LIBERTY UNIVERSITY

CJUS703: ADVANCED CORRECTIONS POLICY

ASSIGNMENT: RESEARCH PAPER: TOPIC SELECTION WITH RESEARCH QUESTIONS ASSIGNMENT

DR. ISAIAH STANSBERY

STUDENT: PABLO VALDEZ

Introduction
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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
In the past, criminal investigations relied on techniques like eyewitness accounts,

physical evidence, and human detectives (Jones & Newburn, 2021)1. However, these

methods have become less effective in the face of increasingly sophisticated criminal

enterprises and the need for quicker investigations. In recent years, law enforcement

has undergone a technological revolution that has transformed the investigation

process. This transformation has impacted all levels of law enforcement, but it has been

especially significant for local police departments. Artificial Intelligence (AI) has become

increasingly prevalent in law enforcement, contributing to the enhancement of

operational efficiency and significant alterations to traditional crime-solving methods.

According to Wilson (2020)2, AI not only streamlines police work but also redefines the

conventional linear approach to crime-solving.

In law enforcement, technology has proven to be incredibly beneficial. With advanced

tools, investigators can quickly and accurately collect and analyze vast data.

Additionally, these tools can reveal patterns and connections that may not be evident

through traditional investigative methods. However, it is crucial to maintain ethical

standards when utilizing these digital tools to pursue justice. As the Bible warns, "The

one who states his case first seems right until the other comes and examines him"

(Proverbs 18:17, ESV). Therefore, it is vital to evaluate new technological tools carefully

to ensure they comply with legal and ethical standards and promote justice. Failure to

1
· Jones, T., & Newburn, T. (2021). Policing, surveillance, and social control: CCTV and police monitoring of suspects. Routledge.

2
· Wilson, D. (2020). The ethics of using facial recognition technology in criminal investigations. Journal of Applied Philosophy,
37(4), 611–624. https://doi.org/10.1111/japp.12400
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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
do so could worsen existing inequalities and impede the pursuit of justice. As a result, it

is essential to proceed with caution and attentiveness when adopting new digital tools.

The following discourse aims to explicate the intricate interplay between technology and

criminal investigations. Specifically, it examines the application of technological tools,

such as artificial intelligence, by law enforcement agencies to comprehensively

comprehend how these tools have fundamentally altered the essence of truth-seeking.

Despite potential abuse and societal peril, these tools will remain ubiquitous in criminal

investigations. The future of utilizing technology to solve crimes remains ambiguous,

although the law enforcement fraternity will undoubtedly continue to leverage

technology and pursue novel advancements to solve crimes.

Key Terms to Consider

· Facial Recognition: Analysis of facial features for identification purposes

· Artificial Intelligence (AI): Computer systems capable of tasks mimicking human intelligence, such as learning and

problem-solving.

2. Historical Context

2.1 The Evolution of Investigative Technologies

Criminal investigations have recently experienced significant advancements thanks to

modern technology. The application of technology in law enforcement dates to the late

19th and early 20th centuries, which marks the origins of modern forensic science. For

instance, in the late 1800s, fingerprints were collected and included in police databases

to aid in murder investigations. A few decades later, in the 1930s, polygraph machines

were introduced. (Cole, 2001)3 Criminal investigators would use these machines to hook
3
Cole, S. A. (2001). Suspect identities: A history of fingerprinting and criminal identification. Harvard University Press.
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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
up suspects and detect changes in their vital signs when asked critical questions.

(Miller, 2022)4

2.2 The Digital Revolution

In the latter part of the 20th century, the introduction of computer technology had a

significant impact on law enforcement. The National Crime Information Center (NCIC)

was established by the FBI during the 1970s to collect and analyze data and make it

available to federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies (Worrall, 2018)5. These

databases act as a centralized system that helps multiple agencies collaborate to solve

crimes. They serve to disseminate vital information to the appropriate parties swiftly.

During the 1980s, DNA profiling techniques surfaced and transformed forensic

investigations. This method is highly reliable in identifying suspects and has become

ubiquitous in virtually all serious criminal investigations. In the words of Hindmarsh and

Prainsack (2020)6, DNA profiling stands out as the most accurate and definitive method

for pinpointing suspects. DNA profiling helps solve crimes and free the innocent. Even

when there are no leads or clues, DNA profiling has been instrumental in unlocking

previously unsolvable cases.

In summary, computer technology and the convergence of DNA profiling techniques

have brought about a transformative change in law enforcement. These advances have

4
Miller, L. (2022). The impact of technology on policing. In R. Dunham & G. Alpert (Eds.) Critical issues in policing (8th ed.). Waveland.

5
Worrall, J.L. (2018). Crime control in America: An encyclopedia. Greenwood Press.

6
Hindmarsh, R., & Prainsack, B. (Eds.). (2020). Genetic suspects: Global governance of forensic DNA profiling and databasing. Cambridge
University Press
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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
made it much easier for police departments and other law enforcement agencies to not

only share but also analyze the information they have at their disposal. The result has

been a much more accurate identification of suspects and a safer and more just society.

The advent of computer technology in the latter part of the 20th century brought about a

new and improved era for law enforcement. Establishing central data repositories, like

the FBI's National Crime Information Center, has dramatically enhanced the ability to

share and analyze criminal justice information. This positive development has been

made possible by computing and data management advancements, which have made

operating through such facilities more efficient and practical. (Worrall, 2018)7. One of

the most significant advances has been the development and deployment of DNA

profiling. As DNA science brought us the ability to do such profiling with greater

accuracy and certainty, it also revolutionized forensic investigations. (Hindmarsh &

Prainsack, 2020).8

2.3 Ethical Considerations in Historical Perspective

The use of technology in criminal investigations has long been a topic of ethical debate.

Old-school techniques that have today been primarily discredited, like the infamous

polygraph, were often used to determine if a suspect was telling the truth. In the quest

for justice, investigators have had to find a balance between using innovative tools and

7
Worrall, J.L. (2018). Crime control in America: An encyclopedia. Greenwood Press.
8
Hindmarsh, R., & Prainsack, B. (Eds.). (2020). Genetic suspects: Global governance of forensic DNA profiling and databasing.
Cambridge University Press
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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
infringing on a person's rights. Furthermore, the biblical principles that underline the

modern pursuit of justice can be summarized as follows: "Righteousness and justice are

the foundation of your throne; love and faithfulness go before you" (Psalm 89:14, NIV).

3. Facial Recognition Technology

3.1 Understanding Facial Recognition

Facial recognition technology includes many different biometric software applications

that identify or verify individuals by looking at their specific facial features. Facial

recognition systems extract data points from a face and transform them into a faceprint,

a numerical face representation. The process involves comparing a person's unique

facial features to large databases containing average facial features of individuals.

Faceprint similarity leads to identification.

3.2 Facial Recognition in Law Enforcement

In recent years, facial recognition technology has spread rapidly, especially in criminal

investigations, and it is now a standard method for predictive policing or forensic

policing. Police have always sought to recognize and track people, and these new forms

of facial recognition allow them to do so with more speed, ease, and accuracy than ever

before, including:

 Suspect Identification: Investigators have the potential to identify suspects by

comparing images or videos captured at crime scenes to existing databases of

known offenders. For instance, many security cameras today come with facial
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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
recognition software, which can help detect and identify a suspect in seconds.

(Introna & Nissenbaum, 2010)9. Millions of social media users are also using this

same technology. The significant difference between the two is that the first

technology deliberately tries to identify a person, while the latter is more of a

passive system.

 Locating Missing Persons: One way to locate missing people is to cross-

reference images from various databases, such as driver's licenses and social

media platforms.

 Investigating Large-Scale Events: Mass gatherings are now more secure

because of law enforcement agencies' use of facial recognition technology. This

security method aims to identify individuals on watchlists or with criminal records

quickly. (Ferguson, 2017)10. When used effectively, the best facial recognition

technology analyzes facial features and can make an identification in under a

second. Algorithms used in facial recognition have become much more

sophisticated over time, and with much more computational power available

today than just five years ago, the systems in use can operate in real-time, with

some systems making identifications almost instantaneously. Facial recognition

technology's crime-fighting abilities have proven highly effective, but technology

in public spaces has prompted concerns that it places people's privacy and civil

liberties at risk. The heated debate surrounding the use and performance of

facial recognition in criminal investigations makes the apparent need to establish

9
Introna, L. D., & Nissenbaum, H. (2010). Facial recognition technology: A survey of policy and implementation issues. New York University
Center for Catastrophe Preparedness and Response.

10
Ferguson, A. G. (2017). The rise of big data policing: Surveillance, race, and the future of law enforcement. New York University Press.
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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
rules for how, when, and under what circumstances public safety officials can

use this tool without abusing it.

3.3 The Impact on Crime-Solving

Facial recognition technology has significantly transformed criminal investigations.

Notable case studies illustrate its impact:

 The identification of the infamous Golden State Killer: In 2018, advanced

technologies, including facial recognition and genealogical data analysis, were

used to close a 50-year case that had been nearly impossible to solve. The

police arrested a man because he looked like the digital recreation of the 3D

model built by the FRT system used to identify the Golden State Killer. They took

him into custody and swabbed for DNA, as usual in criminal cases. Moreover,

that is where the genealogical data analysis comes in. The same system used for

a lookalike reconstruction of the murderer's face in FRT had been used to build a

3D recreation of his DNA (Guerrini et al., 2018)11.

 Apprehension of Suspects by the FBI: The FBI's Facial Analysis, Comparison,

and Evaluation (FACE) Services Unit has played a crucial role in identifying

numerous suspects in various high-profile cases (FBI, n.d.)12.

 Solving Cold Cases in the UK: Law enforcement agencies in the UK have

successfully used facial recognition technology to re-examine the evidence in

cold cases and, as a result, have identified and prosecuted many criminals

11
Guerrini, C. J., Robinson, J. O., Petersen, D., & McGuire, A. L. (2018). Should police have access to genetic genealogy
databases? PLOS Biology, 16(10), e2006906. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2006906: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.2006906
12
FBI. (n.d.). Facial Analysis, Comparison, and Evaluation (FACE) services. Federal Bureau of Investigation
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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
whose crimes were committed several decades ago. NIST facial recognition

technology offered to law enforcement by Microsoft has led to multiple recent

arrests and the successful identification and prosecution of several long-unsolved

cases. (BBC, 2023)13.

3.4 Controversies and Challenges

While the benefits of facial recognition technology in law enforcement are evident, its

use also raises significant ethical, legal, and technical concerns:

 Privacy Concerns: The increasing use of FRT has raised concerns about mass

surveillance and the erosion of people's right to privacy. FRT's critics say that it

has the potential to track and monitor individuals without their knowledge or

consent and threatens the very core of our civil liberties (Ferguson, 2017)14.

 Accuracy Issues: Facial recognition algorithms can be undermined by subpar

image quality, tricky lighting, and even deceptive facial expressions, leading to

lower accuracy. (Introna & Nissenbaum, 2010)15.

 Algorithmic Bias: Certain FRT systems, including those used by certain law

enforcement agencies, may have built-in racial, gender, or age biases, which can

result in misidentifications. Such systems can disproportionately misidentify

minority groups. (Buolamwini & Gebru, 2018; Raji et al., 2023)16. This

13
BBC. (2023, January 11). Facial recognition helps solve the 1988 Cardiff double murder. BBC
14
Ferguson, A. G. (2017). The rise of big data policing: Surveillance, race, and the future of law enforcement. New York University
Press.
15
Introna, L. D., & Nissenbaum, H. (2010). Facial recognition technology: A survey of policy and implementation issues. New York University
Center for Catastrophe Preparedness and Response.
16
Buolamwini, J., & Gebru, T. (2018). Gender shades: Intersectional accuracy disparities in commercial gender classification. Proceedings
of Machine Learning Research, 81, 1-15.
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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
emphasizes the importance of fairness and transparency in technological

systems, echoing biblical principles like "Speak up for those who cannot speak

for themselves, for the rights of all who are destitute." (Proverbs 31:8, NIV).

References

4. Artificial Intelligence in Criminal Investigations

4.1 Understanding AI in Law Enforcement

The field of artificial intelligence in computer science seeks to develop machine systems

that can perform tasks usually done by people. The most common of those tasks is

perception, a word that can encompass several human senses but almost always

includes vision when used in the context of AI. Reasoning in AI is a set of abilities that

some AI community might say are part of intelligence.

Artificial intelligence seems to be an ideal match for criminal investigations. AI already

has numerous real-world applications in a wide range of areas, and it is hardly

surprising that the law enforcement community, specifically the criminal investigators in

it, express serious interest in using AI.

Furthermore, during an investigation, AI can assist in identifying and tracking culprits. It

can also scan social media and other online outlets for intelligence about criminal

activities. With AI, we can now predict, with unprecedented accuracy, who will commit a
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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
crime. We can also make reasonably accurate assessments of the individuals coming

out of prison or currently on parole. These are just some of the essential public safety

features that AI brings to the table.

By and large, AI promises to transform the field of criminal investigations. It offers law

enforcement agencies unprecedented tools and techniques to speed up investigations

and make them more efficient and successful. On several fronts, AI can help law

enforcement do things much better. It can sort through digital sounds, images, and

video to help find clues that point toward a solution quickly. It can also process

enormous amounts of data from various sources to find patterns that might give police

criminal leads. Few other applications can change our society so significantly and

positively.

 Predictive Policing: Artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms can evaluate extensive

historical data collections on crime occurrences, patterns, and geographical

locations. By processing this wealth of information, they can predict future crime

incidents with great accuracy. This kind of intelligence would be invaluable for

officers on the job, allowing them to focus their dwindling resources where they

are most needed to deter or solve crimes (Ferguson, 2017)17.

 Data Analysis: Artificial intelligence has made data analysis more accessible

than ever, benefiting tech giants in Silicon Valley and law enforcement agencies

nationwide. For a long time, the task of extracting essential information from

massive datasets was primarily reserved for the research community. However,

big data, which can be extracted from the constant stream of social media posts
17
Ferguson, A. G. (2017). The rise of big data policing: Surveillance, race, and the future of law enforcement. New York University Press.
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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
individuals produce daily, is now available for use in daily law enforcement

investigations (Miller, 2022)18.

 Image and Video Analysis: Incredibly sophisticated AI programs can process

images and videos faster and more accurately than humans. They are helping

law enforcement identify suspects from security videos, enhance low-quality

images, and analyze vast amounts of visual data. AI's return on investment in

these and other areas is encouraging businesses, scientists, and doctors to find

more and more applications for it. (Wilson, 2020)19.

 Cybercrime Investigations: AI helps detect cyberattacks, vulnerabilities in

digital systems, malware, and online criminal activities. · (Chen et al., 2023).

4.2 Case Studies

AI's impact on solving crimes can be seen in real-world examples:

Operation Hyperion (UK): Operation Hyperion marked a turning point in the use of

advanced technology to locate and rescue child trafficking victims in the UK. It was a

highly coordinated and successful operation to rescue many victims. Hyperion was

tackled by a team of experts from various agencies, including law enforcement, social

services, and NGOs, dedicated to fighting child exploitation and human trafficking.

Operation Hyperion used AI technology designed from scratch to analyze "big data." It

used a combination of social media intelligence and other data to identify potential

victims and traffickers. This allowed the team to locate victims and their captors

18
Miller, L. (2022). The impact of technology on policing. In R. Dunham & G. Alpert (Eds.) Critical issues in policing
(8th ed.). Waveland
19
Wilson, D. (2020). The ethics of using facial recognition technology in criminal investigations. Journal of Applied
Philosophy, 37(4), 611-624. https://doi.org/10.1111/japp.12400
13
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
precisely and efficiently. Most of the science and engineering that went into the

Synchronized Command and Control Framework of Operation Hyperion was done here

in Pittsburgh at Carnegie Mellon University. The success and speed of Operation

Hyperion would not have been possible without the help of Pittsburgh's groundbreaking

center of advanced technology. However, traditional AI technologies are not the only

capability Operation Hyperion brought to bear in the fight against child trafficking. This

task force stands as a compelling case study for the potential of technology to help us

fight some of the worst crimes that our society experiences. If this had happened even

five years ago, the chances of being able to methodically and quickly go through that

many files and pull out all the child pornography would have been practically impossible.

Hence, we see the real-world potential of technology to fight human trafficking.

Predictive Policing in Chicago: The Chicago Police Department's predictive policing

strategies, including the use of artificial intelligence tools, have brought about an

apparent, substantial decrease in gun violence within targeted areas. Based on these

predictive analytics, the department's strategic deployment of resources has allowed

officers to prevent and deter crime before it happens, particularly in the city's 7th and

11th districts, which have seen a 25% to 30% reduction in gun crimes (Saunders et al.,

2016).20

4.3 Benefits and Efficiencies

While AI presents transformative opportunities, it also raises profound ethical and legal

considerations:
20
Saunders, J., Hunt, P., & Hollywood, J. S. (2016). Predictions put into practice: A quasi-experimental evaluation
of Chicago's predictive policing pilot. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 12(3), 347-371.
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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
 Enhanced Speed and Accuracy: Data analysis, pattern identification, and

image matching take time. However, automation does these tasks and many

others much faster and with less human error. This is a critical feature given the

amount of energy and resources consumed by a process that yields few results.

Human analysts can't keep up, and that" 's where AI comes in. AI is a significant

tool in the mission to protect the environment. Compiled environmental data can

yield crucial insights, and AI can help us find them.

 Proactive Crime Prevention: Law enforcement can anticipate potential crime

hotspots and send officers to prevent or address crimes when they occur.

Thanks to state-of-the-art predictive modeling and forecasting capabilities, police

departments can uncover patterns of criminal behavior and dispatch officers to

potential trouble areas when crimes are most likely to occur. That kind of

proactive work not only helps to prevent crime but also deters it.

 Investigative Support: Investigators can now extract vast volumes of criminal

data from them, a much smaller subset of information relevant to their criminal

investigation. AI can accomplish in seconds what it used to take a room full of

detectives several days to do. Furthermore, it is not just the investigators who are

benefiting; crime analysts can use AI to predict where and when certain criminal

activities, like burglaries or vehicle thefts, are likely to occur. They, in turn, can

pass this information along to the patrol officers on the street, who can then

position themselves to deter or detect these criminal activities. (Miller, 2022)21.

4.4 Ethical and Legal Challenges

21
Miller, L. (2022). The impact of technology on policing. In R. Dunham & G. Alpert (Eds.) Critical issues in policing
(8th ed.). Waveland
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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
While AI presents transformative opportunities, it also raises profound ethical and legal

considerations:

 Civil Liberties and Surveillance: Utilizing more advanced technology like

predictive policing and expanded surveillance using AI generates more anxiety

from people who worry whether the police will still follow the rules. (Ferguson,

2017)22.

 Transparency and Accountability: The intricacy of AI algorithms often results

in the "black box" phenomenon, making understanding the decision-making

process challenging. This fact raises significant transparency and accountability

issues associated with AI systems.

 Potential for Bias: The data we collect and the algorithms we design could

unintentionally perpetuate biases, reinforcing injustices. The biblical principle

concerning impartial justice is very important to remember: "Do not pervert

justice; do not show partiality to the poor or favoritism to the great but judge your

neighbor fairly" · (Leviticus 19:15, NIV).

5. Comparative Analysis

5.1 Traditional Methods vs. Technological Advancements

The most common investigative methods have been eyewitness accounts, collecting

physical evidence, and human intuition for centuries. Technology has changed that.

Feature Traditional Methods Technology-Driven Methods

22
Ferguson, A. G. (2017). The rise of big data policing: Surveillance, race, and the future of law enforcement. New York University Press.
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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?

Drastically enhances speed of data analysis

Speed: Often slow and methodical. and pattern recognition.

Limited by human capacity Enables analysis of vast datasets beyond

Scope: and available resources. human capabilities.

Potential for greater accuracy with less reliance

Accuracy Prone to human error and on subjectivity, but systems themselves can be

: subjective interpretation. flawed.

Often reactive, investigating Proactive potential through crime prediction

Focus crimes after they occur. and targeted preventative measures.

5.2 Shifting Roles and Skills

The integration of technology within law enforcement has profoundly impacted the roles

and required skills of investigative personnel:

 Data Analysis and Tech Literacy: The ability to use and understand data

analysis tools, databases, and technologies such as facial recognition technology

and artificial intelligence has become increasingly important. (Miller, 2022)23.

23
Miller, L. (2022). The impact of technology on policing. In R. Dunham & G. Alpert (Eds.) Critical issues in policing (8th
ed.). Waveland.
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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
 Cyber Investigation: As cybercrime becomes increasingly common, there is a

growing need for expert training in the investigation and analysis of digital

criminal acts and in the pursuit of their perpetrators. (Chen et al., 2023) 24.

 Critical Thinking and Ethical Decision-Making: Even with advancements in

technology, it remains important to think critically, make good judgments, and

have strong decision-making skills. Technology should be used to help humans

and never replace intuition and the ability to investigate something. Proverbs 2:7

reminds us, "(He keeps) success available for the upright; (so) he can protect

those who walk with integrity."

5.3 The Importance of Balance

It is essential to recognize the importance of technology as a supporting role rather than

a total replacement for traditional detective skills. Time-honored skills such as witness

interviews, physical evidence analysis, and gum-shoe detective work still play an

essential role in modern investigations. Even as they use high-tech conveniences,

investigators must continue to master good old-fashioned detective work.

6. Global Perspective and Christian Response

6.1 International Landscape of Technology in Investigations:

24
Chen, X., Li, C., Wang, D., Li, S., & Kaufmann, M. (2023). Artificial intelligence for cybercrime detection: A survey.
Computers & Security, 124.
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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
The adoption of technologies like facial recognition and AI in criminal investigations is a

global phenomenon, with varying levels of implementation and regulation across

different nations:

 Leaders in Adoption: Nations such as China and the UK have led the way in

implementing facial recognition technology extensively, frequently in conjunction

with extensive surveillance networks. (Felbab-Brown, 2021; Introna &

Nissenbaum, 2010)25.

 Varying Regulations: Countries vary significantly in the legal systems that

oversee such innovations. Take, for example, the European Union. Its

regulations are more robust regarding privacy rules than those of other areas. ·

(European Commission, n.d.) 26.

 Developing Nations: Even though the expense of cutting-edge technology can

be a deterrent, emerging economies are increasingly embracing facial

recognition technology (FRT) and artificial intelligence (AI) to help overcome

crime-related issues. · Felbab-Brown, 2021)27.

6.2 Christian Response to Global Trends

The expansion of law enforcement technologies raises ethical considerations that

Christians must thoughtfully address considering biblical principles:

25
Introna, L. D., & Nissenbaum, H. (2010). Facial recognition technology: A survey of policy and implementation issues.
New York University Center for Catastrophe Preparedness and Response.

26
European Commission. (n.d.). Artificial Intelligence Act.

27
Felbab-Brown, V. (2021). The global expansion of AI surveillance. Brookings Institution
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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
 The Pursuit of Justice: The scriptures underline the significance of maintaining

equity and safeguarding those in need (Psalms 82:3). As with all things,

technology, when wielded responsibly, can facilitate humanity's endeavor for

justice.

 Human Dignity and Privacy: Any technology that might violate an individual's

privacy or fundamental human rights must be examined using the biblical

principle that everyone is made in God's image (Genesis 1:27).

 Potential for Abuse and Bias: Christians need to be careful and watchful for

how these tools can be used to enable discrimination and harm to minority

groups. The Bible warns against injustice in many places (Proverbs 17:15).

 Importance of Transparency: Technologies influencing society should be

developed and implemented with transparency and accountability. This provision

aligns with the biblical principle of purity and honesty (Proverbs 12:22).

6.3 Insights from Christian Leaders and Theologians

Contemporary Christian thinkers have raised significant points for consideration:

 Responsible Stewardship: It is essential to see technology as a tool that should

be used wisely and ethically instead of replacing human judgment and

discernment. (Van der Loos, 2020)28

 Global Equity Concerns: The existing inequality in technological access and its

possibility of magnifying current injustices must be considered from a Christian

point of view, with an emphasis on compassion and equality. (Bouma, 2017)29.

28
Van der Loos, H. (2020). The Ethics of Artificial Intelligence. Acumen Publishing.
29
Bouma, G. D. (2017). Responsible Global Technology, Ethics, and Values: Australian Perspectives. Lexington Books
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THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
7. Future Trends and Christian Ethical Implications

7.1 Anticipating the Future of Law Enforcement Technology

The technological landscape of criminal investigations is rapidly evolving, and future

advancements are likely to be even more transformative:

· More Powerful AI: AI systems are expected to become increasingly sophisticated,

capable of analyzing vast and complex datasets, making sophisticated inferences, and

offering excellent investigative support (Chen et al., 2023)30.

· Augmented Reality: Augmented reality (AR) could be integrated into investigations,

allowing officers to visualize crime scenes in new ways, overlaying digital information

onto a real-world view (Miller, 2022)31.

· Drones and Robotics: Advanced drones and robots may be used more frequently in

surveillance, evidence collection, and even dangerous apprehensions (Wilson, 2020)32.

· Deepfakes: The rise of deepfakes (AI-manipulated media) poses a growing challenge,

potentially eroding trust in visual evidence and fueling disinformation campaigns

(Rössler et al., 2019)33.

30
Chen, X., Li, C., Wang, D., Li, S., & Kaufmann, M. (2023). Artificial intelligence for cybercrime detection: A survey. Computers &
Security, 124

31
Miller, L. (2022). The impact of technology on policing. In R. Dunham & G. Alpert (Eds.) Critical issues in policing (8th ed.).
Waveland.

32
Wilson, D. (2020). The ethics of using facial recognition technology in criminal investigations. Journal of Applied Philosophy,
37(4), 611-624. https://doi.org/10.1111/japp.12400

33
Rössler, A., Cozzolino, D., Verdoliva, L., Riess, C., Thies, J., & Nießner, M. (2019). FaceForensics++: Learning to detect
manipulated facial images. In Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (pp. 1-11)
21
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
7.2 Potential Challenges and Christian Solutions

These advancements, while potentially beneficial, also amplify the need for critical

analysis and ethical guidance informed by Christian principles:

 The erosion of privacy: Expanding surveillance capabilities requires strong

safeguards to protect privacy rights. Christians must advocate for a balance

between security and the preservation of individual liberties, recognizing that God

values the dignity of each person. (Genesis 1:27).

 Deepfakes and Disinformation: Christians are called to uphold the truth and

combat deception. They are to work to expose disinformation and to help

develop tools that will enable them to verify the media's authenticity. (Ephesians

4:25).

 Algorithmic Biases: Equity in AI design must be prioritized. Intentional

strategies to eliminate biases must be implemented. Information sharing must be

promoted. These technologies must also be founded on ethical principles drawn

from the Bible's teachings on justice. (Proverbs 31:8-9).

 Human-Technology Partnership: The increasing reliance on technology must

not eclipse the importance of human judgment, empathy, and moral discernment.

Christians should advocate for the responsible integration of technology,

prioritizing human connection and compassion within investigations.

Conclusion:
22
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
This research on the effects of technological progress on criminal investigations has

unearthed a complicated and swiftly changing environment. Facial recognition and AI-

based technologies generate clear advantages in terms of quick and precise

identifications of criminals, which results in the resolution of many cases, the

imprisonment of criminals, and the thwarting of future offenses.

Nevertheless, these technological advances raise moral concerns. Worries about

privacy, algorithmic prejudice, potential abuse, and the decline of civil rights require

careful consideration. The Christian perspective urges us to advocate a balanced

approach, where technology behaves as a way for fairness but never lowers everlasting

individual human rights or the inherent dignity of every human made in the image of

God (Genesis 1:27).

As technology continues to transform law enforcement, several vital principles must

remain at the forefront:

 Transparency and Accountability: These technologies should be developed

and used with transparency and dedication to public examination (Bouma,

2017)34.

 Bias Mitigation: One way to prevent algorithms from causing social injustice and

unfairly singling out certain groups is to anticipate what problems typically

happen and design for them in advance. · Buolamwini & Gebru, 2018)35.

34
Bouma, G. D. (2017). Responsible Global Technology, Ethics, and Values: Australian Perspectives. Lexington Books.

35
Buolamwini, J., & Gebru, T. (2018). Gender shades: Intersectional accuracy disparities in commercial gender
classification. Proceedings of Machine Learning Research, 81, 1-15.
23
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
 Human-Centered Approach: Technology must always be subordinate to human

judgment, intuition, and the empathetic desire for justice, all deeply embedded in

Biblical principles (Proverbs 28:5).

Balancing the use of advanced technologies with adherence to the ethical dictates of

the Bible is an ongoing challenge. In this regard, Christians are essential, advocating for

technology and its use responsibly, for the rights of individuals, and for a society that

operates justly while simultaneously protecting the vulnerable and treating everyone

with respect.

References:

 Bouma, G. D. (2017). Responsible Global Technology, Ethics, and Values:

Australian Perspectives. Lexington Books.

 Buolamwini, J., & Gebru, T. (2018). Gender shades: Intersectional accuracy

disparities in commercial gender classification. Proceedings of Machine Learning

Research, 81, 1-15.

 BBC. (2023, January 11). Facial recognition helps solve 1988 Cardiff double

murder. BBC. [invalid URL removed]

24
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
 Chen, X., Li, C., Wang, D., Li, S., & Kaufmann, M. (2023). Artificial intelligence

for cybercrime detection: A survey. Computers & Security, 124. [invalid URL

removed]

 Cole, S. A. (2001). Suspect identities: A history of fingerprinting and criminal

identification. Harvard University Press.

 European Commission. (n.d.). Artificial Intelligence Act. [invalid URL removed]

 Fear, H. (2021, September 9). A Killing in Tiger Bay on BBC Two: Who

murdered Lynette White and what happened to the Cardiff Five? Entertainment

Daily. https://www.entertainmentdaily.com/tv/a-killing-in-tiger-bay-on-bbc-two-

who-really-murdered-lynette-white-and-what-happened-to-the-cardiff-five/

 FBI. (n.d.). Facial Analysis, Comparison, and Evaluation (FACE) services.

Federal Bureau of Investigation.

 Felbab-Brown, V. (2021). The global expansion of AI surveillance. Brookings

Institution.

 Ferguson, A. G. (2017). The rise of big data policing: Surveillance, race, and the

future of law enforcement. New York University Press.

 Hindmarsh, R., & Prainsack, B. (Eds.). (2020). Genetic suspects: Global

governance of forensic DNA profiling and databasing. Cambridge University

Press.

 Guerrini, C. J., Robinson, J. O., Petersen, D., & McGuire, A. L. (2018). Should

police have access to genetic genealogy databases? PLOS Biology, 16(10),

e2006906. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2006906:

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.2006906
25
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES ON CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS:
How have recent technological advancements, like facial recognition
and AI, transformed criminal investigation practices?
 Introna, L. D., & Nissenbaum, H. (2010). Facial recognition technology: A survey

of policy and implementation issues. New York University Center for Catastrophe

Preparedness and Response. [I couldn't find a readily available copy or DOI for

this one]

 Jones, T., & Newburn, T. (2021). Policing, surveillance, and social control: CCTV

and police monitoring of suspects. Routledge.

 Miller, L. (2022). The impact of technology on policing. In R. Dunham & G. Alpert

(Eds.) Critical issues in policing (8th ed.). Waveland Press.

 Rössler, A., Cozzolino, D., Verdoliva, L., Riess, C., Thies, J., & Nießner, M.

(2019). FaceForensics++: Learning to detect manipulated facial images. In

Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (pp.

1-11).

 Van der Loos, H. (2020). The Ethics of Artificial Intelligence. Acumen Publishing.

 Wilson, D. (2020). The ethics of using facial recognition technology in criminal

investigations. Journal of Applied Philosophy, 37(4), 611-624.

https://doi.org/10.1111/japp.12400

 Worrall, J.L. (2018). Crime control in America: An encyclopedia. Greenwood

Press.