A2 CAMBRIDGE BIOLOGY

EXPLANATION NOTES
JUNE 2024
Topic 1. Respiration
 As cambridge

Paper 1 ……34 to 38 / 40
Paper 2 …45 to 55 /60 Above 100
Paper 3 ….25 to 28 / 30 104/130
121/130
A2 Cambridge

Paper 4 ..theory …..100 …2 hours …. 75..85/100

Paper 5 …alternative to practical …../30 …..
25/30

Cambridge a level star …..180/210 out of 260

O level …study less and practice more

As …..study more and practice less
A2 ….study more and practice even more
1. Respiration
2. Photosynthesis
3. Homeostasis
4. Coordination
5. Inherited change . …practice is a must
6. Gene technology ….heavy topic info and practice
7. Selection and evolution
8. Biodiversity ..

1. Attend / listen to session

2. Homework has to be done
3. biweekly quiz ..
4. Homework …QR codes explanation

1. Computerised notes
2. Hand written notes
3. Homework document ..+ QR code + ms
4. office hours doubts + solving quiz

1. Cell membrane…pump /transport proteins

 As …nov attend exam in june
1. Every week solve on two topic from classified
2. Attend revision class

Homework , hand written notes on classroom

Hard copy notes / classifies from atlas ..atlas

1. Paper 1 as November / a 2june

2. Ill balance
3. Syllabus by second week of march
4. google classroom ….Tuesday
5.
Respiration
 Respiration Read

Products
contain less
Products
energy than
contain more
reactants
energy than
reactants

The need for energy in living organisms

ATP is a universal energy currency and energy is needed for :

1. Cell division by mitosis
2. Muscle contraction and cilia beating as well as flagella
3. Active transport and keep the temperature of the body constant
 Break down glucose
Release energy

join ADP + Pi Generated/

ATP lost as heat

Build up of protein energy..mainta
Build up of triglycerides in body
Build up of polysaccharides temperature
DNA repliaction

Structure of ATP ATP is the universal energy currency of all cells

1. Small , water soluble and easily transported around

Bonds unstable
the cell .
2. Easily hydrolysed ( phosphate loss ) to release
energy .
3. Short term store of energy
Immediate energy donor in all cells as the bond between
phosphate group is unstable and easily broken .
4. Relatively large amount of energy is released )
30.5 Kj / mol )
5. AMP and ADP recycled into ATP …so constant
supply of ATP .
 Synthesis of ATP

Hydrolysis
Exothermic
ATP ADP + Pi

Condensation
Endothermic

Substrate level phosphorylation Oxidative phosphorylation

Phosphorylated
70S
compound.
Source of Pi

ADP and phosphorylated compound

are substrate that occupy the active
site of certain enzyme ….a phosphate
group ( inorganic phosphate )
ATP synthase
transferred from compound to be
added to ADP ..to for ATP .
Structure of mitochondria and how adapted to its function

Its a double membrane bound organelle

Used to produce ATP
Loop / circular DNA

With inner folded membrane ( cristae ) increase surface area

For more ATP synthase
70 S ribosomes
And has ETC / electron carriers and carrier proteins

Has low pH ( high proton concentration )

As protons pumped into the inter membrane space
Building up proton gradient between inter membrane space
and matrix Inner membrane
Folded called

Matrix it contains Co enzymes for linked reaction , kreb;s cristae

Matrix Outer
cycle membrane
Oute membrane is permeable to pyruvate and reduced Inter membrane space
NAD. .
 5
H+ H+ H+H+ Inter membrane space
H+ H+

Inner
6
membrane / ATP
cristae synthase
2
4

Matrix H+
1
H+ H+
NAD
NADH
Oxidised
Hydrogen carrier Energy is used to pump
4 ETC +
hydrogen ions into inter
H……H+ + e-
membrane space chemiosmosis =
2 Electron …e……pass along oxidative
electron carriers in the inner 5 Creating a proton gradient phophorylation
ETC
membrane of mitochondria
Electron
transport chain
H+ diffuse back by facilitated diffusion into the
6
3 Release of energy matrix through ATP synthase …energy used to
make ATP from ADP + Pi
Chemiosmosis
Phosphorylation by chemiosmosis

1. Oxidation of reduced NAD ( NADH) ..release hydrogen atom

2. The hydrogen atom from NAD split into hydrogen ion and electron
3. These electrons pass along the electron carriers ( from one carrier to another ) in the
inner mitochondrial membrane
4. The energy released from electron transport chain is used to pump protons into inter
membrane space to creat a proton gradient across the cristae
5. The proton will diffuse back by facilitated diffusion into matrix through ATP synthase..so
energy is used to produce ATP from ADP and Pi

Oxidative phosphorylation : ETC ( electrons through electron carriers ) + chemiosmosis ( diffusion of

hydrogen ions across membrane down electrochemical gradient )

Break
5;58
 Co enzymes
Non protein …assist enzyme

NAD
Co enzyme A
Hydrogen carrier , FAD Transfer acetyl group
transfer hydrogen NADP
Hydrogen carrier ,
Hydrogen carrier
transfer hydrogen
In plants

Glycolysis
Linked reaction In linked reaction
Kreb’s cycle In kreb’s cycle Kreb’s cycle
Oxidative phosphorylation In oxidative phosphorylation
NAD ATP DNA RNA

Sugar 2 ribose Ribose Desoxyribose Ribose

Whats NAD :
1. Its a Coenzyme
Phosphate group 2 3 1 1
2. Hydrogen carrier ….to ETC/ to the cristae
3. help in dehydrogenation / is being oxidised
Base Adenine Adenine A/T/C/G A/C/U/G
4. reduced form is produced from glycolysis / link
Nicotinamide Yes No NO No
reaction / kreb’s cycle .
 1.Glycolysis
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2…………………………………………………..6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
Net gain of 2 ATP 1. Glucose move by facilitated diffusion through cell surface membrane
2 NADH
2 pyruvate 3C
IN CYTOPLASM
Glucose 6C
1
2. Phosphorylation of glucose by one ATP molecule
Phosphorylationof
GLUCOSE 6 Phosphate 6C
glucose using 2 ATP
3. Phosphorylation of Glucose 6 phosphate by another ATP molecule
molecules
FRUCTOSE 1, 6 biphosphate 6C So glucose cant leave the cell
4. Split ( lysis ) 2 Increasing energy / decreasing
stability of glucose / activate
2 X Triose phosphate ( 3C) glucose

2TP 5. Oxidation / dehydrogenation of TP by NAD 3 2 reduced

So TP oxidised …leading to reduction of 2 NAD NAD

2X intermediate bisphosphate 3C
4 4 ATP
6. Substrate level phosphorylation where ADP and intermediate TP
( phosphorylated compound ) occupy the active site of an enzyme and the
phosphate group is transferred to ADP to form ATP ….produce 4ATP molecules .

2 x Pyruvate 3C
1. Glucose enter cytoplasm by facilitated diffusion
2. glucose + ATP ……..glucose 6 phosphate
3. Glucose 6 phosphate + ATP ……fructose 1, 6 biphsophate

4. Split fructose 1, 6 bisphosphate ……2 TP

5. 2x TP ……..oxidised
To reduce 2NAD ….2 reduced NAD

6. 2 TP when oxidised will give …..2 x intermediate TP. / bisphosphate

7. 2X Intermediate ….. used to produce ATP ( substrate level
phosphorylation ) …4 ATP
8. Intermediate ….turn into pyruvate .
4/11/2023
Part 2
Linked reaction
Kreb;s cycle
Oxidative phosphorylation
Aerobic respiration

Glycolysis ……2NADH , net 2 ATP , 2 pyruvate

Linked reaction
Kreb’s cycle
Oxidative phosphorylation

Glycolysis …..in cytoplasm

Glucose enter by facilitated diffusion
Phosphorylation by 2ATP
Glucose 6 phosphate
Then fructose 1, 6 biphosphate
Split

TP TP
Dehydrogenation
Oxidised
NADH NADH
To reduce NAD

Intermediate TP Intermediate TP
Substrate level
2ATP 2ATP
phosphorylation

Pyruvate Pyruvate
3C 3C
In cytoplasm
2. Linked reaction
• dehydrogenation ..2 NADH
2 X Pyruvate ( 3C ) • Decarboxylation …2CO2
• Acetyl group bind to COA ..2X acetyl COA

Mitochondrial Matrix
1. Dehydrogenation to reduce NAD ( 2 reduced NAD) produced
2. Decarboxylation to form CO2 ( 2 CO2 produced )

2x Acetate ( 2C )

3. Transfer of 2C acetyl group to CO enzyme A

Co enzyme A
2 X acetyl (2C ) CO A Which delvers the acetyl group to Kreb;s cycle
 AFN 3. Kreb’s Cycle
• 4 dehydrogenation ..3 reduced NAD, 1 reduced
FAD
2ATP , 2 FADH2, 6NADH • 2 decarboxylation ….2CO2
X2
• Substrate level …ATP

Mitochondrial Matrix
6C compound ( citrate )
2. B . Decarboxylation ( removal of CO2)
C. Dehydrogenation ( reduced NAD)

1 A. (2C) acetyl CO A
5C compound

B . Decarboxylation ( removal of CO2)

3. C. Dehydrogenation ( reduced NAD)

Oxaloacetate (4C)

4C compound
C. Dehydrogenation ( reduced NAD)
E. Regeneration of oxaloacetate for
4.
cycle to continue
4C compound D. Susbtrate level
phosphorylation to produce
ATP
C. Dehydrogenation
4C compound
( reduced FAD)
5.
Glycolysis In cytoplasm

Glucose …phosphorylation by 2ATP …..fructose 1, 6 bisphosphate

Fructose 1,6 bisphosphate split into 2TP
2TP …….
A) dehydrogenation ( oxidised ) …..produce reduced NAD x2 ( 2NADH)
B) substrate level phsophorylation ….produce 2ATP x2 ( 4ATP )
2 pyruvate

2 net gain ATP Substrate level phsophorylation

2 reduced NAD Dehydrogenation of TP …..to be used in oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP
2 pyruvate ( 3C ) Enter linked reaction in mATRIX

Linked reaction In mitochondrial matrix

2 pyruvate (3C)
A) dehydrogenation ( oxidised ) …..produce reduced NAD x 2 ( 2NADH )
B) decarboxylation …….produce CO2 x2 ( 2CO2 )
Acetate ( 2c) …carried by CO A
Acetyl CO A

2 reduced NAD Dehydrogenation of pyruvate , to be used in oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP

2 carbon dioxide Waste product
2 acetyl Co A Carry acetyl group to Kreb’s cycle
Kreb’s cycle Mitochondrial matrix

• acetyl co A + oxaloacetate ( 4C) ………….6 carbon compound citrate

• 6 carbon compound
A) dehydrogenation ( oxidised ) …..produce reduced NAD
B) decarboxylation …….produce CO2

AFN
• 5 carbon compound
A) dehydrogenation ( oxidised ) …..produce reduced NAD
B) decarboxylation …….produce CO2 2ATP , 2FADH2, 6NADH
• 4 carbon compound
B) substrate level phsophorylation ….produce ATP
• 4 carbon compound
A) dehydrogenation ( oxidised ) …..produce reduced FAD
• 4 carbon compound
A) dehydrogenation ( oxidised ) …..produce reduced NAD
B) regeneration to oxaloacetate for cycle to continue .

2 ATP ' Substrate level phosphorylation of 4C compound

6 reduced NAD Dehydrogenation , to be used in oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP
2 reduced FAD Dehydrogenation , to be used in oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP
4 CO2 Waste product
Oxidative phosphorylation

10 NADH
H …….H+ + e-
2 FADH2

Chemiosmosis
ETC

C6H12O6 + 6O2………….6CO2+ 6H2O + ATP

10 reduced NAD
2 reduced FAD
4. Oxidative phophorylation
4 ATP
6CO2

NADH

FADH2
H ….H+ + e-
e-…ETC
 D Oxidative phosphorylation 8chemiosmos.is
Takes place in inner mitochondrial membrane .
The final stage of aerobic respiration , where the energy for the phosphorylation of
ADP to ATP comes from the activity of the electron transport chain.
Where the reduced NAD and reduced FAD (reduced co enzymes) produced from
link reaction and Krebs cycle are oxidised .
This oxidation transfers energy to ATP during oxidative phosphorylation .

Inter membrane space

r
ab
Mitochondrial matrix
lG 2A
.
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Oxidation of reduced NAD and FAD releases hydrogen atom.
The hydrogen from Coenzymes is split into hydrogen ion and electrons.
.N

These electrons pass along carriers (from carrier to carrier) in the inner mitochondrial
membrane to reach the cytochrome oxidase complex).
The sequence of transport of electrons from one carrier to next is called electron transport
Dr

chain.
The ETC consists of large protein complexes and other molecules that are all components of
the membrane .
The energy released from electron transfer is used to pump protons into the inter membrane
space to create a proton gradient across the cristae.
The protons then diffuse back by facilitated diffusion into the matrix through ATP synthase ,
ATP is produced from ADP and Pi.
The ETC is responsible for creating the proton gradient that is put to use in making ATP.
Oxygen is the final electron acceptor.
Oxygen, protons, electrons together form molecules of water (oxygen is reduced to water).
This reaction is catalysed by cytochrome oxidase, which is part of one of the protein
complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

Dr.Nihal Gabr 12
Glucose + 6O 2 …….6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

Electron + H+ + oxygen
Cytochrome oxidase
Final electron acceptor
1/2O2 + 2H+ + 2e-= H2O H2O
Reduce oxygen to water

4 CO2 produced
2 CO2 produced
from Kreb’s cycle
from linked reaction

Substrate level phosphorylation Oxidative

A) glycolysis (intermediate TP) phosphorylation
B) kreb’s cycle ( 4C compound ) Using
10 NADH
2FADH2
7/11/2023
Part 3
Anaerobic respiration
RQ
Practice
 Glycolysis ….2 NADH
Respiration without oxygen Linked reaction …2 reduced NAD

i Kreb’s cycle …6 reduced NAD

…….2 reduced FAD

There is insufficient supply of oxygen ( where oxygen act as a final electron acceptor)
The final reaction oxidative phosphorylation doesn’t take place
The regeneration of NAD / FAD stopped
Where there is no other way for the reduced carriers ( reduced NAD and reduced FAD ) to be oxidised .
So linked reaction and Kreb’s cycle stop as they lack NAD and FAD .

Lactate fermentation Animals / bacteria

Glucose

Glycolysis ( 2ATP, 2NADH)

Pyruvate
Lactate dehydrogenase

Lactate dehydrogenase

Pyruvate will be reduced ) hydrogen acceptor)

G By reduced NADH
·
-o Reduced NAD will oxidised …regeneration
w

ov
Lactate + 2 net gain ATP
Alcohol fermentation

Glucose
Glycolysis

Pyruvate
Decarboxylation
Catalysed by pyruvate decarboxylase
Removal CO2

Ethanal

Act as a hydrogen acceptor from reduced NAD

So regeneration to reduced NAD,…NAD
Ethanol Catalysed by ethanol dehydrogenase
Irreversible reaction
 O2
Glucose 6C

6CO2 1. Glycolysis Cytoplasm

2 pyruvate ( 3C)
2 reduced NAD
Net 2 ATP

2 pyruvate ( 3C) 2. Linked reaction

Dehydrogenation..2 reduced NAD
2CO2 Decarboxylation …2CO2
2 reduced NAD 1/2 O2 + 2e-+ 2H+=
Cytochrome H2O
2 Acetyl (2C) Co A
oxidase

H+ +e-
6 reduced NAD 4
Kreb’s
4CO2 3
cycle
2 reduced FAD ETC

Pump H+
2ATP
Structure of mitochondrion

1. Double membrane bound organelle

2. Inner mitochondrial membrane
Folded forming cristae to increase surface area
A) contain more ATP synthase ( for oxidative phosphorylation/ chemiosmosis )
B) site for ETC ( as it contains electron carriers and carrier proteins )
Involved in pumping of the hydrogen ions / protons into inter membrane space
So it will build up a proton gradient
Protons will diffuse back through ATP synthase into matrix
Making ATP from ADP and Pi .
By oxidative phosphorylation .
Not permeable to glucose / nor hydrogen ions ( they cant pass through hydrophobic core)

3. Inter membrane space : low pH as its site with high proton concentration

4. Matrix :
-Location of enzymes for link reaction and Kreb’s cycle
-Site of link reaction / kreb’s cycle
-Contain loop of DNA / 70 s ribosomes for production of proteins such as enzymes , electron
carriers
• site of production of reduced FAD , reduced NAD for oxidative phosphorylation
• Site of production of ATP from substrate level phosphorylation .
Role of oxygen in aerobic respiration

Needed in oxidative phosphorylation

Oxygen act as a final electron acceptor from the electron transport chain .
Reduced to water / accepts the hydrogen ion ( from reduced NAD / FAD ) to form water .
So that ETC ( electron transport chain ) will continue
Increasing ATP production
In absence of oxygen , ETC stop and only glycolysis takes

Cyanide causing rapid death

1. non competitive inhibitor

2. inhibit the enzyme ( cytochrome oxidase ) responsible for adding
hydrogen to to oxygen to form water
3. Hydrogen ions and electrons on the carriers
4. So ETC will stop
5. So no pumping of hydrogen ions ..so no proton gradient
6. No proton diffuse back through ATP synthase
7. So less ATP or no ATP production
8. No chemiosmosis and oxidative phosphorylation
 Respiratory substrate

Glucose is the essential respiratory substrate for the cell …….yet other cells can oxidise / break
down lipids and amino acids .

1 16kj /g

39 kj / g 2 3 17 kj /g

Why lipids has the highest amount of energy per unit mass ?
Deamination
Protein ….amino acids Using
…………… ATP
ketoacids ( carbohydrate part ) + urea

1. Fatty acids have more hydrogen / C-H per unit mass

2. more hydrogen so more reduced NAD and FAD produced Pyruvate Acetyl COA

3. So more electrons pass through ETC

4. More hydrogen ions pumped out into inter membrane space
5. Creat a steeper proton gradient
6. So more ATP produced per unit mass
7. By chemiosmosis from oxidative phosphorylation .
8. So fats are broken only AEROBICALLY , so more hydrogen ions transferred for ETC for more
chemiosmosis .
Read Glucose

Glycolysis Proteins
Fats Pyruvate

Glycerol + Amino acids

fatty acids Linked reaction

Ketoacids
Acetyl CO A

Kreb’s
cycle

NADH
FADH2
Oxidative phosphorylation
 Glycolysis ….2 NADH
Respiration without oxygen Linked reaction …2 reduced NAD
Kreb’s cycle …6 reduced NAD
…….2 reduced FAD

There is insufficient supply of oxygen ( where oxygen act as a final electron acceptor)
The final reaction oxidative phosphorylation doesn’t take place
The regeneration of NAD / FAD stopped
Where there is no other way for the reduced carriers ( reduced NAD and reduced FAD ) to be oxidised .
So linked reaction and Kreb’s cycle stop as they lack NAD and FAD .
A
Lactate fermentation Animals / bacteria

So the regeneration of NAD + is achieved by PYRUVATE molecule from glycolysis

………..accept hydrogen from reduced NAD in process called FERMENTATION

Glucose
Glycolysis ….( phosphorylation , split , substrate level phosphorylation)
Where the reaction is being
Pyruvate catalysed by lactate
In cytoplasm
dehydrogenase ( reversible
Pyruvate cant enter the mitochondria so remain in the cytoplasm .
Pyruvate will be reduced ( hydrogen acceptor ) by oxygen debt for
By reduced NADH from glycolysis converting lactate into
Reduced NAD will be oxidised ….to be regenerated so ATP production will continue from glycolysis pyruvate by lactate
dehdrogenase )
Lactate / lactic acid + 2 net gain ATP
Energy rich Transported to the liver by the blood
 Glucose

Glycolysis

Reversible Pyruvate
reaction by

Lactate dehydrogenase
oxygen debt for Act as hydrogen acceptor from reduced NAD produced from glycolysis
Lactate dehydrogenase

converting the
Reduced into lactate
lactate into
reduced NAD will become oxidised ( regenerated)
pyruvate in a
reversible
reaction Lactic acid / lactate + net gain 2 ATP
catalysed by
lactate Will be transported in blood to the liver
dehydrogenase
B
Irreversible
Alcohol fermentation
Yeast C6 H12 O6 …….2CO2 + 2 C2H5OH

Glucose

Glycolysis

Pyruvate

Decarboxylation
Catalysed by pyruvate decarboxylase
Removal of CO2

Ethanal ( acetaldehyde )
ACT as hydrogen acceptor from reduced NAD

Catalysed by ethanol dehydrogenase

Ethanol Irreversible reaction

NAD+ regenerated , so can accept hydrogen so glycolysis can continue

 Alcohol fermentation Lactate feremntation
Both occur in the cytoplasm
Both involve only glycolysis
Both make net gain of 2 ATP
Both involves regeneration of NAD

Lactate / lactic acid produced

Ethanol produced

Reversible ( lactate can be converted into pyruvate

Irreversible ( convert pyruvate into ethanol ) using oxygen debt and lactate dehydrogenase )

Ethanol dehydrogenase cataylse the conversion of Lactate dehydrogenase cataylse the conversion of
ethanal into ethanol pyruvate into lactate

Ethanal act as a hydrogen acceptor Pyruvate act as hydrogen acceptor

No
Involves decarboxylation producing CO2

Needs oxygen ( oxygen debt )

Doesnt need oxygen

One step with one enzyme lactate dehydrogenase

Two steps process catalysed with 2 enzymes pyruvate
decarboxylase and ethanol dehydrogenase
Why anaerobic respiration produces less ATP

1. Only glycolysis taking place ( which involves substrate level phosphorylation )

Producing only 4 ATP with net gain 2 ATP
2. Oxygen is absent which act vas final electron acceptor
So ETC doesn’t take place
Where most of the ATP produced in oxidative phosphorylation under aerobic conditions
3. Pyruvate is converted to lactate which is energy rich

If a runner starts long distance event at a fast speed , then he will have to slow down to speed that is supported by
aerobic respiration, why?

1. No one can tolerate the high concentration of lactate that will be produced from anaerobic respirtaion when
running at a fast speed
2. No enough glycogen stored in body to provide glucose for such long time
3. Fats can only be respired aerobically .

Oxygen debt

The volume of oxygen absorbed by the body to metabolise the lactate produced from anaerobic respiration in
muscles .
Where it is responsible for the conversion of lactate into pyruvate in a reaction catalysed by lactate
dehydrogenase
Also reoxygenation to haemoglobin .
 Respiration

Lactic acid

The waste product is lactate / lactic acid

They are carried by the blood to the liver
To be converted back into pyruvate

r
In a reaction cataylsed by lactate dehydrogenase

ab
Which is then converted into glucose .

lG
Also carbon dioxide is produced
Which lowers pH an this detected by pH receptors
To stimulate the increase in breathing rate
Then CO2 delivered to alveoli to be exhaled .
iha
-
.N
Dr

Dr. Nihal Gabr 46 A2 Cambridge

11/ 11/ 2023
Part 4
Respiratory quotient ( RQ) • 1 or less than 1 ..respiring
aerobically
• More than 1 …mixture of aerobic
and anaerobic ..why anaerobic ?
Carbohydrates / glucose Due to reduced availability of oxygen
• volume of oxygen is zero …..no
C6H12O6 + 6O2…………………..6CO2+ 6H2O
aerobic respiration
RQ= 6/6= 1 • 0.8mixture of respiratory
substrate ( lipids and proteins ) /
Respiring aerobically and the respiratory substrate is carbohydrate
lipid and carbohydrates are being
Fats / lipids / triglycerides respired

C57H110O6 + 163O2 ……..114CO2 + 110 H2O

RQ= 114/163= o.7

Respire aerobically and the respiratory substrate is lipids

Proteins
4C2 H5O2 + 9O2 ……8CO2 + 10 H20

RQ= 8/9= 0.9

Respiring aerobically and the respiratory substrate is proteins

RQ values are useful as they tell us whether respiration is aerobic or anaerobic and the type of
respiratory substrate ( lipid / carbo/ protein) or a mixture of them
Adaptation of rice

Where soil are flooded ….water logged ….decrease in concentration of oxygen in soil …..respire
anaerobically …ethanol production ( should be removed or the plant itself should be tolerant to ethanol )

1. Anaerobic respiration in soil …….produce ethene …….stimulate the production of plant

hormone growth regulator called gibberellin ….responsible for cell division , elongation , seed
germination ….grow taller so shoot and flower above water surface ..so efficient
photosynthesis and …accessibility to pollinators .

2. Has aerenchyma tissue

Dead tissue with air spaces ..extending from leaf to shoot down to the root , supplying the shoot
and root with oxygen.

3. Submerged ( remain in shortage of oxygen ) , respire anaerobically , tolerance to ethanol as

they have enzyme called ethanol dehydrogenase which breaks down the ethanol from anaerobic
respiration
High tolerance to ethanol so roots can respire anaerobically

1. Arenchyma
2. Ethanol dehydrogenase
3. Gibberellin
Describe how you would carry out an investigation on the effect of
temperature on the rate of respiration of yeast in anaerobic conditions
24
using a redox indicator, such as methylene blue.
Carry the experiment under 5 different temperatures ( 10, 20, 30 ,40,
..................................................................................................................................................................
50 C )
..................................................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................................................
Get 5 test tubes add equal volume of glucose solution of same
..................................................................................................................................................................
concentration
..................................................................................................................................................................
Add to each test tube equal volume of yeast suspension
..................................................................................................................................................................
Leave in water bath at the experimental temperature for 5 mins to allow
..................................................................................................................................................................
equilibration
..................................................................................................................................................................
Add to each test tube equal volume of methylene blue / DCPIP
..................................................................................................................................................................
Add layer of oil on the surface of each test tube to ensure anaerobic
..................................................................................................................................................................
conditions ( prevent entry of oxygen) .
..................................................................................................................................................................
Control temperature using a thermostatic water bath
..................................................................................................................................................................
Measure how long for methylene blue / DCPIP to turn from blue to
..................................................................................................................................................................
colorless ( time )
..................................................................................................................................................................
as it acts as hydrogen acceptors turning colorless when reduced .
..................................................................................................................................................................
Use a colorimeter to avoid subjective judgment of final color
..................................................................................................................................................................
Repeat the whole experiment twice ( two times at each temperature )
..................................................................................................................................................................
Calculate the rate of respiration Using 1 / time
..................................................................................................................................................................
Plot a graph for the rate of respiration against temperature .
..................................................................................................................................................................
• The faster the rate of respiration, the faster the rate of hydrogen release and the faster the dyes
get reduced and change colour
..................................................................................................................................................................
This means that the rate of colour change can correspond to the rate dehydrogenase
would be working at and therefore, the rate of respiration in yeast
..................................................................................................................................................................
•
• The rate of respiration is inversely proportional to the time taken
..................................................................................................................................................................
Rate of respiration (sec-1) = 1 / time (sec)
..................................................................................................................................................................

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© UCLES 2019 9700/41/O/N/19
Respiration

1. Structure of ATP ….drawing

2. Properties
3. Draw mitochondria and label
4. NAD ….2 ribose + nicotinamide + adenine ( purine ring ) + 2 phosphate
5. Steps
A) glycolysis
Glucose …..into cell cytoplasm
Phosphorylation …..fructose 1,6 bisphosphate
Splitting……..2x TP ( 3C)
Dehydrogenation by 2 X NAD ..TP oxidised
Pyruvate

B) linked reaction inside matrix

Dehydrogenation and decarboxylation ….acetate
+ CO A ….acetyl Co A

C) kreb’s cycle in matrix of mitochondria

2 ATP , 2FAD , 6 NAD , 4 CO2.
AFN

D) oxidative phosphorylation
Cytochrome oxidase …responsible for adding hydrogen to oxygen to form
water .
9. Anaerobic respiration
A) Lactate fermentation
Glucose ….pyruvate …..act as hydrogen acceptor so reduced NAD become
oxidised ….to be regenerated so ATP production continues through glycolysis ……
pyruvate will be reduced to lactate ………..

Hydrogenation
Pyruvate ………………………….lactate +2ATP
Lactate dehydrogenase

B) alcohol fermentation
Pyruvate …………ethanal ( act as hydrogen acceptor) ………….ethanol

Decarboxylation Ethanol dehydrogenase

Cataylsed by pyruvate decarboxylase
C) comparison between alcohol and lactate fermentation .

10.why anaerobic respiration produce less ATP :

11. If a runner starts long distance event at a fast speed , then he will have to
slow down to speed that is supported by aerobic respiration, why?
1.No one can tolerate the high concentration of lactate that will be produced
from anaerobic respiration when running ata fast speed .
2. No enough glycogen stored in body to provide the glucose for such s Long
time .
3. Fats can only be respired aerobically
12. Definition of oxygen debt
13. RQ ….vol of Co2 per unit time / vol of oxygen per unit time
Glucose = 1
Triglycerides = 0.7 More than 1 is a mixture of aerobic and ethanol fermentation
1 or less than 1 respire aerobically
Proteins = 0.9
Proteins and lipids = 0.8
 14. Rice adaptation

Soil is water logged …o2 concentration in soil is low …..anaerobic

respiration …….so plant is adapted to tolerate ethanol

1. Anaerobic respiration ….ethene ….stimulate production of gibberellin ….stimulate

cell division and elongation and seed germination …grow taller with flowers above
the water surface ….so sufficient photo …accessibility to pollinators .

2. Arenchyma tissue
Dead tissue with air spaces …extending from leaf to shoot down to root
Supply shoot and root with oxygen . ( oxygen reach to submerged parts)

3. Submerged parts still in shortage of oxygen ….respire anarerobically , they have

ethanol dehydrogenase so ot will break down ethanol produced from anaerobic
respiration. ..tolerance to ethanol
So roots can respire anaerobically .

Break
12:20