02 - Orbital Angular Momentum

◮ Aim of Section:
◮ Brief review of material on orbital angular momentum
presented in previous course (PHY 373).
 Angular Momentum - I
◮ In classical mechanics, orbital angular momentum, L, of point
particle of position vector, x, and linear momentum, p, is

L = x × p.

◮ Follows that

Lx = y pz − z py , (1)
Ly = z px − x pz , (2)
Lz = x py − y px . (3)

◮ In quantum mechanics, we represent three Cartesian

components of L by quantum mechanical versions of above
three expressions (in which components of x are represented
as algebraic operators, and components of p are represented
as differential operators).
 Angular Momentum - II

◮ Note that there is no ambiguity in definitions (1)–(3) because

all operators on right-hand sides commute.
◮ In classical mechanics, magnitude-squared of angular
momentum vector given by

L2 = L2x + L2y + L2z .

Quantum mechanics uses same definition.

◮ Easily demonstrated that Lx , Ly , Lz , and L2 are Hermitian
operators. (Hw. 2, Q. 1.)
 Commutation Relations

◮ Easily shown that (Hw. 2, Q. 2),

[Lx , Ly ] = i ~ Lz ,
[Ly , Lz ] = i ~ Lx ,
[Lz , Lx ] = i ~ Ly .

◮ Furthermore (Hw. 2, Q. 3),

[L2 , Lx ] = [L2 , Ly ] = [L2 , Lz ] = 0.

◮ Above commutation relations imply that, at most, we can

simultaneously measure L2 and one Cartesian component of
L. We shall choose to simultaneously measure L2 and Lz .
 Ladder Operators

◮ Helpful to define non-Hermitian ladder operators:

L± = Lx ± i Ly .

◮ Easily demonstrated that (Hw. 2, Q. 4)

[L+ , L− ] = 2 ~ Lz ,
[L+ , Lz ] = −~ L+ ,
[L− , Lz ] = +~ L− .
 Representation of Angular Momentum - I
◮ Define conventional spherical coordinates, r , θ, φ, where

x = r sin θ cos φ,
y = r sin θ sin φ,
z = r cos θ.
◮ Easily demonstrated that (Hw. 2, Q. 5)
 
∂ ∂
Lx = −i ~ − sin φ − cos φ cot θ , (4)
∂θ ∂φ
 
∂ ∂
Ly = −i ~ cos φ − sin φ cot θ , (5)
∂θ ∂φ
∂
Lz = −i ~ , (6)
∂φ
∂2
   
2 2 1 ∂ ∂ 1
L = −~ sin θ + 2 . (7)
sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin θ ∂φ 2
 Representation of Angular Momentum - II

◮ Follows that
 
∂ ∂
L± = ~ e± i φ ± + i cot θ . (8)
∂θ ∂φ
◮ Note that all angular momentum operators are functions of
angular coordinates, θ and φ, but are completely independent
of radial coordinate, r
 Eigenstates of Angular Momentum - I

◮ Search for properly normalized simultaneous eigenstates of L2

and Lz corresponding to eigenvalues l (l + 1) ~2 and m ~,
respectively.
◮ m and l are dimensionless, because ~ has dimensions of
angular momentum.
◮ m and l (l + 1) are real, because L2 and Lz are Hermitian
operators.
◮ So, we have

L2 ψl,m = l (l + 1) ~2 ψl,m , (9)

Lz ψl,m = m ~ ψl,m , (10)
Z
∗
ψl,m ψl,m d 3 x = 1. (11)
 Eigenstates of Angular Momentum - II

◮ Try separable solution

ψl,m (x) = Rl,m (r ) Θl,m (θ) Φl,m (φ). (12)

◮ Given that d 3 x = r 2 sin θ dr d θ dφ, (11) implies that

Z ∞
∗
Rl,m (r ) Rl,m (r ) r 2 dr = 1, (13)
0
Z π
∗
Θl,m (θ) Θl,m (θ) sin θ dθ = 1, (14)
0
I
Φ∗l,m (φ) Φl,m (φ) dφ = 1. (15)
 Eigenstates of Angular Momentum - III

◮ (6), (10), and (12) yield

∂
Lz ψl,m = −i ~ [Rl,m (r ) Θl,m (θ) Φl,m (φ)]
∂φ
 
dΦl,m
= Rl,m (r ) Θl,m (θ) −i ~
dφ
= m ~ Rl,m (r ) Θl,m (θ) Φl,m (φ),

which implies that

dΦl,m
−i = m Φl,m .
dφ
 Eigenstates of Angular Momentum - IV

◮ Solution of previous equation, subject to normalization

condition (15), is
eimφ
Φm (φ) = √ . (16)
2π
◮ Have, dropped l subscript because Φm obviously does not
depends on l .
◮ Now, Φm (φ) must be a single-valued function of φ, otherwise
wavefunction would be multi-valued, which makes no physical
sense. Hence, we deduce that m is an integer.
◮ Easily seen that the Φm satisfy orthonormality constraint
I
Φ∗m (φ) Φm′ (φ) dφ = δm,m′ . (17)
 Eigenstates of Angular Momentum - V

◮ According to (7), (9), (12), and (16),

m2
   
2 2 1 ∂ ∂
L ψl,m = −~ sin θ − 2 Rl,m (r ) Θl,m (θ) Φm (φ)
sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin θ
= l (l + 1) ~2 Rl,m (r ) Θl,m (θ) Φm (φ).

◮ Hence, we deduce that

m2
   
1 d dΘl,m
sin θ + l (l + 1) − 2 Θl,m = 0.
sin θ dθ dθ sin θ
 Eigenstates of Angular Momentum - VI

◮ Let µ = cos θ. Previous equation becomes

m2
   
d 2 dΘl,m
(1 − µ ) + l (l + 1) − Θl,m = 0.
dµ dµ 1 − µ2
◮ Previous equation known as associated Legendre equation.
Equation singular at µ = ±1 (i.e., θ = 0, π) where spherical
coordinate system becomes singular.
◮ Solutions that are well-behaved at µ = ±1 are known as
associated Legendre functions, denoted Plm (µ).
◮ Such solutions can only be found when

l = 0, 1, 2, 3, · · ·,
−l ≤ m ≤ l.
 Eigenstates of Angular Momentum - VII

◮ Associated Legendre functions take form

(−1)l+m 2 m/2 d
l+m
Plm (µ) = (1 − µ ) (1 − µ2 )l ,
2l l ! dµl+m
for m ≥ 0.
◮ Can see why m cannot exceed l . (1 − µ2 )l is polynomial of
degree 2 l . Polynomial annihilated if differentiated w.r.t. µ
more than 2 l times.
◮ Have
(l − m)! m
Pl−m = (−1)m P . (18)
(l + m)! l
 Eigenstates of Angular Momentum - VIII

◮ Associated Legendre functions satisfy

Z 1
2 (l + m)!
Plm Plm′ dµ = δl,l ′ . (19)
−1 (2l + 1) (l − m)!

◮ Clear that Θl,m (θ) ∝ Plm (cos θ). In fact, (14) and (19) imply
that
2l + 1 (l − m)! 1/2 m
 
Θl,m (θ) = Pl (cos θ), (20)
2 (l + m)!
for m ≥ 0.
◮ Follows from (18) and (20) that

Θl,−m = (−1)m Θl,m . (21)

 Eigenstates of Angular Momentum - IX

◮ Finally, (19) and (20) imply that

Z π
∗
Θl,m (θ) Θl ′ ,m (θ) sin θ dθ = δl,l ′ . (22)
0
 Eigenstates of Angular Momentum - X

◮ Conclude that simultaneous eigenstates of L2 and Lz ,

corresponding to eigenvalues l (l + 1) ~2 and m ~, are such
that l is nonnegative integer, and m is integer lying in range
−l ≤ m ≤ l .
◮ Moreover,
ψl,m (x) = Rl,m (r ) Ylm (θ, φ),
where Rl,m (r ) is undetermined, and the

Ylm (θ, φ) = Θl,m (θ) Φm (φ)

2l + 1 (l − m)! 1/2 m
 
= Pl (cos θ) e i m φ (23)
4π (l + m)!

are termed spherical harmonics.

 Eigenstates of Angular Momentum - XI

◮ Follows from (16) and (21) that

Ylm ∗ = (−1)m Yl−m

◮ Follows from (17) and (22) that

I
′
Ylm ∗ Ylm
′ dΩ = δl,l ′ δm,m′ ,

where dΩ = sin θ dθ dφ is an element of solid angle, and

integral is over all solid angle.
◮ Note that the Ylm (θ, φ) form a complete set. In other words,
any single-valued, well-behaved function of θ and φ can be
represented as a linear superposition of the Ylm (θ, φ).
 Raising and Lowering Operators

◮ The Plm (µ) have the following property

dPlm 1 mµ
= −p Plm+1 − Pm
dµ 1 − µ2 1 − µ2 l
(l + m) (l − m + 1) m−1 mµ
= p Pl + P m.
2 l
1−µ 2 1 − µ

◮ Follows from (8) and (23) that (Hw. 2, Q. 6)

L+ Ylm = [l (l + 1) − m (m + 1)]1/2 ~ Ylm+1 ,

L− Ylm = [l (l + 1) − m (m − 1)]1/2 ~ Ylm−1 .

◮ L+ and L− are termed raising and lowering operators,

respectively, because they, respectively, raise and lower value
of quantum number m by unity.
 l = 0 Spherical Harmonics

◮
1
Y00 (θ, φ) = √ .
4π

0.100
Y
|
0 2
0
|

0.075

0.050

0.025
z

0.000

−0.025

−0.050

−0.075

−0.100
−0.100 −0.075 −0.050 −0.025 0.000 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.100

x
 l = 1 Spherical Harmonics

◮ r
3
Y1±1 (θ, φ) =∓ sin θ e±iφ .
8π
◮ r
0 3
Y1 (θ, φ) = cos θ.
4π
 l = 1 Spherical Harmonics

Y
|
±1 2
1
| Y
|
0 2
1
|

0.10 0.2

0.05 0.1
z

0.00

z
0.0

−0.05 −0.1

−0.10 −0.2

−0.10 −0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 −0.2 −0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2

x x
 l = 2 Spherical Harmonics

◮ r
15
Y2±2 (θ, φ) = sin2 θ e±2 i φ .
32π
◮ r
15
Y2±1 (θ, φ) =∓ sin θ cos θ e±i φ .
8π
◮ r
5
Y20 (θ, φ) = (3 cos2 θ − 1).
16π
 l = 2 Spherical Harmonics
Y
|
±2 2
2
|
0.15
Y
|
±1 2
2
|

0.15

0.10

0.10

0.05
0.05
z

0.00

z
0.00

−0.05
−0.05

−0.10

−0.10

−0.15

−0.15
−0.15 −0.10 −0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 −0.15 −0.10 −0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15

x x

Y
|
0 2
2
|

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1
z

0.0

−0.1

−0.2

−0.3

−0.4

−0.4 −0.3 −0.2 −0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

x
 l = 3 Spherical Harmonics

◮ r
35
Y3±3 (θ, φ) =± sin3 θ e±3 i φ .
64π
◮ r
105
Y3±2 (θ, φ) = sin2 θ cos θ e±2 i φ .
32π
◮ r
21
Y3±1 (θ, φ) =± sin θ (5 cos2 θ − 1) e±i φ .
64π
◮ r
0 7
Y3 (θ, φ) = cos θ (5 cos2 θ − 3).
16π
 l = 3 Spherical Harmonics
0.20
Y
|
3 2
3
|
0.15
Y
|
2 2
3
|

0.15

0.10

0.10

0.05

0.05
z

0.00

z
0.00

−0.05

−0.05

−0.10

−0.10

−0.15

−0.20 −0.15
−0.20 −0.15 −0.10 −0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 −0.15 −0.10 −0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15

x x

0.20
Y
|
1 2
3
|
0.6
Y
|
0 2
3
|

0.15

0.4

0.10

0.2

0.05
z

0.00
z

0.0

−0.05

−0.2

−0.10

−0.4

−0.15

−0.20 −0.6
−0.20 −0.15 −0.10 −0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6

x x
 Magnetic Moment

◮ Consider electron of charge −e and mass me .

◮ Magnetic moment of electron, due to its motion in space, is
e
µ=− x × p.
2 me
◮ Follows that
e
µ=− L.
2 me
◮ Conclude that electron that possesses orbital angular
momentum also possesses magnetic moment.
◮ Magnetic moments have physical consequences. Energy of
magnetic moment in magnetic field B is E = −µ · B. Force
acting on magnetic moment in inhomogeneous magnetic field
is F = µ · ∇B.