CHAPTER 4

ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

4.1 Introduction

Voltmeters constructed of moving–coil instruments and multiplier resistors have some

important limitations. They cannot measure very low voltages, and their resistance
is too low for measurements in high–impedance circuits. These restrictions are over-
come by the use of electronic circuits that offer high input resistance, and which
amplify low voltages to measurable levels.

4.2 Transistor Voltmeter Circuits

An emitter follower offers a high input resistance to voltages being measured, and
provides a low output resistance to drive current through the coil of a deflection
meter. The basic emitter follower voltmeter circuit is illustrated in Fig. 4.1.
The transistor base current in Fig. 4.1 is lower than the meter current.
IE
IB = (4.1)
hF E
where hF E is the transistor current gain. Thus, the circuit input resistance is
Measurements and Instrumentation, First Edition. 53
By Osama A. Alkishriwo Copyright c 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
54 ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

Figure 4.1 Basic emitter follower voltmeter circuit.

E
Ri = (4.2)
IB

which is much larger than the meter circuit resistance (Rs + Rm ).

Example 4-1
The simple emitter follower voltmeter circuit in Fig. 4.1 has VCC = 20 V ,
Rs + Rm = 9.3 kΩ, Im = 1 mA at full scale. and transistor hF E = 100.

(a) Calculate the meter current when E = 10 V .

(b) Determine the voltmeter input resistance with and without transistor.

Solution

(a)

VE = E − VBE = 10 V − 0.7 V
= 9.3 V
VE 9.3 V
Im = =
Rs + Rm 9.3 kΩ
= 1 mA
 TRANSISTOR VOLTMETER CIRCUITS 55

(b) With the transistor,

Im 1 mA
IB = =
hF E 100
= 10 µA
E 10 V
Ri = =
IB 10 µA
= 1 MΩ
Without the transistor,
Ri = Rs + Rm = 9.3 kΩ
The transistor base emitter voltage drop (VBE ) introduces an error in the simple
emitter follower voltmeter.The error can be eliminated by using a potential divider
and an additional emitter follower, as illustrated in Fig. 4.2.
The practical emitter follower circuit in Fig. 4.2 uses a plus and minus , or dual
polarity supply (typically ±12 V ). Transistor Q1 has its base biased to ground via
resistor R1 , and a potential divider (R4 , R5 , and R6 ) provides an adjustable voltage
(Vp ) to the base of transistor Q2 . Resistors R2 and R3 connect the transistor emitter
terminals to the negative supply voltqe (−VEE ), and the meter circuit is connected
between the transistor emitters. The circuit input resistance is R1 in parallel with the
input resistance at the transistor base.

Figure 4.2 Practical emitter follower voltmeter circuit.

When no input voltage is applied (E = 0 V ), the base voltage of Q2 is adjusted

to give zero meter current. This makes Vp = 0 V , VE1 = VE2 = −0.7 V , and (meter
circuit voltage) V = 0 V . Now suppose that a 5 V input is applied to the Q1 base.
The meter voltage is
V = VE1 − VE2
= (E − VBE1 ) − VE2
= (5 V − 0.7 V ) + 0.7 V
= 5V
56 ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

Example 4-2
An emitter follower voltmeter circuit such as that in Fig. 4.2 has R2 = R3 =
3.9 kΩ and VCC = ±12 V .

(a) Determine I2 and I3 when E = 0 V .

(b) Calculate the meter circuit voltage when E = 1 V and when E = 0.5 V .

Solution

(a)

VR2 = VR3 = 0 − VBE + VEE

= 0 V − 0.7 V + 12 V
= 11.3 V
VR2 11.3 V
I2 = I3 = =
R2 3.9 kΩ
= 2.9 mA

(b) When E = 1 V

VE1 = E − VBE = 1 V − 0.7 V

= 0.3 V
VE2 = Vp − VBE = 0 V − 0.7 V
= −0.7 V
V = VE1 − VE2 = 0.3 V − (−0.7 V )
= 1V

When E = 0.5 V ,

VE1 = E − VBE = 0.5 V − 0.7 V

= −0.2 V
VE2 = Vp − VBE = 0 V − 0.7 V
= −0.7 V
V = VE1 − VE2 = −0.2 V − (−0.7 V )
= 0.5 V
 TRANSISTOR VOLTMETER CIRCUITS 57

4.2.1 Ground Terminals and Floating Power Supplies

The circuit in Fig. 4.2 shows the input voltage E as being measured with respect to
ground. However, this may not always be convenient. For example, suppose that the
voltage across resistor Rb in Fig. 4.3(a) were to be measured by a voltmeter with its
negative terminals grounded. The voltmeter ground would short–circuit resistor Re
and seriously affect the voltage and current conditions in the resistor circuit.
For the circuit in Fig. 4.2 to function correctly, the lower end of R1 must be at
zero volts with respect to +VCC and −VEE The + and − supply voltage may be
derived from two batteries [Fig. 4.3(b)] or from two dc power supply circuits [Fig.
4.3(c)]. In both cases, the negative terminal of the positive supply is connected to
the positive terminal of the negative supply and this terminal is called the common
terminal. In electronic voltmeter circuits, the common terminal is not grounded.
When this terminal left without grounded, the voltmeter supply voltages are said
to be floating. An inverted triangular symbol is employed to identify the common
terminal or zero voltage terminal in a circuit.

(a) A voltmeter with one of its terminals grounded. (b) ± supply using batteries.

(c) ± supply using power supplies.

Figure 4.3 Serious measurement errors can result when a grounded voltmeter terminal is
incorrectly connected to a circuit.
58 ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

4.2.2 FET-Input Voltmeter

The use of a FET source follower (Q3 ), as illustrated in Fig. 4.4 gives a higher input
resistance than can be achieved with a bipolar transistor.

Figure 4.4 Practical emitter follower voltmeter circuit.

Consider the voltage levels in the circuit of Fig. 4.4. When E = 0 V , the FET
gate is at the zero voltage level. But the gate of an n-channel FET must always be
negative with respect to its source terminal. This is the same as stating that the source
must be positive with respect to the gate. If VGS is to be −5 V , and EG = 0 V , the
source terminal voltage must be +5V . This means that the base terminal of Q1 is at
+5 V , and, since Q2 base voltage must be equal to Q1 base voltage, Q2 base must
also be at +5 V . As in the circuit of Fig. 4.2, R5 in Fig. 4.4 is used to zero the meter
when the input voltage is 0 V .

Example 4-3
Determine the meter reading for the circuit in Fig. 4.4 when E = 7.5 V and
the meter is set to its 10 V range. The FET gate–source voltage is −5 V ,
VP = +5 V , Rs + Rm = 1 kΩ, and Im = 1 mA at full scale.

Solution
On the 10 V range
 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER VOLTMETER CIRCUITS 59

Rc + Rd
EG = E
Ra + Rb + Rc + Rd
60 kΩ + 40 kΩ
= 7.5 V ×
800 kΩ + 100 kΩ + 60 kΩ + 40 kΩ
= 0.75 V
Vs = EG − VGS = 0.75 V − (−5 V )
= 5.75 V
VE1 = Vs − VBE = 5.75 V − 0.7 V = 5.05 V
VE2 = Vp − VBE = 5 V − 0.7 V
= 4.3 V
V = VE1 − VE2 = 5.05 V − 4.3 V
= 0.75 V
V 0.75 V
Im = =
Rm + Rs 1 kΩ
= 0.75 mA

4.2.3 Difference Amplifier Voltmeter

When a small positive voltage is applied to the base of Q1 in Fig. 4.5, the current
through Q1 is increased, and that through Q2 is decreased. An increase in IC1 causes
IC1 RL1 to increase and thus produces a fall in voltage VC1 . Similarly, a decrease
in IC2 produces a rise in VC2 . The consequence of this is that the voltage across
the meter circuit increases positively at the right–hand side and negatively at the left.
This meter voltage (V ) is directly proportional to the input voltage (E).

4.3 Operational Amplifier Voltmeter Circuits

The operational amplifier voltage–follower voltmeter is comparable to the simple

emitter–follower circuit. However, unlike the emitter-follower, there is no base emit-
ter voltage drop from input to output. The voltage-follower also has a much higher
input resistance and lower output resistance than the emitter–follower. The voltage
follower input (EB ) is applied to the op–amp noninverting input terminal, and the
feedback from the output goes to the inverting input. The very high internal volt-
age gain of the operational amplifier, combined with the negative feedback, tends to
keep the inverting terminal voltage exactly equal to that at the noninverting terminal.
Thus, the output voltage (V ) exactly follows the input.

4.3.1 Op–Amp Amplifier Voltmeter

Figure 4.6 shows a suitable op–amp voltmeter circuit. Input voltage E is applied to
the op–amp noninverting input, the output voltage is divided across resistors R3 and
60 ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

(a) Voltmeter circuit. (b) Zero control.

Figure 4.5 A difference amplifier voltmeter.

R4 , and VR3 is fed back to the op–amp inverting input terminal. The internal voltage
gain of the op–amp causes VR3 to always equal E. Consequently, the output voltage
is
R3 + R4
Vo = E (4.3)
R3
The circuit is known as a noninverting amplifier, because its output is positive when
a positive input voltage is applied, and negative when the input is a negative quantity.

Figure 4.6 An operational amplifier noninverting amplifier.

 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER VOLTMETER CIRCUITS 61

An op–amp noninverting amplifier voltmeter is very easily designed. Current I4

through R3 and R4 is first selected very much larger than the op–amp input bias
current (IB ). Then the resistors are calculated as

E Vo − E
R3 = and R4 =
I4 I4

Example 4-4
An op–amp voltmeter circuit as in Fig. 4.6 is required to measure a maximum
input of 20 mV . The op–amp input current is 0.2 µA and the meter circuit has
Im = 100 µA FSD and Rm = 10 kΩ. Determine suitable resistance values for
R3 and R4 .

Solution

I4 >> IB
choose, I4 = 100 × 0.2µA
= 20µA
At full scale, Vo = Im × Rm = 100µA × 10kΩ = 1V
E 20 mV
R3 = = = 1 kΩ
I4 20 µA
Vo − E 1 V − 20 mV
R4 = = = 49 kΩ
I4 20 µA

4.3.2 Voltage-to-Current Converter

The circuit shown in Fig. 4.7 is essentially a noninverting amplifier. However, in-
stead of connecting the meter between the op–amp output and ground, it is substi-
tuted in place of resistor R4 . The meter current is

Figure 4.7 Voltmeter circuit using an op–amp voltage–to–current converter.

62 ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

E
Im = IR3 = (4.4)
R3
Example 4-5
Calculate the value of R3 for the circuit in Fig. 4.7 if E = 1 V is to give
FSD on the meter. The moving coil meter has Im = 1 mA at full scale and
Rm = 100 Ω. Also determine the maximum voltage at the operational amplifier
output terminal.
Solution

E 1V
R3 = = = 1 kΩ
Im 1 mA
Vo = Im (R3 + Rm )
= 1 mA(1 kΩ + 100 Ω)
= 1.1 V

4.4 Linear Ohmmeter

In the circuit of Fig. 4.8, transistor Q1 together with resistors R1 , R2 and RE oper-
ates as a constant current circuit. Resistors R1 and R2 potentially divide the supply
voltage to give 5.7 V across R1 . When applied to the base of pnp transistor Q1 , this
gives 5.7 V − VBE = 5 V across resistor RE . So the current IE is 5V /RE , and this
is a constant quantity. Since Ic ' IE , the collector current is also a constant quantity.
This constant current is passed through the unknown resistance Rx and the voltage
across Rx is measured by the voltmeter. The voltmeter scale can now be multiplied
by an appropriate factor and used directly as a resistance scale

Figure 4.8 Linear ohmmeter circuit.

 AC ELECTRONIC VOLTMETERS 63

4.5 AC Electronic Voltmeters

The difference between the nonelectronic instrument and the electronic ac voltmeter
circuit in Fig. 4.9(a) is, of course, that the electronic instrument has a very high input
impedance. Note the coupling capacitor (C1 ) in Fig. 4.9(a). This is usually provided
at the input of an ac voltmeter to block unwanted dc voltages.
To avoid the errors due to the voltage drop (VF ) across the rectifier, the voltage
follower feedback connection to the inverting terminal is taken from the cathode of
rectifier D1 instead of from the amplifier output [see Fig. 4.9(b)]. The result is that
the half–wave–rectified output precisely follows the positive half–cycle of the input
voltage. There is no rectifier voltage drop from input to output. The circuit is known
as a precision rectifier.
Low–level ac voltages should be accurately amplified before being rectified and
applied to a meter circuit. Amplification is combined with half–wave rectification in
the circuit shown in Fig. 4.9(c).
64 ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

(a) Inclusion of a rectifier.

(b) Use of a precision rectifier.

(c) An amplifier with a rectifier.

Figure 4.9 Operational amplifier ac voltmeter circuits using dc voltmeters with half–wave
rectification.

The circuit in Fig. 4.10(a) is a voltage–to–current converter with half–wave recti-

fication. The circuit functions exactly as explained in the previous section, with the
exception that only the positive half–cycles of the ac input are effective in passing
current through the meter. During the negative half–cycle, the diode is reverse bi-
 AC ELECTRONIC VOLTMETERS 65

ased and no current flows through the meter or through resistor R3 . The meter peak
current is Ip = Ep /R3 , and the average meter current is Iav = 0.5(0.637 Ip ).
A full–wave bridge rectifier is employed in the circuit of Fig. 4.10(b). When the
input voltage is positive, the operational amplifier output is positive. Diodes D1 and
D4 are forward biased so that current flows through the meter from top (+) to bottom
(−). When the input is negative, D2 and D3 are forward biased. Once again current
passes through the meter from the + to the- terminal. Whether the input is positive
or negative, the meter peak current is again limited to Ip = Ep /R3 . The average
meter current in the full–wave rectifier circuit is Iav = 0.637 Ip .

(a) Voltage–to–current converter with half–wave rectifier.

(b) Voltage–to–current converter with full–wave rectification.

Figure 4.10 Operational amplifier ac voltmeter circuits.
66 ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

Example 4-6
The half–wave rectifier electronic voltmeter circuit in Fig. 4.10(a) uses a meter
with a FSD current of 1 mA. The meter coil resistance is 1.2 kΩ. Calculate the
value of R3 that will give meter full–scale pointer deflection when the ac input
voltage is 100 mV (rms). Also determine the meter deflection when the input
is 50 mV .
Solution

Iav = 1 mA
Ip = πIav = π × 1 mA = 3.14 mA
Ep = E × 2 = 2 × 100 mV = 200 mV
Ep 200 mV
R3 = = = 63.66 Ω
Ip 3.14 mA
Ep = 2 × 50 mV = 100 mV
100 mV
Ip = = 1.57 mA
63.66 Ω
Ip
Iav = = 0.5 mA
π

4.6 Current Measurement with Electronic Instruments

Recall that the two reasons for introducing electronic devices into voltmeters are:
1. to produce a very high input resistance,
2. to amplify very small voltages to measurable levels.
Item 1 does not apply in the case of current measurement; on the contrary, am-
meters should normally have the lowest possible resistance. Item 2 can apply in the
case of very low current levels.

PROBLEMS
4.1 The difference amplifier voltmeter in Fig. 4.5(a) has the following compo-
nents: R1 = R2 = 15 kΩ, RL1 = RL2 = 3.9 kΩ, RE = 3.3 kΩ, Rs = 33 kΩ,
and Rm = 750 Ω. The meter full–scale current is 50 µA, and the supply voltage is
±12 V . Calculate the transistor voltage levels when E = 0.
4.2 A 16.67 kΩ resistor is substituted for RE in the linear ohmmeter circuit in Fig.
4.8. Calculate the measured resistance when the meter indicates 3.9 V .
4.3 The ac electronic voltmeter circuit in Fig. 4.9(c) uses the following compo-
nents: R1 = 22 kΩ, R2 = 2.25 kΩ, R3 = 6.8 kΩ, Rs + Rm = 1 kΩ, and a
300 µA meter. Calculate the rms input voltages for meter full–scale deflection and
for 0.5 F SD.