signifies a natural and necessary urge in human beings to
know themselves and the world in which they live, move, and have their being. Western
philosophy remained more or less true to the etymological meaning of philosophy in being
essentially an intellectual quest for truth.

Philosophy is a comprehensive system of ideas about human nature and the nature of the reality
we live in. It is a guide for living, because the issues it addresses are basic and pervasive,
determining the course we take in life and how we treat other people. Hence we can say that all
the aspects of human life are influenced and governed by the philosophical consideration.

As a field of study philosophy is one of the oldest disciplines. It is considered as a mother of

all the sciences. In fact it is at the root of all knowledge. Education has also drawn its material
from different philosophical bases. Education, like philosophy is also closely related to human
life. Therefore, being an important life activity education is also greatly influenced by
philosophy. Various fields of philosophy like the political philosophy, social philosophy and
economic philosophy have great influence on the various aspects of education like educational
procedures, processes, policies, planning and its implementation, from both the theoretical and
practical aspects.
In order to understand the concept of Philosophy of education it is necessary to first understand
the meaning of the two terms; Philosophy and Education.

Meaning of Philosophy
The word philosophy literally means love of wisdom;It is derived from two Greek words i.e.
'phileo' (love) and 'Sophia' (wisdom) .

Philosophy, it is the study of general and fundamental problems and challenges of life. eg
problems of existence, values, language, mind, reasoning and logic.

The word suggests analytical thinking on issues of life. Additionally, Taneja argues that
philosophy includes a search for a clear understanding of the nature of things as well as an
investigation of what encompass reality. Philosophy calls for intelligible approach to dealing
with life and most of all, carefully reflecting the outlook of various aspects of life such as
education, religion, politics and ethics, to mention but a few.

Meaning of Education
Etymologically, the word education is derived from educare (Latin) "bring up", which is related
to educere "bring out", "bring forth what is within", "bring out potential" and ducere, "to lead".
Education in the largest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind,
character or physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education is the process by
which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills and values from one
generation to another.
Webster defines education as the process of educating or teaching.

Therefore, philosophy of education

1] is the criticism of the general theory of education.
2] It consists of critical evaluation and systematic reflection upon general theories.
3] It is a synthesis of educational facts with educational values.

4] It is the field that examines aims, nature and methods of education, paying attention to
implications of education from the field of philosophy.

 In brief, it is a philosophical process of solving educational problems through

philosophical method, from a philosophical attitude to arrive at philosophical conclusions
and results. Thus, it aims at achieving general as well as comprehensive results.

THE IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION TO A TEACHER.

Going by the brief discussion on what philosophy is all about, it is worth realizing that its
importance in the teaching profession cannot be overemphasized. The subject is very inevitable if
one has to be a successful teacher.

Below is a summary of some of the reasons of philosophy’s importance to the teacher.

 The teacher being an agent of education requires adequate knowledge to be able to

adequately teach the learners. This is only possible if the teacher can develop through
philosophy the desire for knowledge so as to search for that knowledge required of the
learners to gain maturity and full development.
 The teacher would need to be aware of the reality and nature of man if he or she has to
adequately deal with the pupils whose nature and backgrounds are totally different.
 The challenges of working with all sorts of characteristics and environments can be eased
through the subject philosophy.
 The love for knowledge and wisdom would help the teacher continuously search for
knowledge and keep abreast of new developments inevitable in one’s survival.
 Philosophy ultimately should be able to provide insight on values of life that yield
benefits for both individuals and society in general. The teacher will develop the right
attitude and approach to life that would in turn influence the lives of the learners.
 The subject provides some history on education which helps one know where they are
coming from as well as where they are going. At the same time it helps the teacher to
put up logical arguments and analysis on the problems facing the teaching profession.
 Philosophy could help teachers contribute positively to educational policies and most of
all make education worthwhile to the recipients.

.
 BRACHES OF PHILOSOPHY

There are five basic branches of philosophy namely: metaphysics, epistemology, axiology and
logic, political.
Axiology (moral philosophy and Aesthetic)
the branch of philosophical that gives theories about values in terms of what they are and how
they qualify to be values.

It is divide into two parts that is „ethics‟ which studies issues of morals (what is right and what is
wrong) and aesthetics‟ which deals with aspects of science of beauty or value of art.
Metaphysics (Ontology).
Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that investigates principles of reality transcending those
of any particular science). It deals with theories on the nature of man and the world in which he
dwells. It seeks to explore what characterizes man and the whole world around him so as to
understand the various aspects about him. Among other things, metaphysics provides answers
how man is made, his origin and destiny. It also questions the existence of God and possible
ways of proving his existence.

Logic:
This component provides correct way of reasoning: Deductive from main ideas you come up
with one conclusion. Inductive from main ideas you come up many conclusion or (more than
one).

Political philosophy-it’s all about organization how we organize ourselves.

Epistemology
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. It attempts to answer the basic
question: what distinguishes true knowledge from false knowledge? Practically, this question
translates into issues of scientific methodology.

Epistemology. A person is born into the world with the mind as a blank. The
human mind has no innate ideas. The only means of gaining valid knowledge
is direct observation (empiricism) and discursive logical reasoning
(rationalism). Intuition, inspiration, or religious modes of knowledge (faith,
revelation) are invalid because they are incapable of demonstration and
experimental test (logical positivism).

Three (3) sources of knowledge.

1. REVELATION KNOWLEDGE:
This is the characteristic of knowledge in all religion. Especially the revealed religious of
Christianity and Islam through the bible and Quran. some knowledge was revealed to the prophet
to those religion who faithfully recorded it for the mankind and sort to impart its content this
type of knowledge is not open to observation or other empirical test or can it be proven by logic
thinking it just have to be accepted by faith, that is regard as absolutely true. No one has seen
God except probably those prophets to whom he reviewed himself to. But all Christians and
Muslims know for sure that God exist.
2. EMPIRICAL OR SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE:
It is the type of knowledge we obtain through observations of the things around us, through our
sensors, through and through personal experience from actions in which we are involved. It is an
empirical type of knowledge which can be verified for its truth. It is the knowledge where the
student have the ability to observe, explore, formulate hypothesis, and to device a way of
verifying the truth of the hypothesis that is important.
3. RATIONAL KNOWLEDGE:
This is the knowledge we get by reasoning that is not by observation but by inferring new
knowledge from what we know already. And this type of knowledge is mostly used in
mathematics.
REASONING, LOGIC AND EDUCATION

Reasoning-root meaning it comes from the latin word ‘’latio’’ reason, meaning the capacity for
consciously make sense of things and ideas by means of logic.

Logic –(1) studying of the principles of correct reasoning.

(2) system of thought using correct reasoning principles

Root meaning-it comes from the Greek word’’logike’’ which simply means the use of valid
reason (correct/right and appropriate)

Education is about:
Educo--------training
Duco---------lead
Education------breeding
If we are to breed train and lead our pupils they should possess the capacity to make sense of
things consciously and use correct principles of logic.(systematically, scientifically and orderly)
reasoning and logic becomes the essence of education.

GREEK EDUCATION
It is represented by three educational thinkers; Plato, Aristotle, Socrates. Greece was made up of
several small city states (polis), Sparta and Athens among others, were the most famous. The
two, though quite different in their social and education set up, both dependent on slave Labor
and heavily guarded their common Greek ancestry.
THE SPARTAN EDUCATION
According to internet sources, (http://www.crystalinks.com/greekeducation.html)The Spartan
way of life developed as a military state with Permanent military camps. The majority
ofenslaved were hewers of wood and drawers of water. The Social, political and cultural
activities
and education aimed at maintaining the states emperor military power combat readiness The
whole state run like military camp and education was state controlled to produce patriotic
obedient and military efficient citizens. It covered the whole life from birth till old age.

Children were brought up for the state together in barracks from 7 to develop a high sense of
comradeship.Male and female had almost the same education type of emphasizing physical
fitness in order to be of military service to the state. Gymnastic was the main feature emphasized
to an extent where any literary or cultural pursuits in the country were neglected. All subjects
were meant to contribute to their military efficiency e. g military music, drama role playing for
deception and spying on their enemies. Notably, principles of the state controlled the finance of
education. There was equal education for men and women and education was viewed as an
instrument to solve specific problems of society.

THE ATHENIAN EDUCATI ON

Athen was a democratic city where everyone enjoyed the right to vote, being voted into elective
offices, participating in discussion and decision-making in general assembly. The population
comprised about 1000s, small enough to gather in people‟s assembly (agora) to initiate, discuss
or pass legislation not necessary for citizens to be prepared for governance .

The was no state sponsored education to enable them participate with knowledge and intelligence
rather than ignorance. For Athen, an ideal citizen was a versatile man of spirit, many sidedness of
attainment complete self-reliance in limbs and brain as Pericles put it in Akinpelu,(1981).

Anyone could form a school without state regulation or control of what went on in these schools.
However, to some extent, school curriculums were relatively balanced as they included physical
exercise, swimming, music, writing, reading, literature and art.
PLATO (427-348 B.C.)
He was an Athenian and a disciple of father of philosophy, Socrates. He was concerned about
care-free education attitude. Athenian especially that it lacked a special kind of training state
rulers. Plato viewed state administration as a technical matter which like a doctor or lawyer
required a specialist training.

He wrote a book „the Republic‟ in which he proposed an education system derived from a
combination of Spartan, Athenian and a new as well as fully developed political philosophy for
the state. An ideal state for him was a state which had values of social justice and harmony.
Justice to mean responsibilities of citizens owed the state rather than equal sharing of national
cake of provision of every man‟s due. All individuals should be able to contribute to the welfare
of the society through their natural talent and expert training.

He divided the ideal state into three classes, that is: the philosopher kings (intellect) who govern
the society, the guardians (spirited/military) who keep order and defend the society and the
Appetited/economic class/commoners who are the ordinary citizens. The ideal state calls for each
man minding his or her own work, instead of interfering with one‟scapabilities.

There must be division of labour going by the field of expertise required by the state. He
proposed that all children should be reared together for nursery, kindergarten and primary
education after which they would be streamed according to their talents or natural abilities as
demonstrated and observed. Eventually one undergoes specialized education and training to be
fully ready for duties one was talented naturally. This is known as the Principle of
professionalization. Plato further argued as learnt from Socrates “that knowledge is virtue” and
“ignorance is vice”. Virtue entails efficient performance of one‟s duties not the moral
uprightness. e. g virtue of a knife-cut perfectly. Virtue of a doctor-heal.

EDUCATION INNOVATION OF PLATO

 He viewed education as, a strong tool in the reconstruction of the state and social,
political and economic development.
 The state should adopt national ideology of their own conception of the good life.
 National priorities identification should be designed on suitable educational system.
 Secularism in education –state monopolizing educational provision control and
organization minus religious education.
 Emphasized the need for guidance and counseling to be able to decide the excellent
areas
of future occupation and observation of individual special abilities.
 Education process should be seen as, “turning the eye of the soul from the darkness to
light” ignorance to knowledge. Aiding one discover knowledge through one‟s individual
process.
Plato was the first one to divide education into formal levels being used commonly in the
development of the formal school curriculum he assigned them appropriate ages and curricular
contents as follows:
a. Nursery/ kindergarten-3 to 6, playing games
b. Elementary stage-7 to 10, games and sports basic reading ,storytelling about gods of Greek
mythology for moral and spiritual development.
c. Secondary level-11 to 17, a good balance-gymnastics and music, arithmetic, geometry and
solid geometry, literature. Ultimately all these were for development of the soul and guiding
towards true knowledge.
d. Higher education (18+) 20-35, aid abstract reasoning, higher math’s, astronomy dialectic and
philosophy.

He emphasized the need to recognize the environment‟s importance for learning. To be aware
that for the child‟s mind, to be morally upright children needed to be exposed to wholesome
experience, if not, the child will pick what they see.
He also proposed maintenance of a good balance between different parts of the curriculum so as
to produce man „beautiful in body and of good conduct‟ (kalokagathia) (ibid, 1981).
In Plato‟s day‟s different parts/levels of education was offered by different tutors coordinated or
held not in the same area. ‟sophist‟ or‟ itinerant teachers‟ travelled knowledge they were made
to pay to respective subjects they wanted.

ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C)

Aristotle was an Athenian and a disciple of Plato .He is said to have been a great writer and the
best example of ancient philosopher who dwelt on many areas of knowledge (linguistics,
biology, political science literary theory and cosmology, to mention but a few). (Baggins, 2002)
„Politics and Ethics‟ does mostly reveal his education ideas which today have to some extent
influenced most education systems in the world.
According to Akinpelu, (1981), Aristotle argues that, the mind of the child could be associated to
raw clay waiting to be moulded into fully mature adult. At the same time, it is not any different
from any seed which has so much potential within its shell to grow into a full plant if provided
good nourishment. In view of this, Aristotle suggests that education should be able to provide the
child with the realization of the ideal attitude of a full grown happy adult. Happiness, going by
Aristotle‟s „ethical theory‟ as propounded by Pinchin, (2005; 192) is: “supreme good attainable
by action”. It is about one applying his or her highest reasoning or intelligence capacity in
whatever they do, a feature which differentiates human beings from other animals.
EDUCATION IDEAS
The aim of education should be to develop the child into the best adult by promoting their
reasoning ability to the highest level.

Education should also yield wisdom to enable one lead a practical and morally good life coupled
with concern for the welfare of other members of society.

Education should where possible facilitate intellectual and theoretical engagement.

The teacher should act as an agent for molding children’s lives into the ideal and virtuous beings.
The teacher should as much as possible help learners realize their potentials and should
endeavor to give clear instructions as children have impressionable minds which could easily
copy whatever they are exposed to.
As much as possible pupils themselves must be involved actively in the learning process so that
they gain adequate experience.
For any life to be complete, it must have a combination of intellectual or academic and practical
life.

SOCRATES
According to the internet article by the Academy of Evolution Metaphysics 2005, Socrates was
an Athenian known for being controversial with the Greek teachings and beliefs. He lived
between 470 and 399 B.C. Unlike most philosophers, Socrates was not a writer but his teachings
are mostly derived from what other philosophers wrote about him.

He did not believe in one accepting whatever was taught traditionally and by authority
irrespective of its lack of substance. He was against the idea of people assuming that they know
everything by holding on to their beliefs even when they actually do not understand what they
are doing. As a result of his belief, he confronted people in the streets to explain what they
believed in, which attracted and influenced many young people to think likewise. It is from this
that we are told he initiated „dialectic or Socratic‟ method of teaching which encourages use of
questions in order to successfully understand concepts,(Zainab,2005).Socrates was later in his
life condemned to death and accused of among other things; looking
down upon people‟s belief in the Greek gods and corrupting the young ones‟ minds, (ibid2005)

Dialectic method or Socratic method: means continually discovering ideas new replaced old
and so on and so forth until you reach the zenith of truth for that moment which is open to
continuous review.-As humans we should continually explore the deep the of truth and reach
higher levels of truth.
 ¿ summary “ Education∈ Ancient Greece ”∧identify the unique

characteristics ∈education∈ Ancient Greece .

 Each City state had a separate education system.
 Sparta, which was militant and aggressive, put emphasis on physical
education, discipline and self-denial.
 Military training was compulsory for the boys from around the age of
seven.
 The boys were subjected to rigorous training to instill in them
endurance and a strong character.
 Reading and writing were discouraged for the soldiers .
 Girls in Sparta too, had school education but with a specific training. .
 In Athens, girls primarily had domestic education.
 The purpose of education was to produce peaceful but strong citizens
at the same time.
 Boys from poorer families often dropped out formal education.
 Formal education evolved gradually, when learners attached
themselves to specific teachers.
 The State initially left education to the parents, who educated their
children as they saw fit.

ROMAN EDUCATION The development of Roman education is categorized into three phases
based on the three shifts
of political systems (monarchy, the republic and the empire) underwent by the Romans,
(Akinpelu, 1981). The first category is the tradition education era, followed by the Greek culture
introduction and lastly, the assimilation and transformation of the imported system.
Typical of Roman education basically was acquisition of simple practical skills to enable them
gain knowledge in farming especially, then participation in military and other public services. It
was not a legal requirement to educate children, but it was somehow generally accepted that they
be provided knowledge so as to have a future full of happiness and prosperity
(http://www.mmdtkw.org/VRomanEducation.html).

The girls mainly got education in their expected chores like weaving, spinning, cooking and
baby-sitting. For some lucky and privileged, they learnt reading or writing either at home or in
elementary schools.
Higher education with mathematics or rhetoric was not allowed for the girls as it was seen as a
waste of time and money by many Romans.

In the case of boys, education meant reading and writing coupled with law, morality and
physical training. Corporal punishment was expected to be a part of teaching with the aim
dealing with misbehavior and curb against poor performance.
The second phase of education development as propounded by Akinpelu, (1981) was
introduction of the Greek culture having conquered Greece from about mid-way of the third
century B.C.who brought with them books on their civilization and culture. At the same time the
Greek slaves who worked as teachers and mentors for the Roman children facilitated the Greek
literary and intellectual culture among the Romans. During this period gave birth to education on
law and oratory arising from political freedom, the legislature and the active judicial organs of
government.
However, this political and judicial freedom was lost as soon as democratic republic era
collapsed and overtaken by the Empire. Education was then centered on oratory for the purposes
of culture entertainment, debate and intellectual leisure time and to a large extent, for preparation
of civil servants and administrators, (ibid, 1981).

Roman education is mainly represented by the ideas of Quintilian and Cicero who dwelt on a
number of issues that have influenced education systems in the world today.

QUINTILIAN
According to the information on the internet by O‟Neill (2008), Quintilian, a lawyer and teacher
of oratory and rhetoric is estimated to have been born around 35-40 A.D. in Spain in Calagurris
which is now called calahorra. He died in 90 A.D. in Roma, Italy. His father was also an orator
but not as successful as his son,(Soylent Communications,2011).
Quintilian is popular for his book Institutio Oratoria (The Orator‟s Education) which is in
twelve volumes and contains a number of ideas related to today‟s educational matters. Having
been a lawyer Quintilian attached great importance to eloquent speaking and unimpeachable
character,(Akinpelu, 1981).
Additionally, O‟Neill (2008) argued that Quintilian believed that knowledge of all types was
cardinal but most important of all, the skills of speaking, writing and reading.
He also advanced that knowledge was not inborn but could be acquired through education. In
terms of education according to Akinpelu, (1981), he proposed as follows:

 The age of seven or earlier, in the case of pre-school was ideal for a child to start
school, initially being given instruction in form of play.
 Secondary education should run from the age of twelve to fourteen, then training from
about sixteen or seventeen years focusing on rhetoric.
 Learners ought to be motivated by rewarding them for the effort made.
 The teacher must have parental attitude ensuring at the same time that he or she has a
good and honorable behavior.
  He must exercise patience and ensure he or she answers questions freely.
 He discouraged corporal punishment in preference for perhaps counseling.

CICERO
He was born in 106 B.C. and died in 43 B.C. in Italy (Hooker, 1996) He is said to have been a
great Roman orator and statesman who studied Rhetoric, Greek and Latin literature in Rome and
Athens. Later in his life he spent a lot of time writing, philosophical, apart from his orations and
religious essays which influenced a lot of Latin literature. The most important philosophical idea
is that of duties written in Latin official and translated as our obligation to those we have
personal relationships with, (ibid, 1996). His major works in education included Brutus and De
oratore.
Cicero believed in freedom in education as he supported republican government. Introduction,
main body and conclusion were the order he proposed for teaching. Discovery learning and
memorization of material were some of the things he emphasized on.

UNIT SUMMARY:
In this unit an attempt has been made to comprehensively discuss what education entails as well
as examples of informal and formal education systems which is indigenous and western (Roman
and Greek) education respectively.

ACTIVITY
1. Discuss the education ideas propounded by the following and show how they could be
applied in the Zambian education system:
a. Plato

b. Aristotle,

c.Quintilian.
IDEALISM AND EDUCATION

Idealism is a philosophy which is associated with the days of Plato, it dwell`s on Plato’s
suggestion that “man`s knowledge was a recollection of ideas known by the soul in the perfect
world of ideas before being buried in the human body”.

The philosophy claims that whatever is the existence is as the result of the mind and its working.
It upholds the mind or the spiritual element in man and has such the personality of man is
nothing but the spiritual self which sometimes is looked at in terms of intelligence and reasoning
capacity of human being.

Idealism believes that all the existence in the universe simply expresses what is in the mind
because the mind initiates everything as a matter of facts the mind of an individual is part of the
universe and sometimes is associated with God.

In terms of values or axiology; idealism, true values are derived from God accept for survival
values e.g food, shelter, clothing and security etc.

Idealism puts that knowledge is nothing but that which is known by the mind and pronounced by
before it exists.

Contribution of Idealism to Education

 Idealism has had great influence in education. Study in the arts reveal a bit of ultimate
reality and promotes the quality of life as no other area can.
 It draws attention to truths that do not change; through religious study, idealism can bring a
meaning to existence on Earth that remains permanent.
 It addresses the reality of intangible things that are experienced but cannot be seen, such as,
love, trust, hope and faith.
 Education should be a process of development of a person or an individual, the conscious
and the spiritual self.
 To ensure that individual enlarge personality; education is increased through knowledge
and skill.
 The school should provide an appropriate atmosphere for attaining personal growth.
 To equip an individual with suitable skills so as to contribute to community welfare.
 To develop the various capacities of the mind e.g the intelligence, aesthetic skills, spiritual
and immoralities so as to be rear the nature of Godliness.
  The curriculum should emphasize subjects that improves one`s intelligence and
understanding and subjects should go beyond vocational and economical gain to improving
one`s spiritual or morality of an individual.
 The curriculum should include four basic skill namely language for communication,
scientific skills for surviving. Physically, normative skills for both moral conducts and
proper relationship with other`s and God.
I. Language skills for communication and cultural heritage.
II. Scientific skills for surviving physically.
III. Normative skills for both moral conducts and proper relationship with others and
God.
IV. Aesthetic skills for appreciation of our literature and art.
 The other thing idealism emphasizes on is that the teacher and the pupils are important,
pupils should be regarded as individual because they have different personalities.
 The teacher needs to help develop the pupils from immaturity to maturity. The teacher is
important because he/she has just knowledge.
Teaching methods
 Self-learning and positive influence by the teacher.
 Socratic or dialectic method, question and answer.
 Project method
 Lecture method

Idealism concludes by referring to the bible, “What does it profit a man if he should gain the
whole world and loses his own soul”. Matthew 16 : 26.
REALISM AN D EDUCATION

Realism is a philosophy which is associated with Aristotle`s days. It’s a philosophy that believes
that “the objects we see exists and will always exist even if we don’t get to know them”.

There are three principles that realism puts across.

 The principle of independence of matter: the objects / matter we see is not as the result
of mind. Matter / objects exists independently.
 The world gives every evidence that there is some orderliness behind its organisation.
The universe is organised in an orderly way if at all there`s chaos, then man is behind it.
 What science reveals to us is real, the revelations made by science are real and should
be respected. The world is real and the basic principles discovered by science prove that
the world has always existed and it is possible to have objective knowledge of it.

Principles of education according to realism

 Education should enable an individual to know the truth, as it is.

 Education should help to develop habits of searching for the truth, grasp it, enjoy
it and use it in the daily life.
 Education should transmit culture from generation to generation.
 Education must include literacy and numerous (numbers).
o Gutek（１９９７）argues that Realism,s educational goals are as follows：
１. Cultivate human rationality, the human,s highest power, through the study of
organized bodies of knowledge；and
２. Encourage human beings to define themselves by framing their choices rationally,
to realize themselves by exercising their potentiality for excellence to the fullest, and
to integrate themselves by ordering the various roles and claims of life according to
a rational and hierarchical order.

I believe that many teachers support the philosophy of realism. In particular, the Realist
curriculum is highly valued in the field of present educational systems. In order to teach
 students effectively, overall curriculum is very important. Children,s abilities to learn are
varied depending on many factors.

The developmental stages are among them. Sprinthall et al.（１９９８, p.３２）argue that“. qualitative
differences in the child,s cognitive style and level develop over time.As the child,s cognitive
base broadens and matures, higher and more abstract levels of thought processing typically
become the rule.”From this viewpoint, teachers must offer adequate teaching materials to our
students based on their developmental levels. One of the two basic components of the
subjectmatter curriculum in Realism is “the appropriate pedagogical ordering of the subject
matter according to the readiness, maturation, and previous learning of the student.

”（Gutek １９９７：p. ４３） This line of thinking corresponds to the concepts of cognitive growth.
Cognitive theorists believe that “By understanding how and when cognitive systems develop, we
can avoid, on the one hand, teaching children something before they are ready to learn it and, on
the other hand, missing a golden opportunity by waiting to well past the most sensitive moment

PRAGMATISM AND EDUCTION

The philosophy of pragmatism is also referred to as instrumentalism, empiricism, and

experimentalism. The word pragmatism is derived from a Greek word which means the same as
action. The phrase according to taneje(1990)Pragmatism is a combination of two words
“practical” and “practice”.which implies that it is built on the principle of taking action in every
attempt to solve problems.

Pragmatism emanates from American philosopher,Charles Peirce(1839-1914) William

james(1842-1910) and john Dewey(1859-1952) which primarily holds the view that truth lies in
verification of ideas and not in a particular prescription by a one particular source.

At the same time pragmatists dwells on the theme of thought and action as the two things on
which educative experience in life depend.Action is said to be more important than thought but
thought is an instrument to finding suitable ways for action.

The philosophy of pragmatism was influenced by two major factors. The first factor; Darwin’s
biological theoy of evolution. This theory discusses that man gradually evolves through natural
process of development from the simplest cell to the complex structure that he now possess, man
through his intellence will continuously come up with ways and means of improving his ability
in order to survive. It is for this reason that Dewey draws his conclusion that man is capable of
infinitely progressing through education.

The philosophy of pragmatism describes man in terms of his experience (wants, interests,
desires, and needs). Because of these a person sets out goals (according to our desires, wants
etc).

Man always should come up with objectives in order for him to come up with ways to meet his
goals, it also argues that man is a social being (cannot live as an island) and as a social being you
need to live in harmony with others, and it acknowledges that man`s problems are as a result of
him interacting with the environment.

The philosophy does not encourage people to be passive when they have problems but it
encourages people to take actions.

Dewey above all believes that education should facilitate the ability to solve problems. There are
four steps that should be followed in problem solving:

1. Identifying the problem: one should be able to acknowledge there is a problem and needs
to find the solution.
2. Formation of the hypothesis: studying the causes of the identified problem. It involves
making possible solutions and outcomes.
3. Collection of data: collecting of suitable information which will help you to come up
with solutions.
4. Testing of hypothesis: you try out the ideas if the ideas will work out.

At the end of these steps, man will have accumulated a unit of knowledge which could be
recalled and applied on similar problems in future.

Pragmatism further argue that truth is a tested, verified and found effective in solving
problems as opposed to being some hidden quality that waits to be discovered in some
external truth, truth is any idea that works and is useful.it is also that opinion which people
hold which has been investigated by competent people and found to be correct.

Pragmatism application on education

  Pragmatism believe that the school should be an extension of a home and the curriculum
should contain what is taught at home.
 There should be teaching method based on pupils interaction rather than teacher been the
centre of learning.
 The teacher should not have assumed to have a lot of authority that lead to instil fear.
 Pragmatism also said that the school is simply a specific agency that has been set by
society to facilitate the acquisition by the child. It should make the process of learning
more economical, faster, and through the child from their environment but ensure child
gets equipped with the intelligence that will reform the society.
 All subjects should promote child centeredness. (Learning by doing).
 The teacher should be aware of psychological development needs, interest etc, of the
learners.
 Learners should be forced to consult the teacher whenever it is necessary.
 The school should help learners to group living or to be co-operative activity since it is a
society / community.
 Education should develop someone the ability to solve problems.
 Experience should be the major source of knowledge.
 The learning should focus on helping others cope with their individual life.

EXISTENTIALISM
Is belief or an ideology or faith or doctrine or a philosophy or a theory about existence,
especially of an individual human being?

In terms of education Existentialism, it is a philosophy which focuses on the uniqueness of an

individual (a human being) and individual experience (life experience) in a hostile environment
and word.

Uniqueness of an individual:

 Behaviour
 Colour skin
 Height,
 culture,
 background,
 heredity
 personalities.

In terms of background. Existentialism it also referred to as humanism is a philosophy deeply

rooted in the European thinkers: was coined by French man Gabriel machel ,. friedrick
Nietzsche(1811-1900),the founder Soren kiekgard.he was Darrish philosopher(1813-53) and jean
paul Sartre(1905-1980).

The word is connected to the existence. We all come to be, we need to depend on ourselves.
Meaning learn to exist as an individual.

According to Akinepelu(1981).Existentialism is a philosophy of existence which generally

condemns the ideal of labelling or generalizing people, Instead believes in individualism where
one has to find one’s own ways as opposed to a specific defined way of life for all.(meaning
finding your own way out of a situation).it dwells on man as a living person with individual
charateristics and most of all in at liberty to decide what he wants to do or be.
One advocate of existentialism Jean-Paul Sartre presented that “man is nothing else but what he
makes of himself”.one is regarded to have personal concrete experiences by virtue of their own
thinking feeling and action wherever they exist.
Existentialist has however alluded to the fact that there are factors that hinder one from
becoming what one wants. These factors can come from, cultural, economic, social and political
factors. Even though there these factors the existentialist said that the factors can be avoided and
that the factors should not over ride one`s choice. There are three ways that the existentialists
present which people can use in order to avoid factors that can hinder them being what they want
to be:

1. Obstacles can be treated as realities of life and suitable step can be found to overcome
them.
2. Run away from them / avoid whatever is hindering you from living in that particular
society.
3. Decide to go along with an oppressive conditions.

Existentialists presents that man has a free choice and therefore, he/she must bear full
responsibility of the choices made.
Existentialist do not encourage putting the blame on someone, God, Society or destiny. They
present that one must not escape the choices made, if he does so he will be guilty of bad faith.
Maxine Greene an existentialist stated that man is “an open possibility”. This means that man is
in the process of becoming and has the potential to become what he wants to be. Once an
individual has decided what he wants to be it is up to him to take the necessary action that will
enable him achieve what he desires. In the existentialists epistemology the best source of
knowledge is experience. They emphases personal experience which provides personal
knowledge in which someone is emotionally and passionately involved. Personal experience
cannot be duplicated or initiated. Personal experience cannot be satisfactorily explained to
another person. In terms of outside knowledge the existentialist advanced that the best sources
are sch

+ool subjects. A person should acquire this knowledge as he is the one to process it, interpret it,
and assimilate it, the existentialist emphasises that a person has the best task to make the
acquisition of the knowledge from the outside sources part of him by being involved
intellectually and emotionally.
Values and existentialists: existentialist believes that values are best judged by man himself
because they are personal and subjective. Existentialist also believe that even if someone goes to
seek advice on a particular issue the ultimate action taken is personal and cannot blame the
adviser or claim that they went by the decision of the majority. It is wrong to go by the principle
of the majority opinion. The existentialists encourage people to take a personal stance without
fearing that they will lose popularity.

Educational ideas of existentialism

 The aim of education according to existentialists is to help develop the ability of an

individual to decide correctly and adjust and integrate oneself into the individual’s
environment.
 Education should also help to develop one`s initiative, so as to be able to search for and
discover oneself in addition to cultivating self-reliance.
 Existentialist say that the curriculum should be made up of what is available in one’s
cultural environment and should be well taught. Subjects should include social sciences
e.g geography, civic education, because they provide knowledge on how people behave
or how people relate to each in society. Sciences and technology should be studied as
well because they will enable one to survive the technological age.
 Existentialists encourage the use of Socratic Method in addition to role play and drama
because these methods encourage dialogue and enables the learners to imagine role being
played.
 Existentialists also say that assessment must be carefully undertaken by the teacher so as
to determine (gage) the amount of learning taking place and not to discourage the child
by condemning him / her when he does not reach the expected level of performance. The
teacher should ensure that he guards against making the children feel as if they are not
capable of doing anything worthwhile at all.

Roles of the teacher

 Students must believe in themselves- help your students to believe in themselves.

 Help them to understand that they can triumph over what holds them back.
 Help them respect the life experience of others.
  Be mindful of that which lowers the confidence of students or pupils ie word and deed.
 Identify congenital and biological problems of your pupils and help.
 Develop skills and talents of your pupils by exposing them to the society eg having field
trips.
 According to existentialism, a teacher must be a counsellor and a guide. He must make
learners independent so that they are able to act on their own while accepting full
responsibility of the decision that they make.
 The teacher must also provide room for freedom of opinion and encourage discussion.
 The teacher should be careful, uninstil fear in the pupils for wrong answers, he should
instead provide a positive source of knowledge.
 The teacher should be involved personally in the lives of the learners. He should share
their joy, sorrows, hopes, and aspirations and love and respect the pupils as individuals.
 The teacher should be committed to the pupils to discover themselves successfully and
achieve self-reliance in order to become autonomous individuals.
 The teacher must also view pupils as open possibility and therefore, help them to know
who they are and what they can achieve.

NATURALISM IN EDUCATION.

The theory of naturalism according to Akinpelu,(1981),suggest that “nature must be the ultimate
drive in determining the education of the child.”. The naturalists argue that a child`s education
must be related to the personal experiences, the interests expressed and the capacity observed. A
child`s development, most important of all, should be given chance to follow its own internal and
unchanging law of growth.

Among the major proponent of naturalism are: Rousseau, Comenius, Locke, Fichte and Karnt.
Naturalists have also argued that man is not born evil and that values and truths are created by
the needs of life while a person interact or react to the environment (there are therefore no
established values or truths).

NATURALIST THEORIES OF EDUCATION

 There are different schools of naturalism and each of them present its own aims of
education. According to the school of naturalism which associates human being to a
machine, the aim of education should be to yield maximum efficiency in a person like a
good machine ensuring attendance to its construction while at the same time elaborating
it and making it able to even perform more complicated tasks. This school of naturalism
further presents that education should create in someone the capacity to handle issues
effectively like a good machine does in its particular field.
 Another school of naturalism on the other hand present that the aim of education should
be to redirect and co-ordinate instincts in such a way that one is able to achieve those
goals which have individual and social values.
 On the other hand, another school of naturalism argues that education should be able to
equip the individual for struggle, existence, and thus ensure his her survival. Education
should be able to provide skills and knowledge that would help one copes with their daily
life.
 Furthermore, in certain other circle of naturalism, it proposed that education must be
designed within the content of an individual to allow adjustment within one`s
environment so as to be in harmony and to live happily within their own environment.
in a nutshell whatever the various schools propose in terms of the aims of education,
ultimately, naturalist generally believer that education should is a process of developing a
child into joyous, rational, balanced, harmonious, useful and natural child. However, at
all cost care must be taken to avoid pupils being detach to self-assertion, having no
respect for authority bragging own personality and not concerned about the welfare of
others.
 Subjects should include science, mathematics, language and history, all these help the
learners to explore their environment and giving an insight of the genesis and future.
History is seen to be equally important in provide moral of history in order to help bring
in new social order and planning for the future.
 However naturalist do not encourage the teaching about God or religion as this is seen to
be unnatural for most children and do not provide room for reasoning. Classical music or
painting subjects are also discouraged. Apart from that naturalism discourages the
bookish or traditional type of education as it hinders the natural development of the
 learner. Instead, naturalism calls for direct experience with nature, things and men being
the key notes to instruction ,as much as possible, learning must take place through
exposure to situations and experience such as observation and experimentation is
encouraged because it facilitates child`s centeredness rather than the teacher talking and
writing through.
 The teacher is also encouraged to allow children play because it helps them learn freely
and fully expression.
 It is expected that at the end of the day education should facilitate a child`s integrated
growth through firstly, recognizing the needs of child and full exploitation of his or her
driving force. Most of all, each and every child must be given the liberty to develop at
individual pace and by their own nature.

NATURALISM AND DISCIPLINE

According to naturalism, discipline is an issue that must instilled in a child by natural

consequences where a child somehow tends to discover individually the repercussion of their
behaviour as they will be more likely able to avoid the act the following time.
Naturalist believes that each child must enjoy individual freedom, but not social freedom in order
to avoid violating other people’s rights. This suggests that only what affect the child himself or
herself alone that must be allowed but what affects the rest of the school must be done as the
rules permit.

NATURALISM AND THE TEACHER

 The teacher should help the learners to discover skills and knowledge needed in their life
and not to interfere with their life unnecessary. He should have a positive attitude of love
and approval coupled with a sense of humour. A child should be to develop freely
individual interests rather than the artificial effects made by teacher on them.
 A teacher should take time to prepare a conducive learning environment by proving
materials that enable natural development. The materials should feat the learners
development as well as in their interest and characteristics.
FEMINISM IN EDUCATION

Feminism according to Bartlett and Burton (2007) is built on the idea that women are more
disadvantaged in society than men by virtue of their gender and as such philosophy seeks to
investigate, evaluate and outline these disadvantages with a view to providing a solution, create a
change and in turn improve the relationship that exists between men and women.

The philosophy of feminism encourages us to question the view that people are obliged to adopt
certain narrow social roles. It is about awareness, about getting in touch with ourselves and about
touching life

Feminism tells us that we are creatures in the shape of men and women but deeply mysterious to
each other and ourselves. The philosophy talks to both men and women within its struggle, it
takes us beyond its boundaries.

In western feminism can be divided into the following broad categories

 A first wave feminism: emphasize women’s social and political rights. Mary
Wollstonecraft spearheaded it in her book the vindication of the rights of women.
 Second wave feminism: examines the questions of male domination over women.
 Third wave Feminism: is sometimes merged with the second wave. This is more radically
anti men and men and it’s sometimes called gender apartheid.

Taylor (1995) identifies four main sub-categories of feminism groups: Liberal, Radical, Marxist
and Black feminists.

Liberal Feminists-the groups is of the view that it is possible for society to be reformed and
equality in terms of opportunities with the help of peaceful protest and campaign. They are
guided by democratic political process and education of the process and education of the people
to facilitate change. They strongly believe that this strategy has been successful in attaining
social and economic reforms which since Victorian times has changed the position of women
leading to, for instance, education provision equality and better opportunities for employment.

Radical Feminism

This group holds the view that change does not lie in liberal reform but in the actual ideas, values
and beliefs systems where society is characterized by dominion of men on women, a system
referred to us ‘ patriarchy’.
Radical feminists argue that women ought to be detached from men so that women can become
independent. This type of feminism remains anti men and it is linked to second and third wave
feminism.

Marxist and socialism feminism

These feminist believes that the fundamental problem is gross in equality brought about by
global capitalism. Women are subject to male rule and arbitrary dictates of the market place, a
double oppression.

Black feminist--these stress the oppression arising from ethnic and gender relationship leading
to unequal relationships with black and white men as well as white women.

In view of this, Zambians through SADC and other international originations have seen the need
to uphold the rights of women. This has given birth several organizations working towards
promoting girls in schools bearing in mind the many challenges facing women.

Women themselves have formed organizations such as NGOCC, FAWEZA, etc to help address
their concerns

THE ROLE OF FEMINISM IN EDUCATION

Feminism is worth discussing in education circles to help bring awareness on the fact that both
men and women have great potential to contribute to national development by virtue of their
respective talent which has nothing, if any to do with their sex.

At the same time the philosophy could enable women command equal respect as men in society
as they are as human as men. The philosophy also encourages the element of corporation
between men and women so as to facilitate a conducive environment for everyone’s welfare.

In schools feminism would allow maximum participation from both sexes to realize individual
potentialities.
Summary of the module
The module has attempted to give you more reflections on philosophical issues that go a long
way in influencing your profession as teacher.it is hoped that you will take time to ponder on
these matters, not only for examination preparation, but for life as a teacher. You are wished
great success in your final touches to becoming a secondary school Teacher in Zambia.

Most of all, it is hoped that all that you have learnt in history and philosophy of education will
enable you articulate successfully issues of education and help you make maximum and
worthwhile contribution to education wherever you go
REFERENCES
Akinpelu, J.A. (1981). An Introduction to Philosophy of Education. Oxford:
Macmillan
Calderhead, J.and Shorrock, S.B. (1997) Understanding Teacher Education: Case
Studies in The
Professional Development of Beginning Teachers. Washington: The Falmer Press
Copleston, F.S.J.( 1993)A History of Philosophy: Greece and Rome. New York:
Image Books Doubleday.
Curzon, L.B.(1997) Teaching in Further Education: An Outline of Principles and
Practice. 5th ed
New York: Continuum

O’Neill, P. (2008) http://www.newfoundations.com/GALLERY/Quintilian.html

Pinchin, C. (2005) Issues in Philosophy: An Introduction. 2nd ed.London: Palgrave
Macmillan.