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Module -19(MES notes)

Third mental health revolution and the concept of primary prevention.
Unit 1: Public mental health promotion v/s clinical - therapeutic approach to mental health.

Mental Health Treatment in Ancient Times

Ancient theories about mental illness were often the result of beliefs that supernatural causes,
such as demonic possession, curses, sorcery, or a vengeful god, were behind the strange
symptoms. The humans of the Neolithic era believed that opening up a hole in the skull would
allow the evil spirit (or spirits) that inhabited the head of the mentally ill to be released, thereby
curing them of their affliction. When violence wasn’t used, priest-doctors (like those in ancient
Mesopotamia) would use rituals based on religion and superstition since they believed that
demonic possession was the reason behind mental disturbances. Such rituals would include
prayer, atonement, exorcisms, incantations, and other forms of tribalistic expressions of
spirituality. However, shamans would also resort to threats, bribery, and even punishment if the
ritualistic methods proved unsuccessful in changing the behavior of a tribe member.

There have been three mental health revolutions. Pinel led the first, bringing humane concern
for the mentally ill; Freud led the second, bringing passionate attention to the intrapsychic life
of man. The third revolution, now in the making, is appropriately a corporate effort without an
eponym as yet. Mental health, always a public health problem, is finally adopting public health
strategies, with strong support from some quarters and resistance from others.

POPULATION BASED APPROACHES

Population-based approaches to mental health as nonclinical interventions and activities

intended to improve mental health outcomes, and the determinants of these outcomes, among a
group of individuals that are defined by shared geography, sociodemographic characteristics, or
source of clinical services utilization.

Population-based interventions must be nonclinical and thus exclude direct mental health
services (e.g., psychotherapies and pharmacological therapies) to individual patients. Pioneering
work by Faris & Dunham (56) investigated the social determinants of mental health by
neighborhood (primarily in Chicago) and the overall impact of urban life on mental health.

Community surveys, including the Midtown Manhattan Study in the 1950s and the Health
Opinion Survey in Nova Scotia in 1959, examined mental health in different sociocultural
settings. These studies and others found that mental illness symptoms were widespread in all
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populations, though the burden of psychiatric disease did vary between groups and was related
to social and economic determinants

The Surgeon General's Report on Mental Health in 1999, the first surgeon general's report
focused on mental health, drew renewed attention to population mental health challenges by
explicitly stating that “mental health is fundamental to health and human functioning.

THREE DOMAINS

1. Social, Economic, and Environmental Policy Approaches

Public policies affect populations, and nearly every policy imaginable could
plausibly impact mental health. Research about the social determinants of mental health.
and psychiatric epidemiology studies have elucidated pathways through which policy
exposures might affect mental health. In general, much more is known about the negative
impacts of policies on mental health than about how policy can improve population
mental health. This section provides a highlevel summary of goals that can be advanced
by public policy to improve the determinants of population mental health. The policy
areas and approaches discussed in this section are not exhaustive, and each could be the
focus of its own review.

Reduce the incidence of traumatic events.

Reduce the incidence of adverse childhood experiences.
Modify the built environment.
Reduce financial and housing insecurity
Reduce structural stigma toward people with mental illness and members of other social
groups.

2. Public Health Practice Approaches

The United States has 59 state and territorial public health departments and more than
2,800 local public health departments (LHDs), all of which have a mandate to protect
and promote population health. Although the structure and function of public health
departments vary across the United States, most operate separately from their
jurisdiction's mental health agency (see the sidebar titled Organizational Structure of
Relationships Between Public Health Departments and Mental Health Agencies).
Although mental health agencies in some jurisdictions have embraced a population-
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based approach—New York City and Philadelphia, for example—mental health agencies
are usually narrowly focused on providing clinical services to individuals with
diagnosable mental illnesses. All public health departments, in contrast, embrace a
population-based approach by carrying out the 10 Essential Functions of Public Health

3. Scope of public health department activities to address population mental health

Limited data exist about public health department engagement in mental health.
At the state/territorial level, some information comes from the Association of State and
Territorial Health Officials’ Profile Survey. The 2016 survey found that only five
state/territorial public health departments identified mental health as one of their top five
priorities (7). At the local level, more detailed information is available from the National
Association of County and City Health Officials’ (NACCHO's) Profile Study survey.
These data have been used to generate national estimates of the prevalence of correlates
of LHD engagement in broad categories of population-based mental health activities
Consistent with state-level data, the survey indicates that LHDs engage in mental health
as an exception, not the norm.
To enhance the effectiveness of clinical mental health services
Care coordinate programs
In organisations ( NGO, Public health departments)

DOMAINS OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

1 Positive emotions - include pleasant or desirable situational responses,ranging from

interest and contentment to love and joy, but are distinct from pleasurable sensation and
undifferentiated positive affect. These emotions are markers of people's overall well-
being or happiness, but they also enhance future growth and success. This has been
demonstrated in work, school, relationships, mental and physical health, and longevity.
The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions suggests that all positive emotions
lead to broadened repertoires of thoughts and actions and that broadening helps build
resources that contribute to future success. Unlike negative emotions, which are adapted
to provide a rapid response to a focal threat, positive emotions occur in safe or controllable
situations and lead more diffusely to seeking new resources or consolidating gains. These
resources outlast the temporary emotional state and contribute to later success and
survival.

2 Individual traits
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Optimism
Explanatory style
Resilience
3 Positive relationship among groups
4 Enabling institutions to foster positive outcomes

UNIT 2 : Redefining the concept of Mental Health

When the term "mental health" is used in conversation, most people tend to think of it in terms
of diagnoses and disorders. Having mental health means that you do not have a mental illness,
such as depression, bipolar disorder or schizophrenia. People do not think of mental health as a
construct similar to physical health, or a construct that overlaps with physical health and that can
actually impact physical health in significant ways.

Therefore, a discussion about mental health is not only about treating mental illness; it's also
about a primary care approach similar to the model of physical health that has been encouraged
by modern medicine. Taking care of our bodies, stimulating our brain, and managing our
emotions are all important aspects of obtaining good mental health or "mental wellness.”

On the other hand, numerous research studies have also shown that people whose lives lack
purpose, or who report consistent feelings of loneliness, are at a higher risk of developing
anxiety, depression, and other stress related disorders. Furthermore, people who are sleep
deprived, spend a lot of time worrying or feeling "stressed,” and generally lack energy or
enthusiasm about life are at a higher risk for developing the physical illnesses such as
cardiovascular conditions, high blood pressure, and strokes.
There are still stigma surrounding mental health that needs to be changed some of them can be

Redefining assumptions

First, consider the assumption of what comprises mental health care. Much of the discourse
on mental health care has focused on structured treatment guidelines, integrating culturally
appropriate explanatory models and non-specialist labels into interventions, going even as far as
not using terms such as depression at all, is the hallmark of accessible and effective mental health
care intervention. Incorporating interventions that target the outcomes that matter to affected
persons and their families—for example, independent social functioning in people with
schizophrenia— has equal status to or even greater salience than treatments focused on
psychiatric symptoms.
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Mobilising personal and community resources, for example existing social welfare schemes, is
critical to address the practical social determinants and consequences of mental disorders.
Mental health interventions, then, must go well beyond narrowly defined biomedical constructs
and treatments.
Consider the assumption of who is a mental health care provider. The assumption that mental
health care providers are analogous to mental health specialists has been robustly challenged by
innovations that include task sharing, frontline mental health interventions involving community
and lay health workers. These human resources need carefully designed training and, even more
importantly, continuing supervision to deliver care with sustainable quality. Reliance on
specialists to train and conduct supervision presents another potential bottleneck to improving
access to task sharing models of care. However, recent empirical evaluation has shown that, as
competency is achieved, lay counsellors can assess the quality of counselling sessions with
comparable accuracy to specialists. This model of task sharing of supervision means that the role
of specialists becomes even more focused on designing programmes, quality assurance and
providing referral for complex or treatment resistant cases, thus permitting much larger
population coverage for each specialist.

Third, consider the assumption of where mental health care can be provided. A unique aspect
of innovations in global mental health is that virtually none are delivered within specialist
settings. Primary health care centres are, of course, a predictable delivery platform, but, perhaps
more creatively, mental health care is now delivered in a range of other nonhealth ‘platforms,
notably in the homes of patients and in schools for children. In doing so, some of the major time,
stigma and cost barriers to treatment access and adherence are being addressed, leading to higher
treatment completion rates and, consequently, better outcomes.
Strategies

First, we need to abandon our use of prevalence estimates generated by epidemiological

surveys as the source of evidence to define the denominator of the fraction that indicates the
treatment gap.

The way to bridge the credibility gap in this context is to set thresholds for diagnoses of specific
disorders not solely on the clustering of symptoms and their impact, but also on the likelihood
of benefitting from available biomedical interventions, particularly in reducing impairments in
key tasks of daily living. If this were done, perhaps up to half of those who receive diagnoses of
substance use or mood and anxiety disorders, between them accounting for 75% of the global
burden of mental disorders, would probably no longer qualify as ‘disordered’.
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Perhaps the label of ‘distress’, which carries less biomedical significance, without further
distinction into subcategories, may offer a way to describe these individuals who, while not
meeting the threshold criteria for a specific disorder diagnosis, are still not quite functioning
optimally. This proposal is supported by the substantial empirical evidence that, at the milder
end of the dimensions of common mental health syndromes, it is exceedingly difficult (and,
arguably, entirely artificial) to distinguish subcategories of ‘disorders’.

Second, we need to recognise that, while individuals who are ‘distressed’ (but not
‘disordered’) could be helped to cope better, with help provided in completely different ways
outside the formal health care system, for example through low-cost social interventions such as
befriending, providing practical help for economic difficulties, mobilising and strengthening
existing non biomedical sources of help that are contextually acceptable (such as spiritual
interventions in some places) and promoting self-help delivered through books .

Third, the descriptions of diagnostic categories must be based on the patterns of phenomena
observed in general populations, rather than those observed in specialist settings. If we
were to follow this axiom, then there would probably be no justification for the diagnostic
separation of mood, anxiety and somatoform disorders (at least in non-specialist settings), as,
for the vast majority of people, the phenomena associated with these. diagnoses co-occur, and,
not surprisingly, these disorders share similar aetiologies and benefit from similar interventions.

Unit 3: Challenges and possibilities and levels of primary prevention What is prevention?

Prevention is the deterring of the development of a disease, or stopping the progression of a

disease that has already begun. The separation of the roles of public health and medicine in the
spectrum of disease prevention and treatment creates a lack of coordination in preventive care.

It reduces the burden on medical infrastructure and improves prognosis.

What is cure?

Cure involves restoration of health, normality and soundness in an individual after being exposed
to a disease. Aims for recovery.

Prevention is delivered to people who are healthy whereas cure is given to those
who are sick.
Prevention is also cheaper than cure.
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Types of prevention: Primary

prevention
Primary prevention aims to prevent disease or injury before it ever occurs. This is done by
preventing exposures to hazards that cause disease or injury, altering unhealthy or unsafe
behaviours that can lead to disease or injury, and increasing resistance to disease or injury should
exposure occur. Examples include:

legislation and enforcement to ban or control the use of hazardous products (e.g.
asbestos) or to mandate safe and healthy practices (e.g. use of seatbelts and bike
helmets) education about healthy and safe habits (e.g. eating well, exercising
regularly, not smoking) immunization against infectious diseases
Secondary prevention

Secondary prevention aims to reduce the impact of a disease or injury that has already occurred.
This is done by detecting and treating disease or injury as soon as possible to halt or slow its
progress, encouraging personal strategies to prevent reinjury or recurrence, and implementing
programs to return people to their original health and function to prevent long-term problems.
Examples include:regular exams and screening tests to detect disease in its earliest stages (e.g.
mammograms to detect breast cancer) daily, low-dose aspirins and/or diet and exercise
programs to prevent further heart attacks or strokes suitably modified work so injured or ill
workers can return safely to their jobs.

Tertiary prevention

Tertiary prevention aims to soften the impact of an ongoing illness or injury that has lasting
effects. This is done by helping people manage longterm, often-complex health problems and
injuries (e.g. chronic diseases, permanent impairments) in order to improve as much as possible
their ability to function, their quality of life and their life expectancy. Examples include:

cardiac or stroke rehabilitation programs, chronic disease management programs

(e.g. for diabetes, arthritis, depression, etc.) support groups that allow members to
share strategies for living well vocational rehabilitation programs to retrain workers
for new jobs when they have recovered as much as possible.
Primordial prevention v/s primary prevention

Primordial prevention Consists of actions to modify population health

determinants and inhibit the establishment of factors ( environmental, economic,
social, behavioral) know to increase the future risk of disease.
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It addresses determinants at the systematic level rather than modifying personal

risk factors, which is the goal of primarily prevention.
Thus outlawing alcohol in certain countries would represent primordial
prevention, whereas a campaign against drinking and driving would be an
example of primary prevention.

Types of primary prevention

When primary prevention is aimed at an entire community population, it is called universal

prevention. It includes strategies that can be offered to the full population, based on the evidence
that it is likely to provide some benefit to all (reduce the probability of disorder), which clearly
outweighs the costs and risks of negative consequences.

Example: childhood immunizations.

When focused on a particular at-risk population, it is called selective prevention. Or Selective

prevention refers to strategies that are targeted to subpopulations identified as being at elevated
risk for a disorder.

Example: home visitations for low-birth-weight children.

Components of effective primary preventions

Heller and colleagues (2000) offered 5 suggestions:

Target population must be given knowledge about the risky behaviour to be

prevented.
The prevention program must be attractive.
Teach problem solving skills and to resist regressing into previous
counterproductive patterns.

Change norms or social structures that encourage counterproductive patterns.

Evaluate the program by collecting data.

Head start program

Head Start began as part of President Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society campaign
at 1960s.
It is a Federal program that promotes the school readiness of children from birth to
age five from low-income families by enhancing their cognitive, social, and
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emotional development. Head Start programs provide a learning environment that

supports children's growth in many areas such as language, literacy, and social and
emotional development. Head Start emphasizes the role of parents as their child's
first and most important teacher. These programs help build relationships with
families that support family well-being and many other important areas.
The goal of Head Start was to provide poor children with a level of preparation that
mirrored that of their economically more advantaged counterparts.
The program also added nutritious meals, medical screenings, and parental
education.
Results: children attended Head Start for at least 3 days per week for 2 years or
more, and when parents were involved, social and academic benefits were reliable
and lasting over time (Ramey & Ramey, 1998)

Head Start also showed children and parents that they need not slip into previous
counterproductive behaviors.

This program showed that a better life was possible for the children.
Primary prevention in mental health

1. Primary prevention in mental health ;

Increasing the resistance and resilience of vulnerable population. Increasing
mental health literacy through awareness programs and campaigns.
Promotion of mental health: Mental health promotion attempts to encourage and
increase protective factors and healthy behaviors that can help prevent the onset
of a diagnosable mental disorder and reduce risk factors that can lead to the
development of a mental disorder.
Biopsychosocial model : it reflects the development of illness through the complex
interaction of biological factors, psychological factors, and social factors

2. Reduce the contact of individual with risk :

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It Identify major mental health risk (group specific)

Peer group pressure
Academic pressure
Lack of parental involvement
Alcoholism and substance use
Issues related to physical development
Misuse of technology
Lack of academic motivation
Lack of interpersonal skills
Issue with family members
Law and order problems
Teaching ways to deal with various risk factors.
 3. Make changes in the community so that the risk agent will be destroyed.

It looking Socio, cultural or economic factors

Economic and educational backwardness
Discrimination faced by various sections
Communal problems
Political and religious division
Lack of employment opportunities
Promote education among weaker sections
Skill development, career guidance, Employment opportunities
Work against discrimination and work for empowerment Stand for communal,
political and religious harmony in community
Based on community the risk factors will change

Systematic changes

Training or awareness for parents and teachers about the problems faced by adolescents .And give
training for parents and teachers on grooming or mentoring adolescents. Through that they can
reduce the pressure related to education and career .And also orient youth about future and its
expectations too.

Challenges of Primary prevention

There should be effective leadership for planning, coordination and effective action
Support from other institutions in community, especially government support and
funding. Support from other disciplines

Huge task force

Derailment of motivation of leadership in implementing the planned action.
Disagreement among professionals
Bureaucratic blockages from government
Lack of participation by community
Political and religious division in community
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Levels of primary prevention

In the larger society : Through different research it was found thatt any program with the
following features provides physical, psychosocial and sociocultural protective supplies

Increase in quality of life

Fostering education
Social welfare
Improved medical care

Job opportunities
It also Improved prenatal medical care slum mothers. So the chance of neurological
and psychology deficits is less in new born babies .
Urban renewal programs can provide a physically and psychologically healthy
environment when human issues are given priority.
Social programs that protect the integrity of the family like providing opportunities
for working mothers.
Reducing job and housing discrimination, increasing educational and job training
opportunities and protecting civil rights.
Programs like “Head start” can help to increase social competence and self-esteem in
deprived children.
Psychologists mainly contribute at this level through research. So they can understand
problems of population and it can transfer to government authorities for ensure their
need by law.
In the community:
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We have community psychologist they can contribute prevention programs in communities.

So that ,

1.They can alter public attitudes and to instill values favorable to positive mental health
We can give awareness to public and educate community leaders about social, physical
and psychological needs or mental health problem.
2. Development of facilities for recreation and housing.
3. Better coordination of the services of social agencies such that problems
faced by people are not neglected.

Example : police, we can educate them regard psychological problems in population.

A lot of effort has been focused on altering the social processes of school
systems to make them more suitable for emotional growth.
Try to change : Basic patterns of communication
Organization and attitudes of teachers and
administrators
Educating teachers on the psychological problems faced by students.

4. To overcome feelings of apathy and powerlessness and increase capacity for

collective action in the community.
Identifying and encouraging leadership
Facilitation of communication and group processes.
The family and small group:

Family: character formation and development of psychological problems.

When family relationships are stable and supportive, a person suffering from mental health issues
or disorders may be more responsive to treatment. Companionship, emotional support and often
even economic support can have a positive impact on someone coping with a mental health
problem.

Intervention involves:

Parent education programs : Identify the risk factors of mental health and teach them
how to overcome or recover from it Prenatal instruction : give information about
challenges in pregnancy, how to overcome and prevent it, medical problems of child
etc
Family therapy and family crisis intervention : Based on family issues it can help you
improve troubled relationships with your partner, children or other family members.
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Make improvement in communication, solving family problems, understanding and

handling special family situations, and creating a better functioning home
environment.
Main aim is to change parental efforts before serious problems emerge in children.
In adolescents, peer group is a primary socialization agency. Programs to control
delinquency, drug abuse are focused on peer group.
Project community: organization for high school age disaffected youth in Berkeley.
Social interaction, self exploration. Quasi therapeutic group activities and
workshops.
The individual

Main purpose is to strengthen the person’s ability to cope with stress.

Stress is “a particular relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised
by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well-
being”

It has two ways :

1. direct contact to consultation

2. contact the family or friends who are involved with the person in crisis.

Crisis is an important opportunity for fostering adaptive coping for future stress.

crisis is a perception or experience of an event or situation as an intolerable difficulty that

exceeds the person's current resources and coping mechanisms. E. g. spontaneous (death)
or predictable (starting school, getting married etc.

Primary prevention programs targeting developmental crisis can be organized in

divorce courts, college dorms, prenatal clinics etc. It based on their comfort state.

Unit 4: Brief Analysis Of: Community (Public Health) And Social Action Models Of Mental
Health
INTRODUCTION

There Are 5 Models Of Mental Health:

1. Clinical Model: Custodial model

Therapeutic model
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2. Community Model Clinical pole

model
Public mental health pole model

3. Social Action Model

THE THREE MAIN MODELS IN THE CONTINUM

The clinical model is more focus on individual

The community model is focuses on both individual and social The social action
model id focuses on society and political system

1. CLINICAL MODEL
Emphasis is on the individual in distress.
Thinking is mainly in terms of medical concepts.
Psychological understanding and psychotherapy are emphasized.

The clinical model presented is an attempt to provide a way of viewing and organizing the clinical
process. Major factors involved in the process, ranging from the common characteristics of the
setting to basic treatment guidelines, are identified. Although the original purpose of the model
was to provide order and direction for those directing inpatient units, it can, with minor
modifications, be used in a variety of settings by various professionals. For example, it has been
used for staff development purposes in educational and mental health facilities. The model is not
intended to be a delineation to the nth detail but is to be suggestive. It is sufficiently flexible to
accommodate different theoretical approaches and thus serve as the basis for ongoing staff
development and direction. How the model is specifically used and/or adapted is left to the reader’s
discretion, although some suggestions for its use will be presented.
CUSTODIAL MODEL
Custodial models seek to make employees feel as if the boss is caring for their personal needs.
This is often done through benefits packages such as healthcare, retirement plans and other
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incentives. The custodial model looks to retain quality people by providing incentives that are
meaningful to the employee. The custodial model of organisational behaviour takes into
consideration the security needs of employees. A custodial environment gives a psychological
reassurance of economic rewards and benefits. The basis of this model is economic resources with
a managerial orientation toward money to pay wages and benefits.

THERAPEUTIC MODEL
The Toolbox uses the term ‘therapeutic models’ to describes established groups of theory and
intervention from psychology, counselling and social work. The therapeutic models featured in
this resource are:

Motivational Interviewing
Solutions Focused Therapy
Cognitive Behaviour Therapy
Adolescent Community Reinforcement Approach
Narrative Therapy
Family Focused Interventions
Dialectical Behaviour Therapy
Acceptance Commitment Theory

2. COMMUNITY MODEL
Consider the entire population
Focus is shifted to the social setting from the individual.
Social factors: determinants of human problems
Patient care happens in the context of community values and institutions in flexible
settings.
Major aim: making clinical services immediately and easily accessible for all.
The American Psychological Association defines community mental health as activities that
promote mental health that are performed in the community instead of institutional settings.
According to the U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services’ Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration (SAMHSA), the concept of community mental health originated with the
Community Mental Health Act of 1963. Prior to the passage of that act, individuals with mental
illness in the U.S. were frequently institutionalized, and the quality of the treatment they received
varied significantly.
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According to the American Psychological Association, a community mental health center is a

facility or facilities that are community-based and provide mental health services, sometimes as an
alternative to the care that mental hospitals provide.

Social workers, psychiatrists, counselors, psychologists and peer support specialists are some of
the professionals who provide services at community mental health centers. In addition,
community mental health centers frequently contract with other providers in the community for
their services; they also refer clients to other types of providers such as residential treatment
centers.

Understanding the type of services that community mental health centers provide can help clarify
what community mental health is within the mental health care landscape. Community mental
health centers primarily offer outpatient mental health services, but they are not limited to that.
Examples of the specific services they may offer to individuals with mental illness include:

Diagnostic evaluation
Screening for possible admission to a mental health facility
Emergency care
Crisis intervention services
Psychotherapy

Partial hospitalization or day treatment

Psychosocial rehabilitation
Medication management
Substance abuse treatment
CLINICAL POLE MODEL
Interventions focuses on the individual in need but is also adapted to the special needs
and lifestyles of community.
Settings will be less professional.
Collaboration with family members, community caretakers and specially trained
community members – the clinician includes family and other community members the
intervention / treatment because, it will helps to collect lot of information from them.
Patient’s well being intimately connected these people. Immediate goal: carry the
person through the crisis and increase social competency.
Therapy is brief and focused.
No attempt to bring about major personality changes.
Never ask about client’s past experiences and conflicts rather only help the person
from current crisis.
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Shorter and less costly psychological interventions.

Clinician is more involved with the daily life and social problems of the client.
Focus of concern: present problems and immediate social behaviour of the client.
Clinician also works with family members and relevant others since well-being is
connected to them and environment.
PUBLIC MENTAL HEALTH POLE MODEL
Efforts to alter social conditions affecting whole communities.

More focus on whole community of people

Major goal: Prevention. So shift from person-centered to population centered or
social system centered interventions. Reducing stressful qualities in family, school,
police, factory and social ecology a person lives in to increase well-being in large
groups of people.
Any social institution can be the target of change but focus is more on those
institutions which is immediately involved ( eg. school) with the lives of community
members and most accessible ( easy) to change.

The public health model is characterized by a focus on the health of the entire population, the
inclusion of preventative care, and the promotion of social supports. According to the Surgeon
General’s report on Mental Health (1999) “The public health model is characterized by concern
for the health of a population in its entirety and by awareness of the linkage between health and
the physical and psycho- social environment. Public health focuses not only on traditional areas of
diagnosis, treatment, and etiology, but also on epidemiologic surveillance of the health of the
population at large, health promotion, disease prevention, and access to and evaluation of services
(Last & Wallace, 1992)
Implicit in this definition is the concept of enhancing the quality of life of individuals and the
public at large. The mission of public health, as defined by the Institute of Medicine (IOM), is to
assure “the conditions for people to be healthy,” as pursued by governmental agencies, public and
private health care organizations, academic institutions, and community-based organizations

The American Public Health Association (APHA) has developed 10 performance standards for
states to be judged on their public health approach.

a Inform, educate, and empower people about health issues.

b Link people to needed personal health services and assure the provision of health
care when otherwise unavailable.
c Assure a competent public health and personal healthcare workforce.
d Enforce laws and regulations that protect health and ensure safety.
e Develop policies and plans that support individual and community health efforts.
f Diagnose and investigate health problems and health hazards in the community.
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g Mobilize community partnerships to identify and solve health problems.

h Monitor health status to identify community health problems.
i Evaluate effectiveness, accessibility, and quality of personal and population-
based health services.
j Research for new insights and innovative solutions to health problems.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Model :

The strength of the public health model, when applied to community organizing, is in its view of
the body politic as an organic, dynamic system of adjustment and evolution that, like the human
body, requires maintenance, nurturing, and protection from external threat. The central perspective
of this model is a faith in humanity to resolve conflict given the opportunity to work. Cycles of
subversion and integration, when functioning organically, strengthen a society’s immune system
allowing it to adapt to new circumstances with greater resilience.

The weakness of the public health model lies in the vulnerability of its practitioners to accusations
of conspiracies, and the tendency of overzealous devotees to neglect the holistic requirement of
integrating their practice with those engaged in reform advocacy, political diplomacy, law
enforcement, and military deterrence. Actors accustomed to functioning as the white blood cells
of society, by definition, are programmed to be on the lookout for social viruses. The difficulties
of integration with sympathetic actors not so inclined, arises when these threats successfully elude
popular detection and are able to spread covertly, infecting unsuspecting target populations –
including one’s allies – through lazy and corrupt media habit.

An example of clinical pole and public health pole of community model :

Malaria. Clinical pole will focus on treating the person with malaria whereas public pole will
focus on prevention of malaria through eliminating disease causing conditions.

3. Social Action Model

• Extreme social oriented position.
• Fundamental assumption: society is disturbed and needs to be changed, not the individual.
• Human problems lie in society and its fundamental structures. This has to be changed for
increasing well-being.
• Views clinical intervention as a barrier to effecting radical change.
• Vigorous critics of medical model of thinking (not focus on any medical and psychological
concepts)
• Target of intervention: influencing major social programs and political and social policy
makers.
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Social action model defines that “there is a disadvantaged (often oppressed) segment of the
population that needs to be organized” (Zastrow, 2006, p. 298).Therefore, social justice needs to
be employed in order to assist the community system in challenging the power structure.

Communities may experience various sources of oppression; in which case, it is role of the worker
to function as an activist, ado vacate, or broker in order to determine the appropriate services or
intervention. It is important to understand what the community needs, rather than what leaders
promote as their agenda. Communities are in various stages, and may need different strategies in
order to best assist the community. Social action brings about the question of ethics and morality
and determining weather there is an unjust action taken place for which social action needs to take
place. While not every party has the same ethics and morals when there is a marginalize community
that is being taken advantage of social action is key to ending discriminatory policies. Regardless
of where everyone stands social action brings people with the mindset together to fight for a
common cause.

This is also evident when working with abused clients on an interpersonal level (micro), such as
counseling. A worker’s first notion may be to begin counseling or discuss personal information
pertaining to the client’s presenting problem and history, rather than ensuring that the client has
had his or her basic needs met, such as safety, shelter, food, or clothing. Therefore, case
management services are more likely to be necessary first, instead of intervention. Case managers
will act as an advocate and broker services for the client relating to their basic needs to ensure that
her or his holistic needs are met. This model can be adopted in the case of the bridge that they want
to build in Detroit that will result in negative externalities for the people in the community who
are primarily marginalize people.

Unit 5 : Caplan’s Preventive Psychiatry (1964)

*Caplan defined preventive psychiatry as being concerned with the planning and carrying out of
organized community programmes to deal with the problems of mentally disordered individuals.
These programmes aim to reduce:
1. Incidence of mental disorders
2. Duration of disorder
3. Impairment resulting from the disorder.
*Basic assumption: Human beings need supplies appropriate to their level of development.

*Deficiencies in these supplies can lead to psychological disorders.

*3 Kinds of supplies are needed for healthy psychological development.

 11

1. Physical: Physical supplies include: Required for bodily growth and development.
Includes the following:
Food
Shelter
Protection from harm
Sensory stimulation

2. Psychosocial supplies include: Received through interaction with others.

Emotional and intellectual stimulation

Love and affection
Satisfying social encounters

3. Sociocultural supplies include: Social forces that determine status of individual and
expectations of others for him. Advantaged social groups have greater input of these
supplies and vice versa. Community services, societal expectations, employment and
education access

Supplies and mental health disoders:

Research has connected aspects of each supply category to mental health disorders.

*Physical: noise, population density, nutrition, lack of safety *Psychosocial: lack of social
support, family conflict, marital conflict *Sociocultural: loss of role, effect of economy,
sociocultural status.

Crisis Resolution
*It is the Fourth dimension
*Life crisis can endanger adaptation and lead to MH disorders or provide opportunities for growth
and development.
*Helping individuals overcome crisis is an important aspect of primary prevention.

Levels of Action
Caplan said that primary prevention action is possible at 2 levels:
Social action level
 12

Interpersonal action level

1. Social action: efforts to influence legislative and social action programs that serve
welfare, health pr educational needs in the society.

2. Interpersonal action: direct face to face interventions to influence individuals,

families and communities.

ECOLOGICAL MODEL
Ecological systems theory

*Urie Bronfenbrenner was of the opinion that every organism develops within the context of
ecological systems.
*Development occurs through increasingly complex interactions between the individual and
multiple levels of surrounding environment.
*He advocated for naturalistic studies and interventions.

Contextual Systems
5 interlocking contextual systems:
*Microsystem
*Mesosystem
*Exosystem
*Macrosystem
*Chrononsystem

1. Microsystem: setting of everyday face to face interactions of individual. Includes:

home, school, neighborhood, work settings etc.
2. Mesosystem: inter-relations and linkages between various microsystems.
3. Exosystem: linkages between two or more settings but at least one on of the setting
does not include the individual and so affects him indirectly.
4. Macrosystem: overall cultural patterns like dominant values, beliefs, customs,
economic and social systems of a culture etc.
5. Chronosystem: dimension of time, degree of stability or change. Includes changes in
family composition, place of residence, employment status etc.
 13

Features of Ecological Systems Theory

* The elements in each system are protective factors
* Positive interaction among and stimulation from elements are essentialfor normal development
of individual.
* As the individual develops he comes in contact with outer systems* Interaction with closer
systems are crucial and the outcomes are more visible and immediate.
* Studies and interventions on mental health must be naturalistic.

Applications
* Using a theory of individual development with Brofenbrenner’s ecological model, Belsky has
developed a framework to account for individual, family, social, and cultural influences in child
abuse.
* Brofenbrenner’s ecological model has also been used as a framework forviewing Type A
behavior and identifying potential system level interventions.
* Jackson has developed a behavioral-environmental model of health problems that has been
applied to health promotion issues.

ECOLOGICAL MODEL
*Proposed by McLeroy et al 1988.
*Health is the responsibility of all the agencies not the victim’s alone *Behavior is affected by
and affecting the social environment: A transactional process.
*There are factors at five levels that influence behaviour and wellbeing 1)The intrapersonal level:
*Characteristics of the individual such as knowledge, attitudes, behavior, self-concept, skills, etc.
*This includes the developmental history of the individual.
Interventions
*Interventions should ensure that physical, cognitive and psycho-social developmental milestones
are met.
*Interventions includes educational programs, mass media, support groups, organizational
incentives, or peer counseling etc.
*Theory of change at this level is to change the individuals and the target of intervention are
characteristics of the individual.

2) Interpersonal processes and primary groups:

*Formal and informal social network and social support systems. Important sources of influence
on health-related behaviors of an individual.
*Social relationships are an important part of social identity.
 14

*Provides important social resources that will help in fulfilling social and personal obligations and
responsibilities. *Social resources are called social support.
Interventions
*Interpersonal interventions of health promotion focuses on changing individuals through social
influences. Social norms and social groups are not targeted.
*Increasing social capital.
*Training in interpersonal relationship skills. This will increase social support and social immunity
from social risks. 3)Organisational/Institutional level:
*Includes social institutions with organizational characteristics, formal and informal rules and
regulations for operations.
Examples: employment organizations, educational institutions, religious institutions etc.
Interventions
*Interventions at this level can be very effective since individuals spend a lot of time here.
*Can target large number of people.
*Increasing opportunities for building social support through behavior change. Behaviour change
can be supported by organizational characteristics.
*Creating healthier environments by adopting an organizational development role and establishing
linkages to other health related efforts. *Institutionalization of successful health promotion
programs. This happens when a program becomes integrated into the organization.

4)Community level:
*Relationship among organizations and institutions.
*Community is the interpersonal, socio-economic, and geo- political and institutional life of group
people where individual, groups and institutions interact informally based on norms and values.
Interventions
*Health promotion interventions should use mediating structures (family, church etc) to deliver
services.
*Increasing coordination among community agencies to avoid competition and to work on
common goals. Ex: During a flood.
*Increasing the access of disadvantaged to political and power structures of community.

5)Public Policy Level:

*Local, state and national laws and policies.
*Government measures like housing facilities, employment opportunities, education access and
opportunities etc.
 15

*If the basic needs of individuals are met then the individual can focus on higher order needs.
Interventions
*Increasing public awareness about health and policy issues.
*Developing laws and policies to educate citizens and to increase their participation in political
processes.
*Conducting studies examining the role of social measures and socioeconomic factors on mental
health.

GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY

*Communities consist of interlocking networks of human, social and environmental systems.

*Change in one depends on and is reflected in change of others

*Focuses on system properties, inter-relations among parts of a single system and relations of
system to other system.

Origin
*Bertalanffy (1968) –biologist

*Living organisms are organized systems transacting with their environment.

*Study: organizational properties of the system and the functions of various sub-systems in one
system and the transactions happens among systems and their sub-systems.
*The systems are open systems. They have input and output relationships with other systems.

Approaches to study the properties of systems and transactions

1. Cybernetics – chain of feedback and regulation happen in systems.

2. Information theory – information transmitted and received.
3. Decision theory – how decision are made in providing input and feedback action.
4. Game theory – how systems ensures maximum gain for survival.
5. Computer simulation – indirect method of studying properties, functions and
transactions.

Application in Mental Health

 16

*Hutcheson and Krause (1969)

*Use system theory for rational planning of community mental health. *Orderly way of looking at
the problem from all the angles to find best possible solution – system-analytic approach.
For example- Depression among elderly population in Urban area , sexual violence against women
or alcoholism in rural area.

Depression among elderly people

● Environment: noisy and air polluted environment, limited opportunity for recreation,
staying in small space. Travel and Commutation is very difficult due to traffic
● Social- limited number people in family, partners death, old friends are far away,
● Personal- lot of time, less activity, feeling of isolation, lack of intellectual and emotional
stimulation

Opportunities:
*Environment: many religious centers are around
*Social: religious community have been formed religious centers, social action forums,
government policies and funds for welfare of elderly people *Action.

Guidelines in System-Analytic Approach

*Decide goal or mission for the program.
*Describe system-boundaries and sub-systems which make it up.
*Understand how system change occurs and factors underlying. *Develop a model which
considers all elements of the system
- Stable and unstable properties of the system
*Use the model to generate theoretical changes of different kinds and see what possible outcomes
might result when we make alterations.
*Select most desirable outcome for the goal set. and carry out the action model to reach the goal.
*To cut cost and clarify doubts and avoid waste before the intervention.

When is system theory applied in Mental Health Prevention *Problems – well defined
with limited scope.
*Goals are clear and relevant variables are known and quantified.
*Problem framed from the angle of community value.

*Studying and intervening the mental health problem of less complex and small community will
be effective.
 17

Limitations of System Theory

In most of the cases the application is limited to studying problem, and generating number of
alternative solutions. Sophisticated steps require greater understanding.

Module 2: Mental Health Enhancement Training Programs

Unit 1: Crisis intervention, Encounter groups.
Unit 2: Leadership training.
Unit 3: Life skills training programs.
Unit 4: motivational training,
Unit 5: Parenting skills training.
Unit 1 Crisis Intervention
The Concept of Crisis
A truism, but an important one, is that life proceeds through a succession of human crises, some
developmental and some accidental. Movement from one maturational phase to another
necessarily involves transitional stages where established behavior patterns are no longer adequate
to new demands and challenges. The skilled crawler is the stumbling toddler before he can become
the successful walker. Psychosocial growth, as Erikson (1951, 1959) has described it, confronts
the growing person with a sequence of developmental tasks.
The successful resolution of each establishes necessary character traits of the mature per- son,
including trust, autonomy, and identity, among others. Successful resolution of developmental
crises (as well as accidental crises, which we will consider in a moment) also has the nonspecific
effect of increasing the personality’s resources for crisis-management itself. Defensive and coping
mechanisms grow out of previous crisis experiences and make the individual more adept in future
ones.
Maturation thus involves a sequence of developmental crises, marked by such events as weaning,
entering school, menstruation, marriage, finding a vocation, menopause, and retirement.
Developmental crises, at least within cultures, occur in predictable sequence. Culture, however,
critically affects the extent and way such life changes are stressful. For example, Margaret Mead
pointed out years ago (1928) that the emotional crises of adolescence might be particular to our
culture that invests coming of age sexually with great importance; by comparison the Samoan
adolescent moves smoothly from childhood to adulthood in a permissive culture which allows
early entry into heterosexual roles.

Moreover, cultures change in time and what is true in one era may be different in the next, which
can account for generation-gap conflicts. Currently, this seems true in the area of adolescent
sexuality where parents remain American while their children have become more Samoan.
 18

Similarly, the crisis of vocational choice would hardly exist in a stable primitive culture or in a
society where roles are ascribed by tradition or inheritance rather than achieved through one’s own
efforts.
Along with such developmental crises, there are in each life accidental crises, also inevitable but
less predictable. Sudden illness, the loss of a job, the death of a loved one, happen without
opportunity for prior emotional or practical preparation; so too, more dramatic events, such as
earthquakes, fire, or other disasters which affect the lives of entire communities. Nor is crisis
limited to noxious events; promotion to a “better job,” with new demands and responsibilities, may
be psychologically as threatening as the loss of a valued position.
There are polgnant stories of formerly happy but poor men who lived in misery after winning a
lottery. What is critical is the impact of the new situation, its psychological meanings and
connotation of threat, the social setting within which it occurs, and the personality and coping
resources of the individual; all of these in complex interaction determine the extent and intensity
of stress responses.

L. Rapoport (1962) has described three interrelated conditions that produce the crisis state:
(1) there is a hazardous event which threatens the individual;

(2) the threat is more dam- aging if it is symbolically linked to earlier stresses that resulted in
increased vulnerability or conflicts; and

(3) the person is unable to respond with adequate coping mechanisms. “Stress” and “crisis” cannot
readily be separated conceptually, although some writers have attempted distinctions. Both terms
refer to a condition that disrupts former adaptation and involves states in which there is threat
capable of overwhelming the coping resources of the individual; therefore, emergency
mechanisms are called into play. The consequence may be either effective functioning or
disintegration and symptom formation (Basowitz, Persky, Korchin, and Grinker, 1955; Janis,
1958; R. S. Lazarus, 1966).
Life crises are a major reason why people seek psychotherapy. Typically some stressful event
overwhelms coping capacities or reinstates earlier conflicts, and the distressed person seeks
psychological help. Focusing on the precipitating stress has been found to be an effective
therapeutic technique which can establish the groundwork for continued psychotherapy oriented
to more extensive character reorganization (Kalis et al., 1961). In many cases, of course, people
pass through crisis states without seeking mental health professionals; they may urn instead to
lawyers, doctors, vocational or marital counselors, or even to Friends and relatives. Crisis is
universal and crisis intervention is everybody’s business.

Clinicians have rightfully pointed out that they have always been involved in crisis intervention,
but it is only in the recent past that there has been focal con- ern among mental health workers
with the crisis state and its clinical management, an emphasis of considerable importance in
 19

community mental health thinking. This has arisen largely from the work of Lindemann, Caplan,
and their colleagues in the Boston area (Lindemann, 1944, 1956; Caplan, 1961, 1964: arad, 1965).

A critical event in this development was the tragic fire in the Coconut Grove nightclub in Boston
in 1943. The many dead and dying were taken to nearby hostels. Erich Lindemann, a psychiatrist
on the staff of the Massachusetts General hospital, interviewed relatives at that time and on later
occasions to help them in their grief (Cobb and Lindemann, 1943). From this experience, he
formulated a concept of the grief reaction and con3 of 11e fundamentals of crisis intervention on
methods (Lindemann, 1944, 1956). These principles were given fuller extension in Lindemann’s
Wellesley Human Relations Service, which was an important forerunner and prototype of modern
community mental health centres. Crisis theory and intervention methods were further developed
in the writings of munity Gerald Caplan (e.g., 1961, 1964) and his colleagues and students (Parad,
1965).

Crisis Intervention
Caplan sees crisis intervention as one of the principal techniques of primary prevention. In and of
itself, a crisis is not a “mental illness,” but it may be a critical premorbid event within which there
are the seeds of subsequent pathology. Early intervention in the crisis state itself may thus avert
later, more damaging consequences. Of equal importance is the parallel proposition that working
with people in crises may also provide opportunity for positive growth as well as simply restoring
a former equilibrium

In crises, there is heightened confusion and painful affects but also, Caplan proposes, greater
susceptibility to suggestion and desire for help. The suggestibility and openness to change, if only
to relieve the intolerable anxiety and un- certainty, may induce people to seek psychological help,
even though they may earlier have denied persistent problems to which the present crisis is related.
Crises thus bring to light enduring psychological problems and they can be the point of entry for
subsequent therapeutic intervention. The challenge of crisis intervention lies in the fact that it
occurs in a time when people are maximally open to change, for better or for worse.
Some other general qualities of crisis should be noted (Caplan, 1964: L. Rapoport, 1962).
1. The crisis state tends to be temporally self-limiting, usually running from one to six
weeks. Beyond that time, some kind of resolution, perhaps inadequate, occurs, either
because new events have altered the situation or because continuing distress is intolerable
and defensive mechanisms have come into play to deny or disguise it. An important
consequence of this for clinical practice is that it limits the time available for effective
intervention.

2. There tend to be parallel changes in the individual’s feeling and cognitive states.
Tension and helplessness characterize the early phase, which is accompanied by confusion
 20

so that alternative solutions cannot be conceived nor evaluated. In the ideal resolution,
there is both reduction of affect and increase in the capacity for conceptualization and
action.

3. If partially or wholly unresolved, crises tend to return. Those which de- pend on rare
events, such as extreme illness or disaster, may occur only once in a lifetime. However,
crises more common to social life depend as much on the susceptibility of the involved
person as on external events. Thus, the family which cannot deal with the acting-out
behavior of an adolescent and which goes into crisis when, for example, the boy or girl is
arrested, will surely find other situations for similar crisis reactions. Moreover, earlier
crises can affect the nature of later ones.
This can occur in one of two ways: either crisis effects can cumulate, so that later crises
can be more intense, though triggered by objectively similar events, or, contrariwise, there
can be a growing desensitization and less intense crisis reactions. This phenomenon, as
evident in national as in familial crises, has the unhappy consequence of allowing apathy
to grow so that successive crises come to be seen as “normal” and beyond concern. We
simply do not know under which conditions there is incremental and, under which,
decremental crisis response. The phenomenon itself warrants further study. However, in
the treatment of the case, the individual’s history of crisis and crisis coping becomes an
important focus of assessment.
Necessary Conditions for Crisis Intervention Programs

Providing for people in psychological crises is a major theme in community mental health. Since
crisis intervention tends to be brief, more people can be served by a limited staff. Moreover, crisis
services reach sections of the population who neither know, value, nor seek conventional
psychotherapy. In the crisis state people both seek relief from immediate distress and ways of
dealing with intolerable situations, although they may not be psychologically minded nor
motivated to ward personality change. By the standards of psychotherapy, the goals of crisis
intervention are limited, but their potential extended impact is great.
Effective crisis intervention programs require important changes in clinic practice. These have
been slow to develop. Thus, McGee (1968) notes: “Despite a broadened outlook toward crisis
intervention, our overall orientation in this area is related to a fairly traditional model having to do
with intake and psychotherapy. Among other things. The typical stance of a mental health agency
is to wait until the individual in crisis appears for help.

Once this occurs his problem is evaluated, and he is offered some form of psychotherapy. As yet,
approaches to crisis intervention do not sufficiently emphasize the concepts of outreach and
consultation” (McGee, 1968, p. 323). He proposes that clinics make greater efforts to reach out to
people in need, partly through consultation and education in the community. Organizing a good
crisis unit-indeed, any community-oriented ser- vice-requires special attention to matters of
 21

location, availability, setting, staff mobility, and functions, among others, that are of lesser
importance in traditional clinics. A number of these matters will now be considered.

Closeness To the Community

The facility should be geographically and psychologically close to the community it serves. It
should be known and respected by potential clients and significant others in their social
environment. Under conditions of stress, no one is inclined to travel distances to seek help nor to
be happy in alien settings. This is particularly true for the lower-class person whose psychological
life-space is more limited and for whom travel outside of the immediate neighbourhood may be
frightening. The facility should not only be located in the neighbourhood, but as much as possible
be staffed by people from the neighbourhood and/or familiar with its ways. The black client is
likely to be more responsive to a setting which has a significant number of black staff.
Communication as well as the morale of the foreign-born client depends on the availability of
people who speak his language.
The nature of the larger institution with which the clinic is affiliated significantly affects the
likelihood that clients will seek its services. Although fine “walk-in” clinics have been developed
within large metropolitan hospitals and on university campuses (see Tanenbaum, 1966, for a good
account of this development), each of these settings evokes attitudes which may be barriers to the
poor and uneducated. The hospital connotes illness and death and, in its psychiatric wing, insanity
and incarceration; the university, intellectuality and experimentation, with limited regard for
human welfare. In urban slums, “storefront clinics have been developed to make them immediately
accessible, geographically and psychologically, to the resident population.

An incident in San Francisco’s Chinatown shows how proximity and com- munity integration
might discourage as well as encourage the use of clinics. A group of Chinese-American mental
health workers, associated with various agencies in the larger community, voluntarily developed
a unit in the heart of China- town in which short-term psychotherapy is offered by Chinese staff in
the various Chinese dialects as well as in English. They reasoned that realistic language problems,
the cohesiveness of the community, its concern with its own problems, and cultural resistance to
taking them to the outside world, would encourage many to go to their own clinic where they might
resist involvement with “Cauca- stan” agencies.

Indeed, they were correct; many did. But others did not, and because of the same cultural factors.
The new clinic was everybody’s business. Who came and went, and to a fair degree, what went
on, was widely known in this close community. Shame of being identified as a patient and a desire
for privacy kept them away or led some to seek referrals to agencies where they could be more
anonymous. The general principle that systems for the delivery of mental health services must be
congruent with community values remains true; the specific principle that services should be in
and of the community is shown here to require more subtle interpretation.
 22

Thus far, we have considered the importance of having a facility physically and socially close to
its community as a condition for effective crisis intervention. But there is another aspect of the
issue of proximity, i.e., closeness to the place where crises are likely to occur, and where
intervention can occur in the natural setting of the crisis without shifting to another scene. An
example of this kind of program is provided by one of the projects of the Harvard Laboratory of
Community Psychiatry which was concerned with the crisis surrounding the birth of a premature
baby, and which involved contact with the mother while she was still in the obstetric ward, after
she returned home, but while the infant remained in the nursery, and after the infant came home
(Kaplan and Mason, 1960).
Each of these phases had its particular psychological issues: first, recognizing without in-
appropriate denial the possibility of the baby’s death, and dealing with the accompanying feelings
of self-blame and inadequacy; second, sustaining hope for survival and preparing necessary care,
during the separation; and, third, establishing a mothering relationship after the disruption of the
premature birth and separation, and perhaps coping with possible congenital abnormalities.

A number of aspects of such a project should be noted:

(1) The work is anchored in the setting, in this case an obstetric service, in which clinicians are
known and immediately available. No “referral” is necessary, and consultation is right at hand for
nurses and physicians;

(2) With experience, more subtle signs of crises can be recognized and more appropriate actions
taken; and
(3) In the same process, clinical research of importance to the further understanding of crisis states
can be conducted. For example, what kinds of emotional reaction, in which sequence, over what
time, occur? What personality and social conditions dispose to more or less intense reactions?
Since a number of similar people are undergoing similar experiences, a natural experiment exists;
answering such questions builds a firmer understanding of the particular crisis and its management,
which together with other comparable experiments contributes to better conceptualization of crisis
behaviour generally.
Immediate Availability of Service
Delay between the onset of a crisis and contact with the crisis service must be minimized. Ideally,
clinical workers are available on a twenty-four-hour basis to see patients as emergencies arise.
Unlike conventional clinic practice, crisis services cannot allow delays due to the mechanics of
making appointments, waiting for an available hour, or administrative processing. Immediate
action is needed and intermediate stages have to be minimized or eliminated. Crisis ser vices are
often “walk-in clinics” which require no prior appointment. Suicide prevention services do a great
part of their work on the telephone (Shneidman, 1972). The principle in all these cases is to be
there when the patient needs help.
 23

Mobility
Crisis intervention requires that staff leaves the confines of the clinic for the community. This may
involve accompanying police, family members, ministers, or other caretakers to the scene of crises.
The clinician cannot wait passively for people in need to come to him. Many will never arrive;
others will come too late. Crisis-oriented clinicians should also participate in the work of settings
where Problems cluster, for example, by consulting to schools or medical services. The clinic itself
remains a base, and a necessary one for many kinds of therapeutic transactions, but its
boundaries should be flexible. It should be easy for those in need to come in and easy for staff to
go out. In the apt phrase of a Berkeley colleague, it should be a “clinic without walls.”
The Technique of Crisis Intervention

At the present time, crisis intervention is possible in various ways, for no single model has
emerged. Current practice involves adaptations of short-term psycho- therapeutic and social
casework techniques, particularly of the sort characterized as ego-supportive, here-and-now
oriented, problem-centered, or reality-oriented. Protagonists of crisis methods argue that they are
not just less (or one phase of) psychotherapy, and that the goal does not involve gaining
understanding of conflicts-particularly those which are unconsciously rooted-nor are historical
exploration, corrective emotional experiences, transference, and character reconstruction
important to the process.

What is involved can be inferred from various accounts, although the particular process would
obviously vary with the nature of the crisis, the social circumstances within which it occurs, the
severity of the evoked reactions, and the particular personality involved. In addition to direct work
with the patient, crisis intervention commonly involves consultation with relevant others and direct
efforts to alter the social environment.

Some general properties of the clinical process in crisis intervention can be sketched. The
immediate goals are

(1) To relieve present distress, notably anxiety, confusion, and hopelessness;

(2) To restore the patient’s previous functioning: and
(3) To help him, his family, and significant others learn what personal actions are possible and
what community resources exist. Secondary, and more ex- tended, goals would include
(4) Understanding the relation of the present crisis to past experiences and persistent
psychological problems, and
(5) Developing new attitudes, behavior, and coping techniques that might be more effective in
future crises.

Initially, the clinical transaction focuses on the crisis itself and its immediately precipitating events.
By reconsidering the stressful events, new contexts and understanding can emerge. The
accompanying painful effect can be reduced, in part by venting feelings and in part by coming to
see them as understand stress reactions.
 24

In later phases, the emphasis shifts to problem-solving efforts. Previous life events, particularly
those which were successfully managed, are explored to bring out the patient’s coping resources
which might again be utilized or adapted in the present instance. Necessary information and advice
are given, but hopefully in an effort to serve rather than undercut the patient’s own efforts at self-
determination.
Alternate solutions are visualized, new behaviors rehearsed, and future consequences considered.
Along with the dominant focus on the present dilemma, there is a strong future orientation in this
form of therapy.

The relation between clinician and patient, central to any therapeutic process, cannot evolve slowly
over time as in conventional psychotherapy. It must be built rapidly on the basis of the patient’s
helplessness and confusion and his readiness to invest trust and hope in the clinician. Such attitudes
are encouraged by the therapist, who readily communicates his confidence, competence, and
authority. The clinician is necessarily more active and directive than he might be in longer-term
psychotherapy.

Under such conditions, there is the realistic possibility of inducing a complementary regressive
role in the patient, in which he gains relief but loses independence by turning his problems and
fate over to the therapist. There is a paradox and danger here, for the relation is based on the
patient’s helplessness and the therapist’s authority, though its purpose is to encourage self-respect
and self-determination.
If possible, such danger is averted by continued focus on the problem-to-be-solved, the limited
time available, and the patient’s own competence and capacity for autonomy. There is little
discussion of the relation itself and transference elements are minimized. Unlike conventional
psychotherapy, the end is constantly in view. Termination is explicitly expected and dealt with.
Under these conditions, the more forceful and active role of the therapist is less likely to infantilize
the patient.

Typically, crisis-oriented therapy involves six to eight contact hours. Unlike conventional practice,
such sessions are more loosely scheduled and may be of variable length. Patients often seen
conjointly with family members or friends Indeed, in an experiment in one Walk-in Clinic, groups
of three to six entirely unrelated patients were seen by three professionals on the first occasion in
a group session (Tanenbaum, 1966). These people though strangers to each other were able to
verbalize their concerns as readily as comparable patients in individual sessions. They seem to
gain support and to experience relief from the presence of others in distress.
Anticipatory Crisis Intervention

On-coming crises can often be foreseen, and there is the challenging possibility of developing
programs for “anticipatory crisis intervention” before people are actually in distress (Caplan,
1964). Where it can be predicted that individuals or groups are likely to be exposed to a
psychologically threatening situation, advance counseling can be made available. In such a
 25

process, likely occurrences are de scribed in detail, potentially threatening aspects analyzed,
probably emotional distress considered; all to the end of reducing the novelty and shock value and
of increasing the knowledge and competence required for effective action in the actual situation.
Through rehearsal and vicarious experience, processes similar to what Janis (1958) has called
“emotional inoculation” can occur.
There is nothing essentially new in the notion of anticipatory crisis intervention. In many familiar
ways, people are prepared for the demands of new experiences. Colleges, military services, and
industrial organizations run orientation programs for new members. Indeed, all of education has
been called, more or less accurately, “preparation for life.” Closer to our present concern are
courses in sex education or premarital counselling intended to prepare young people for the
challenges of maturity. Similarly, programs for expectant parents are another familiar effort to help
people handle new life responsibilities.

Physicians and nurses run classes for young couples which focus on the care, feeding, and medical
problems of infants which, at the same time, address psychological issues of parenthood. In
company with others, prospective parents acquire information and techniques necessary for infant
care, while at the same time learning about com- mon uncertainties and common concerns. As in
group therapy, sharing anxieties helps reduce them. Diapering a rubber doll rather than a live baby
eases the later task. In significant ways, prenatal courses can avert some of the problems which
might otherwise surround and follow the birth of a child.
Caplan’s Peace Corps project illustrates an effort at anticipatory crisis intervention utilizing
the skills and specialized knowledge of clinicians (Caplan, 1964). In the early 1960s, many
young Americans were being trained for new tasks in distant lands, often under primitive
conditions, where typically they knew little of the language or culture. For many, it was a first
experience abroad. In their new roles, they often had to function in relative isolation and to depend
on their own resources, without accustomed social supports. “Culture shock” was predictable as
they interacted with people who lived by different rules and values. Pamphlets were written for
the volunteers and group discussion held to review the demands on them and their potential
reactions. They were warned of the effects of isolation, homesickness, and alienation, and of
the difficulties of being under constant scrutiny, and of living under new role and authority
relations. Possible actions to relieve tensions and feelings of inadequacy were reviewed. These
efforts, Caplan believes, contributed to the generally high morale and ef- fective functioning of the
Peace Corps volunteers in the field.
The Current Status of Crisis Intervention

At this point, crisis intervention is more an orientation and way of thinking than a systematic body
of theory, knowledge, and practice. To date, there have been few systematic studies of process,
outcome or follow-up to show how these brief trans- actions affect people in distress and whether
or not they have enduring effects. Clinicians involved in the process are enthusiastic and
 26

preliminary reports suggest that crisis-oriented brief therapy in community mental health centers
can avert hospitalization for some patients.

Decker and Stubblebine (1972) showed that the number of psychiatric hospitalizations were
significantly reduced following the institution of a crisis intervention service compared to the
preceding period. Moreover, after brief crisis ser- vices, subsequent hospitalization, if required,
was significantly shorter, and the likelihood of later hospitalization was also significantly reduced.
On the other hand, in a controlled study of patients given crisis treatment compared to those
randomly assigned to a waiting list, Gottschalk, Fox, and Bates (1973) found no significant
difference in a variety of indices of psychiatric improvement; both groups improved and to about
the same extent over a six-week test period.
People thus seem to recover from crisis states with or without treatment, though progress may be
more rapid and less painful with some intervention. Gottschalk and his co-workers did not find,
however, that those patients who were less disturbed initially, less alienated, and less disorganized,
and who were more motivated toward satisfying human relations were likely to improve more with
crisis treatment.
Crisis intervention is not a simple or unitary system; instead, it borrows from different therapeutic
approaches. Critical questions are left unanswered: Are there desirable or necessary therapist
qualities? Are these the same or different than those required for longer-term therapy? Is it possible
that the skills and knowledge of the expert psychotherapist might indeed block effective action in
the brief, reality-oriented encounter? Or, because of its brevity, is greater clinical knowledge and
skill required for brief crisis therapy? What is most critical in the process the relationship, the
actions taken, or the atmosphere of hope? Are there kinds of patients or problems for which these
techniques are ill-advised? Questions such as these point up the need for detailed studies of the
process and effects of this promising but largely unproven technique. There is some uncertainty as
to what is meant by crisis, even among staff members of the Harvard Laboratory of Community
Psychiatry, which has been the source of much of the current thinking in the field (Bloom, 1963).
Studies of life stress and developmental crises have expanded the knowledge necessary for the
further development of crisis intervention methods. Such methods have been explored in such
situations as the birth of a premature infant. Entry into college, surgery and debilitating disease,
death of a loved one, entry into marriage and marital and family crises, among others (Parad,
1965). Stu- dents of crisis intervention have been concerned with theory and research in ego
psychology, particularly that which calls attention to adaptive and coping capacities in normal
development as well as under stress (e.g., R. W. White, 1963 Haan, 1969; Coelho, Hamburg, and
Adams, 1974). The continued evolution of theory and knowledge in these realms, combined with
more precise delineation of intervention methods and study of their effects, will surely continue
and lead to a firmer base for crisis theory and practice.
Encounter Groups
 27

Encounter groups are a group of people who meet, usually with a trained leader, to increase self-
awareness and social sensitivity, and to change behavior through interpersonal confrontation, self-
disclosure, and strong emotional expression.
Encounter groups are formed, usually under the guidance and leadership of a psychologists or
therapist, to provide an environment for intensive interaction. In general, because the therapy takes
place in a group setting, one of the goals of the encounter group is to improve the participants'
interpersonal skills.
A typical encounter group may consist of fewer that ten persons, one of whom is a trained
specialist, or leader. The role of the leader is primarily to develop and maintain an atmosphere of
psychological safety conducive to the free and honest expression of the ideas of group members.
The leader remains, as much as possible, outside the actual discussion itself. Encounter group
members are encouraged to fully examine and explore their reactions to, and feelings about,
statements made, and issues raised, in the group.
Proponents of the encounter group form of psychotherapy tend to believe that the behavior of an
individual is shaped to a very large degree by responsive adaptation to the attitudes of other
individuals, and that encounter groups enable individuals to discover and modify behavior that is
perceived as inappropriate. The effectiveness of encounter groups is a matter of some dispute, and
there is evidence which suggests that certain behavioral and attitudinal changes accomplished
inside the group may not endure outside the group.
Although early versions of encounter groups may have existed near the beginning of the 20th
century, the encounter group technique as it is currently practiced is derived from sensitivity
training procedures introduced shortly after World War II. Both the encounter group and
sensitivity training techniques are now generally included in a wider array of techniques, some of
which are controversial in the field of psychology, that were popularized beginning in the 1960s.
These techniques are collectively referred to as the human potential movement.

Techniques
The general encounter group goal is not to work on specific problem areas of the members but
rather to sensitize each member to the feelings of others. Members are placed in a face-to-face
encounter under instructions to say what they feel and 'pull no punches'. Theoretically this
procedure enables members to experience and express their feelings more forcefully. The
encounter group process varies tremendously from one group to the next. All encounter groups
focus on here-and-now feelings, negative and positive feedback to each member of the group, and
the removal of facades that interfere with honest, open communication. Most group leaders use a
variety of techniques that are designed to make the participants communicate honestly. Some of
these techniques are:
 28

(1) Self-description. All group members write down the three adjectives most descriptive of
themselves. The slips of paper are mixed, and the group discusses the kind of person that is being
described.
(2) Eyeball-to-eyeball. This technique involves two participants staring into each other's eyes for
a minute or two, communicating as much as possible, and discussing the feelings afterward.
(3) The blind walk. All group participants pair off, and with one person leading and the other
blind-folded, the 'blind' person walks around the room or outdoors and sensitizes himself to the
environment. One variant of this exercise is for the 'blind' persons to try to communicate by touch
alone.
(4) Trusting exercises. Participants take turns being lifted and passed around a circle formed by
the group members.
(5) Hot seat. One group member sits in a special chair, and others give the individual honest
feedback about how he or she affects them.
(6) Positive and negative bombardment. In this method, similar to the hot seat technique, the
group member is given feedback that focuses on only positive or only negative feedback. Some
groups may not use any formal techniques. Instead, the group is allowed to develop its own
strategies for encouraging honest and open interactions.

Types of encounter group

Marathon groups
A marathon group is an encounter group in which members meet for many consecutive hours.
Weekend marathons may start on Friday night and continue until Sunday night. Short breaks for
eating and sleeping may be taken, but usually only in the location of the marathon. Because the
weekend defines the entire encounter for the group, there is no time for group members to be
supportive and tactful toward one another. There is tremendous group pressure for self-disclosure
and genuine open interactions with others. The fatigue of constant group interaction tends to break
down defences, making it more difficult to play those roles that often get in the way of honest
communication and self-knowledge.
Sensitivity training groups

Sensitivity training, one of the popular types of encounter groups, originated as a series of group
exercises designed to help business persons improve managerial skills, human relations and
productivity. People were taught in an actual group experience how interpersonal relationships
work, how to understand organizational behaviour, how to facilitate group functioning, and how
to confront individuals with feedback about how others see them and to pressure them to exchange
socially unacceptable interactions for appropriate behaviours. The sequence of events in an
 29

encounter group is characteristic of Rogers' non-directive approach. Rogers, who has studied
various types of encounter groups, describes a fairly consistent pattern of change as the sessions
progress.
Initially there tends to be confusion, with a lot of defensive cocktail party talk and some frustration
when the facilitator makes it clear that he or she will not take the responsibility for directing the
group. There is also resistance to expressing feelings; if one member describes some personal
feeling, other members may try to stop the person, questioning whether it is appropriate to express
such feelings in the group. At the next stage, the participants gradually begin to talk about feelings
and problems they have encountered outside the group.
They then begin to discuss relationships within the group; often the first feeling expressed is a
negative attitude toward oneself or toward another group member. When the individual finds that
these feelings are accepted, a climate of trust begins to develop. By the final sessions, the group
members have become impatient with defensiveness; they attempt to undercut facades, insisting
that individuals be themselves. The tact and polite cover-up that are acceptable outside the group
are not tolerated within it.
The unwelcomed honesty of the feedback enables individuals to take fuller stock of themselves
and their behaviour. The counterbalancing sympathy and acceptance, sometimes with help
extended outside the group situation, allows the increasing expression of closeness, affection and
gratitude. The real emotional and intellectual contact in the 'here and now' is what is meant by
basic encounter.

Unit 2: Leadership Training

Leadership

Leadership is a process of social influence, which maximizes the efforts of others, towards the
achievement of a goal.
The key elements of this definition:

• Leadership stems from social influence, not authority or power

• Leadership requires others, and that implies they don’t need to be “direct reports”
• No mention of personality traits, attributes, or even a title; there are many styles,
many paths, to effective leadership.
• It includes a goal, not influence with no intended outcome.

Leadership Training
Leadership training and development helps identify high-potential individuals that are likely to
become leaders and extends the capabilities and knowledge of individuals who already
 30

perform leadership roles. Leaders may need training in both soft and hard skills, depending on
your organization's current challenges.

For example, new and coming leaders may need to develop skills such as listening, conflict
resolution and time management, so that they can step in their role.

Leaders need a foundation of soft skills to help them positively influence the behavior of co-
workers and team members. Some of the essential leadership skills are:

• Listening
• Loyalty
• Respect
• Reliability
• Initiative
• Passion
• Enthusiasm
• Strategic thinking
• Support
• Honesty
The Importance of Leadership

The idea is that leadership—like scientific disciplines, for example—consists of a set of skills,
methodologies, and ideas that can be taught. The difference is that unlike, say, biology, leadership
should inform all aspects of life. Leadership programs teach important life skills, such as
introspection, cultural sensitivity, moral acuity, people skills, and decision-making acumen.

There are a number of functions that leadership plays in ensuring the smooth operation of an
organization.

1. Initiate Action
They will explain the plan of action to their subordinates and communicate policies that will need
to be complied with when getting the work done.
2. Offer Guidance

A good leader makes sure to provide guidance for others so that they can complete tasks effectively
and with minimal hassle.
3. Inspire

A great leader can motivate others to realize their full potentials and get the job done. There are a
number of ways in which a leader can inspire others to use their initiatives for the good of the
company. This includes potential promotions, pay raises, and other job perks.
 31

4. Instil Confidence
While some team members may express self-doubts when approaching new challenges, a good
leader will do their best to provide them with confidence. Listen to team members’ complaints and
issues while readily providing positive feedback on a job well done. Remember to show faith in
employees’ abilities.
5. Build Morale

In order for employees to effectively cooperate with one another, they need to have the willingness
to do so. A big part of earning their willingness to cooperate is by building morale. An effective
leader can boost morale so their team can achieve optimal cooperation.
6. Be Role Models

Subordinates look towards their leaders as an example of how to act. A good leader will show their
subordinates the right way to behave and instill enthusiasm for the work they are doing. If leaders
are humble and accountable, subordinates will also learn to behave this way.
Leaders can also provide team members with a good feel for the company culture in the process.

7. Consolidation
Leaders can bring together team members in order to work towards a common goal. This is
achieved by coordinating the efforts of different team members and ensuring that they align their
personal interests with organizational goals.

8. Spotting Talent
Effective leaders are able to recognize the potentials of team members and will have the ability to
select the right people for the right jobs. This will then allow leaders to trust the people they have
appointed to get the job done correctly.
9. Public Image
Leaders are not only responsible for managing their teammates. They are also responsible for
ensuring that their organizations have a positive public image. As spokespersons, good leaders will
be sure to present their organizations in a positive light when spending time in the public eye.
10. Improved working environment

By effectively performing the other functions that have been listed above, leaders can provide team
members with a more positive and productive working environment.

Characteristics of leadership
Honesty: A good leader builds and maintains an honest connection with their followers. This
connection is based on reliability and trust. In the case of an organization, employees are sure that
the leader is always there for them.
 32

Delegator: An effective leader knows that every employee has something unique to offer. The
leader will work with the employees, assigning duties, and responsibilities based on the strengths
and weaknesses of each individual.
Communicator: Good communication skills allow leaders to describe their ideas clearly and
ensure that all members understand the shared vision. This ensures that all members strive towards
a common goal.

Confident: Even in the face of challenges, a leader should not only be confident but also keep
inspiring their team. The leader will remain focused on the goal and remind the team that obstacles
have to be overcome.
Committed: An effective leader not only drives their team to work hard but is also constantly at
their side, sharing in the struggles and successes.
Positive: For a leader to keep employees motivated, they have to adopt a positive attitude. This
will keep the team’s spirit up, making it easy for them to handle minor setbacks.
Creative: Some of the challenges that face organizations require leaders to think outside the box.
A leader has to demonstrate creative thinking and inspire their team to do the same.
Inspirational: A competent and capable leader should inspire employees in different ways to get
them to share his vision and work towards the set goals.
Empathetic: Rather than having a purely dictatorial leadership style, a manager should be
empathetic towards their followers. They should understand their problems, feel their pain, and
offer suitable solutions.
Accountable: It is commonly said that a good leader takes a little more than his share of the blame
and a little less than his share of the credit. This helps to ensure subordinates are accountable and
work towards improving.

Enthusiastic: Any leader who wants their team to give them their all should be willing to be
passionate as well. This is because subordinates look up to their leader and are likely to follow in
their footsteps.
Driven: Regardless of what is going on around them, leaders should have the drive and focus on
achieving excellent performance and keeping going until the set goals are achieved.
Responsible: A good leader should act in a responsible manner and be willing to own up to their
mistakes as well as take the necessary corrective measures.
 33

Leadership training methods

Lecturing

Lecturing is commonly used as a verbal training method. Accomplished leaders will lecture on
various leadership topics based on experience. For example, a manager from a large retail chain
may share the experience and lessons learned in the area of customer service and conflict-
resolution. Lecturing is communicated using an outline with specific points and organizational
flow. Some people may use visuals or a note sheet to help listeners grasp the concepts and ideas.
Role Playing

Role playing is a method used in leadership training that allows the leaders-in-training to
participate and interact with learned leadership skills such as interpersonal communication. For
example, two leaders are selected to come to the front of the room and act out a scenario such as
an employee needs to be confronted on his consistent tardiness to work. One person plays the
role of the leader and the other plays the role of the employee. They act out the situation while
the other leaders-in-training observe. At the end of the scenario the observing leaders provide
feedback to the situation and help educate one another on ways to be more effective.
Leadership Activities

Leadership activities are short team-building objectives that teach basic leadership skills such as
team work, organizational communication and listening skills. An example of a leadership
activity is for the leaders-in-training to join hands and stand in a circle with their backs to one
another. The team sits on the ground in a circle, then each member is told to let go of each other’s
hands. They are then instructed that the objective is for the entire team to stand up together, at
the same time. The team will have to communicate on how to accomplish the task and w ork
together to do it.

Discussion Groups
Discussion groups are a training method that allows a group of leaders to share their personal
wealth of knowledge and experience with one another. These groups encourage feedback,
suggestions, questions and opinions.
 Unit 3: Life Skills Training Programs
Definition of Life skills

A skill is a learned ability. Life Skills are those competencies that assist people in functioning
well in the environments in which they live. Life skills have been defined by the World Health
Organisation as “the abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal
effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life”. UNICEF defines life skills as “a
behaviour change or behaviour development approach designed to address a balance of three areas:
knowledge, attitude and skills”.

Life skills include psychosocial abilities and interpersonal skills that help people take decisions,
solve problems, think critically, communicate effectively, build healthy relationships, empathize
with others, and cope with the stress and strain of life in a healthy and productive manner.
Essentially, there are two kinds of skills - those related to thinking called "thinking skills" and
skills related to dealing with others called "social skills". While thinking skills relate to the personal
level, social skills include interpersonal skills. It is the combination of these two types of skills that
are needed for achieving assertive behaviour and negotiating effectively.
Components of life skills

The Ten core Life Skills as laid down by WHO are: 1. Self-awareness 2. Empathy 3. Critical
thinking 4. Creative thinking 5. Decision making 6. Problem Solving 7. Effective communication
8. Interpersonal relationship 9. Coping with stress 10. Coping with emotion
Self-awareness includes recognition of ‘self’and identifying our strengths and weaknesses, desires
and dislikes. Developing self-awareness can help us to recognise when we are stressed or under
pressure. It is often a prerequisite to effective communication and interpersonal relations, as well
as for developing empathy with others.

Empathy is the ability to imagine what life is like for another person. To have a successful
relationship with our loved ones and society at large, we need to understand and care about other
peoples’ needs, desires and feelings. Without empathy, our communication with others will
amount to one-way traffic

Critical thinking is an ability to analyze information and experiences in an objective manner.

Critical thinking helps us to recognise and assess the factors that influence attitudes and behaviour.

Creative thinking is a novel way of seeing or doing things that generates new ideas, has a shifting
perspective conceives something new and builds on other ideas.

Decision making helps us to take appropriate decisions about our lives. It can teach people how
to actively make decisions and what effects these different decisions are likely to have.
Problem solving helps us to deal constructively with problems in our lives.
 1

Interpersonal relationship skills help us to establish a rapport with the people whom we interact
with. This includes being able to make and keep friendly relationships, maintain good relations
with family members, and also being able to end relationships constructively.
Effective communication means that we are able to express ourselves, both verbally and non-
verbally, so that our ideas are effectively transmitted to others.
Coping with stress means recognising the sources of stress in our lives, recognizing howthis
affects us, and acting in ways that help us control our levels of stress, by changing our environment
or lifestyle and learning how to relax.

Coping with emotions means involving recognising emotions within us and others, being aware
of how emotions influence behaviour and being able to respond to emotions appropriately.

Need for Life skill training

Life skills as an approach is designed to enhance efforts to positively develop or change behaviour
related to healthy functioning in society. This focus on behaviour change distinguishes life skills
from other approaches. Another distinguishing factor of the life skills approach is the existence of
a balance of three components: (i) Knowledge or information, (ii) Attitudes and values and (iii)
Skills as the most effective method of developing or changing behaviors. This skill component
consists of interpersonal and psycho-social skills such as assertion, negotiation, decision making,
empathy building, values clarification, stress and coping skills. Whereas information acquisition
strategies might focus mainly on the knowledge component, the life skills approach encompasses
and balances all three of these components, namely Knowledge, Attitudes and Skills.
Practical experience shows that behaviour is substantially more difficult to change and requires
more intensive approaches than knowledge and attitude change. The goal of the life skills approach
is to promote healthy, sociable behaviour and to prevent or reduce risk behaviours, as well as make
an impact on knowledge and attitudinal components.
Life Skill a Life Course approach
(a) Critical thinking skills
Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally. It includes the ability to engage in
reflective and independent thinking. Someone with critical thinking skills is able to do the
following:

• understand the logical connections between ideas.

• identify, construct and evaluate arguments.
• detect inconsistencies and common mistakes in reasoning.
• solve problems systematically.
• identify the relevance and importance of ideas.
• reflect on the justification of one's own beliefs and values.
 2

Critical thinking is not a matter of accumulating information. A person with a good memory and
who knows a lot of facts is not necessarily good at critical thinking. A critical thinker is able to
deduce consequences from what he knows, and he knows how to make use of information to solve
problems, and to seek relevant sources of information to inform himself.

Critical thinking should not be confused with being argumentative or being critical of other people.
Although critical thinking skills can be used in exposing fallacies and bad reasoning, critical
thinking can also play an important role in cooperative reasoning and constructive tasks. Critical
thinking can help us acquire knowledge, improve our theories, and strengthen arguments. We can
use critical thinking to enhance work processes and improve social institutions.
Critical thinking is also regarded as intellectually engaged, skillful, and responsible thinking that
facilitates good judgment because it requires the application of assumptions, knowledge,
competence, and the ability to challenge one's own thinking. Critical thinking requires the use of
self-correction and monitoring to judge the rationality of thinking as well as reflexivity. When
using critical thinking, individuals evaluate the quality of that thinking. Critical thinking process
requires active argumentation, initiative, reasoning, envisioning and analyzing complex
alternatives, and making judgments. Critical thinkers demonstrate particular attributes. Critical
thinkers tend to:
(1) Be capable of taking a position or changing a position as evidence dictates
(2) Remain relevant to the point
(3) Seek information as well as precision in information
(4) Be open minded
(5) Take the entire situation into account
(6) Keep the original problem in mind
(7) Search for reasons
(8) Deal with the components of a complex problem in an orderly manner
(9) Seek a clear statement of the problem
(10) Look for options
(11) Exhibit sensitivity to others' feelings and depth of knowledge
(12) Use credible sources
(13) Critical thinkers use these skills appropriately and usually without prompting. They
are generally predisposed to think critically and to evaluate the outcome of their thought
processes.
(b) Decision making skills

Decision Making is the act of choosing between two or more courses of action. Decision making
can be broken down into the following steps:

• Objectives must first be established.

• Objectives must be classified and placed in order of importance.
 3

• Alternative actions must be developed.

• The alternative must be evaluated against all the objectives.
• The alternative that is able to achieve all the objectives is the tentative decision.
• The tentative decision is evaluated for more possible consequences.
• The decision is implemented.
(c) Interpersonal/ communication skills
Interpersonal skills are the life skills we use every day to communicate and interact with other
people, both individually and in groups. People who have worked on developing strong
interpersonal skills are usually more successful. Interpersonal communication is the process by
which people exchange information, feelings, and meaning through verbal and non-verbal
messages: it is face-to-face communication. Interpersonal communication is not just about what is
actually said - the language used - but how it is said and the non-verbal messages sent through tone
of voice, facial expressions, gestures and body language.
Most of us engage in some form of interpersonal communication on a regular basis. How well we
communicate with others is a measure of our interpersonal skills. Interpersonal communication is
a key life skill and can be used to:

• Give and collect information.

• Influence the attitudes and behaviour of others.
• Form contacts and maintain relationships.
• Make sense of the world and our experiences in it.
• Express personal needs and understand the needs of others.
• Give and receive emotional support.
• Make decisions and solve problems.
• Anticipate and predict behaviour.
• Regulate power.
(d) Coping and Self-management skills
It refers to skills to increase the internal locus of control, so that the individual believes that they
can make a difference in the world and affect change. Self-esteem, self- awareness, self-evaluation
skills and the ability to set goals are also part of the more general category of self-management
skills. Anger, grief and anxiety must all be dealt with, and the individual learns to cope loss or
trauma. Stress and time management are key, as are positive thinking and relaxation techniques.

Everybody is exposed to stressful situations, both positive and negative. Stress is an integral
element in the lives of all creatures, and it plays an important role in survival. Stress can have
negative effects on our physical and emotional health. We all develop defence mechanisms to
avoid or lessen psychological pain. Coping skills are ways in which we learn to deal with various
 4

stressors. Each person copes with stress differently. Over time, we all construct coping strategies
that are appropriate for us.

The first step when confronted with a stressful situation is to remove our self physically from the
stressor. Doing this will give you time away from the stressor to process how you feel. Once you
are away from the stressor, take some deep breaths, sit down, and allow yourself to feel. Feel
whatever feelings come to you—do not suppress them.

Self-Management is the ability to manage personal reactions to responsibilities and challenges in

work and life. This involves managing time and adapting to changing situations. requires a
reflection on your experiences and their effect on the physical and mental state. Self- Management
requires the background skills of. Self management is an essential skill for aneffective manager.
Self management skills include being

• Analytical
• Calm
• Imaginative
• Resourceful
• Well-organized
Having a clear understanding of your thought and, behavior patterns helps you understand
other people. This ability to empathize facilitates better personal and professional relationship.

Unit 4: Motivational Training

Training

According to a study conducted by the Global Journal of Commerce and Management Perspective,
training is an essential component of a business's productivity system. Training improved not only
employee performance but also the overall productivity of the organisation. Training is an
invaluable resource that should be used by every business, and it should be an ongoing process to
ensure business growth. Here are some pointers for developing an effective employee training
programme. Training is increasing the knowledge and skills of an employee for performing the
job assigned to him. Different scholars of management have defined training. Some important
definitions of training are as under. Training simply provides the employee’s ability to perform a
specific job. Thus, the art, knowledge, and skill to accomplish a specific job in a specific way are
called training. Training simply provides the employee’s ability to perform a specific job. Training
typically focuses on providing employees with specific skills or on assisting those with
performance deficiencies. It is a short-term learning process that involves acquiring knowledge,
honing skills, concepts, and rules, or changing attitudes and behaviours in order to improve
employee performance. Following the selection, placement, and introduction of an employee to an
organisation, he must be provided with training facilities in order to perform his job efficiently and
effectively.
 5

Make It Engaging
Training is ineffective if no one pays attention. Subjecting your employees to dry, uninspired
educational materials or speakers is unlikely to produce the results you seek. A training programme
should seek to sell team members on the company's mission statement and culture. It should clearly
articulate the business's goal and explain why they are so important to achieving this goal.
Invest the high-quality content

Investing in production value can help keep your employees interested and engaged in addition to
the personal coaching you provide.

Tell your story

Another way to engage your audience is to tell them your story and what inspired you to start your
business in the first place. Your current employees already have a general understanding of what
the company does and the problems it solves. However, they may be unaware of your personal
motivation for starting the business. This is an excellent opportunity to connect with your team
and explain your personal objectives. It's easy to become disinterested if you don't feel personally
connected to the company's goals. Explaining your backstory or the circumstances that led to the
development of your business can help employees form the personal connections they require to
truly value their work and appreciate the impact it has on the company and your customers.
Encourage Feedback and Participation

Communication is essential in the employee-management relationship. Although communication

should be a part of your daily work life, employee training is a great opportunity to see if there are
any issues that are not being addressed. If you're conducting in-person training, ask your
employees about their jobs and what the company could do to make them feel more engaged and
supported. If the training is online, include a feedback section where employees can submit their
concerns. It is also beneficial to obtain feedback on the training itself in order to continuously
improve and develop your materials.
Make it Interactive
Simply forcing your employees to watch an educational video may help them learn some technical
information, but it is unlikely to affect their overall sense of engagement. Employee morale is more
likely to improve if the training is more interactive. Real-time information is provided by
interactive training courses. Employees do not have to wait until the end of the course to learn how
well they comprehended the material. By testing employees as they learn, a more dynamic training
session is created. It allows employees to assess for themselves what they could have done
differently and how a different course of action would have resulted in different outcomes. This
also aids in the retention of new skills.
Inspire your team with employee motivation articles and poster
 6

The use of visual aids alters how employees perceive their success. We've all seen motivational
posters and articles, but they can be more beneficial than you might think.

Create worker motivation with Incentives

Employees appreciate being rewarded for their efforts, and gift incentives are an excellent
motivator. Your employees will strive to do their best, and it will challenge them to improve
productivity through friendly competition and recognition for a job well done. Employees need to
feel encouraged, and motivational techniques can help achieve the goal of motivating employees
on a daily basis. Use an employee motivation survey to assess the morale of your workforce.
Inquire of the staff about what motivates them. Basic options include recognition, monetary
rewards, and special privileges.

9 Tips and techniques to boost employee’ motivation during their training programs
Be social: Running an online learning community can foster an open environment in which
students feel comfortable asking questions. Employees can use the community to motivate one
another by sharing best practises and discussing their progress.

Keep things simple: Encourage employees to take it one step at a time. Concentrate on the current
stage they're working on and highlight any key learning milestones they're approaching. This way,
they'll feel confident that they're making good progress without becoming overwhelmed.
Create support network: Identify high-performing learners and ask them to serve as official
mentors. They can share their positive experiences with their peers and provide additional
motivation and support as needed. Creating a support network of team mentors or peers can
provide learners with additional guidance and the opportunity to ask questions as their training
progresses.
Link a difficult task to a reward: Another important way to increase employee motivation is to
consider ways to reward your learners when they reach important milestones in their learning
journey. This will help to install a sense of accomplishment in them and motivate them to achieve
the next goal. Small prizes for reaching learning milestones or a mini graduation ceremony in
which learners are presented with a certificate upon completion of their programme could be used
as rewards.
Schedule polite reminders: Regular training reminders and prompts will assist your learners in
staying on track. It may be advantageous to tailor these messages based on your learner's
behaviour. For example, if a learner hasn't taken any conversation classes yet, you might want to
send them a message outlining the advantages of starting. You can also encourage them to contact
you if they have any concerns or questions.

Link training with daily task and activities: Linking training to your employees’ day-to-day
tasks and goals can help incentivize learning. For example, they could think about how their studies
will come in useful for upcoming meetings, conference calls or events.
 7

Assess Progress: Recognizing your employees training progress can be a key driver of
maintaining employees’ motivation. Organize regular catch-ups with employees and consider
getting their supervisor involved too. That way they’ll be aware of what their employee has
achieved and how to encourage the learner to reach their next training milestone.

Incentivize your team: Employees can be motivated by incentivizing them to achieve specific
goals or targets throughout the training programme. Prizes, certificates, and financial bonuses are
examples of incentives.
Consider Penalties: Penalties can be used to motivate employees to complete their training, but
they should be used sparingly. Creating a penalty structure that includes performance reviews for
low usage or missed targets and is overseen by line managers can be an effective way to increase
engagement.
Provide reassurance: Some learners may find the transition from independent learning to joining
a conversation class intimidating. Offering reassurance to your learners can help make the leap
less intimidating. One approach would be to allow learners who are attending a conversation class
for the first time to simply listen in. This will allow them to become acquainted with the format
and feel confident in future classes.

Unit: 5 Parental Skills

Parenting skills
The child-parent relationship has a major influence on most aspects of child development. When
optimal, parenting skills and behaviours have a positive impact on children’s self-esteem, school
achievement, cognitive development and behaviour.
Parent training (PT) is a programme that is designed to help parents develop the skills necessary
to manage their child's behaviour and development. The techniques learnt in PT allow parents to
correctly identify, define and respond to dysfunctional and problematic childhood behaviour
Parents differ in the degree to which they respond to children’s signals and control their
behaviours. High quality caregiving, characterized by a sensitive, cognitively stimulating, and
moderately controlling approach, is crucial for children’s development and safety. Indeed, many
of the skills children acquire during the early years are fundamentally dependent on the
quality of their interactions with their parents. For instance, parents play an important role in
fostering children’s early learning (e.g., language and problem-solving abilities) and in shaping
their social-emotional skills (e.g., emotion regulation, reactivity to stress, and self-esteem).
Furthermore, parents have an influence on the development, maintenance, or cessation of
children’s positive and/or negative behaviours. The quality of parenting children receive during
the early years affects three key determinants of later success in school: their cognitive
potential, their social skills, and their behavioral functioning. Considering the fact that
parenting skills can be acquired and passed on from one generation to another, continuous efforts
to improve the quality of caregiving are important.
 8

The caregiving approach adopted by parents is influenced by interactions between personal and
environmental factors. These include a) children’s characteristics; b) parents’ characteristics;
and c) the broader social context in which the family is living.
Children and parents’ characteristics While sensitive-responsive parenting is generally
associated with positive emotionality in children, irritable or aggressive children tend to receive
less supportive, if not problematic parenting. More specifically, parenting characterized by
inconsistent, rigid or irritable explosive discipline, as well as low supervision and
involvement, is closely related with the development of child conduct problems. However, it
is important to keep in mind that parents are differentially affected by the behaviours and
temperament of their child. Parents’ level of warmth/acceptance and permissiveness/
restrictiveness is influenced by the way they interpret and react to their child’s behaviours, their
expectations about their child’s ability, and their own psychological functioning. Parents who are
able to understand the causes of their child’s distress and who are confident about their parenting
abilities tend to be more nurturing, comforting, and assertive. In contrast, parents who believe their
child has more power than them in difficult situations tend to use less effective parenting practices
by becoming either hostile or submissive. Similarly, parents who have inaccurate beliefs or poorer
understanding of developmental milestones tend to be less sensitive to their child’s signals. Finally,
parents’ own psychological functioning can influence their caregiving approach. For example,
there is emerging evidence that parents who experience anxiety are inclined to adopt an
overprotecting style of parenting. As much as responsive parenting is fundamental for the
cognitive, social, and emotional development of young children, parenting behaviours that
emphasize overprotection may promote avoidance and the development of anxiety.
Socio-cultural context

Parenting practices are also influenced by the socio-cultural context. While an authoritative
parenting style (balanced levels of control and permissiveness) is normative and associated with
positive child outcomes in middle-class families, this positive association does not prevail in all
cultural and socio-economic backgrounds. Indeed, a flexible parenting style is not necessarily
optimal for children growing up in high-risk neighbourhoods. In fact, these children may benefit
from an authoritarian parenting style (high levels of control and low levels of permissiveness) as
it has the potential to reduce the risk for negative developmental trajectories.
Need for parental skill Training

• Parenting programs can improve parent-child interactions by helping parents to better

anticipate their children’s developmental changes, carry out child-rearing responsibilities
and provide early learning experiences.

• Successful parenting programs cover many factors, such as consistent caregiving, positive
discipline and parental well-being it also address specific types of child behaviour or target
specific developmental transitions.
 9

• Parents must be able to identify the onset of conduct problems like aggression, non
compliance and other oppositional problems

• Usually parents resort to inconsistent discipline, irritable explosive discipline , low

supervision and involvement and inflexible rigid discipline as this in effective parenting
continues there is a possibility of maintenance of conduct problems.

• Other family risk factors that have Direct or indirect effects on parenting practices include
maladaptive social cognition (anti social behaviour , maternal depression, substance abuse)
inter parental distress (marital issues ) and social isolation.

• So parental skills training with the help of trainer helps parent to use specific procedures
to alter interactions with their child to promote prosocial behaviour and to decrease deviant
behaviour. It also aids parents deal with temper tantrums , aggression and non compliance.

• Parental skills training help to identify such parental skills deficit by providing
interventions to parents. It mostly involves instructions in the social learning principles
underlying the parenting skills. They are trained to define, monitor and track child behavior
to give positive reinforcement procedures and to reduce punishment procedures like
ignoring, physical punishment etc. To give clear instructions and to solve problems
correctly

• Parental training helps to be aware of different styles of parenting and impacts of these
parenting styles

Authoritarian Parenting
Authoritarian parents are often thought of as disciplinarians. They use a strict discipline style with
little negotiation possible. Punishment is common. Communication is mostly one way: from parent
to child. Rules usually are not explained. Parents with this style are typically less nurturing.
Expectations are high with limited flexibility.
Permissive Parenting
Permissive or Indulgent parents mostly let their children do what they want, and offer limited
guidance or direction. They are more like friends than parents. Their discipline style is the opposite
of strict. They have limited or no rules and mostly let children figure problems out on their own.
Communication is open but these parents let children decide for themselves rather than giving
direction. Parents in this category tend to be warm and nurturing. Expectations are typically
minimal or not set by these parents.
Uninvolved Parenting
Uninvolved parents give children a lot of freedom and generally stay out of their way. Some
parents may make a conscious decision to parent in this way, while others are less interested in
parenting or unsure of what to do. No particular discipline style is utilized. An uninvolved parent
lets a child mostly do what he wants, probably out of a lack of information or caring.
 10

Communication is limited. This group of parents offers little nurturing. There are few or no
expectations of children.
Authoritative Parenting
Authoritative parents are reasonable and nurturing, and set high, clear expectations. Children with
parents who demonstrate this style tend to be self-disciplined and think for themselves. This style
is thought to be most beneficial to children. Disciplinary rules are clear and the reasons behind
them are explained. Communication is frequent and appropriate to the child’s level of
understanding. Authoritative parents are nurturing. Expectations and goals are high but stated
clearly. Children may have input into goals.

Parental training for parents of children with special needs

Parents, and family members, of children with developmental disabilities experience challenges
that differ from those experienced by parents of typically developing children (Woodman, 2014).
When a child with one or more disabilities is born into a family or when parents receive the
diagnosis of their child's disability, they often experience a range of emotions (e.g., shock, grief,
anger) that are somewhat similar to those experienced upon learning about the death of a loved
one (Kandel and Merrick, 2003). Parents experiencing such emotional reactions require a period
of time to adjust, and during that time, parenting and caregiving may be affected. Some children
with disabilities pose particular challenges because of developmental needs and behaviors that
require specific parenting skills or actions not required for children who are developing typically
(Durand et al., 2013). Here not only the effective management of children must be taken care of
but also the personal well-being of the parents is also important.

Module 3: Short term training programs: an introduction

Unit 1: Dimensions of Training Programs: Time, Contractor, Facilities, Staff, And Participants. Ethics
and Etiquettes.
Phases Of Short-Term Training (In Detail):
Unit 2: Contracting,
Unit 3: Designing, Developing,
Unit 4: Conducting,
Unit 5: Terminating and Evaluating.

Unit 1: Dimensions of training programs: time, contractor, facilities, staff, and

participants. Ethics and etiquettes.
 11

Five Dimensions Of Short-Term Training

Short-term training can mean different things to different people. It’s a one-day orientation for
new park rangers, a three-day car-buretor repair school for mechanics, a one-week self-awareness
laboratory for couples, a two-day legal briefing for legislators, a one-hour plant tour for new
employees, a weekend communication workshop for families, a two-hour conference program on
a new teaching technique, a four-week 747 jet school for pilots, a four-day financial planning
course for pre-retirees, a four-hour chemical therapy seminar for physicians, a three-hour
workshop for volunteer Sunday school teachers, a two-day women’s consciousness-raising
workshop, an eight-week technical procedure course for factory representatives, and a five-day
communication skills workshop for supervisors.
Short-term training is all of these and more. It goes under a variety of names, including class,
course, orientation, program, seminar, school, and workshop. Some call it training; others refer to
it as education. Because it means different things to different people, it is important that we agree
on a general definition.
Let’s be as specific as possible. By short-term training we mean instruction that has the following
characteristics:
1. It takes place within a period of one hour to three or four weeks.
2. It is a response to specific requests or problems.
3. Instructors and students alike are aware of the intensity involved the shortness of time for
the amount and difficulty of what is to be learned.

Having noted these three characteristics of short-term training, we must say immediately that there
are exceptions. From one perspective, any time you try to teach a subject in less time than what
people believe is adequate or customary, you are doing short-term training. Thus a three-year
bachelor’s degree program could be viewed as short-term, as could a six-month master’s degree
program in engineering. At the other end of the scale, a thirty-minute orientation to company
policies or a fifteen-minute “how to operate the widget maker” program could also qualify as short-
term training. However, in our search for a useful working definition of short- term training, we
have settled on the one-hour-to-four-week time span-but acknowledge that there are exceptions. It
can be useful to view short-term training in terms of five dimensions: time, contractor, facilities,
staff, and participants. We’ve already discussed one dimension, that of time.
The time dimension is often expressed via the intensity of short-term training. Short-term training
is intense when you are attempting to 1) teach much more than usual in a given period of time. It
can also be intense when the lowest acceptable level of learning (performance) is very high. It can
be intense because the learning goals are very specific, Time is probably the single most important
dimension of short-term training. You have less of it, than in traditional instruction. There is less
flexibility, less room for fexibility, error, and less opportunity for regrouping. If, for example, you
have sixty hours of instruction, spread over twenty weeks, you can proceed at a relatively leisurely
pace.” When students have difficulty learning, there is sufficient time for corrective or remedial
action. In contrast, when you are attempting to teach the same amount (sixty hours) in a two-week
 12

time period, it is a very different and usually more demanding situation. The impact of the time
dimension will affect all other dimensions.
The second major dimension of short-term training is the contractor. Unlike much traditional
instruction, which may be perpetuated without anyone’s requesting it or questioning whether it
should continue, most short-term training is initiated by someone other than the instructor.
Whether you are working from within an organization, as an employee, or from without, as a
consultant, someone has decided that training is the solution to a problem or concern and has
requested you to solve it with a short-term training program. The problems you are asked to help
solve can range from technical competence, to attitude change, to improving morale. In the vast
majority of instances short-term training programs come into being with a purpose. The trainer,
when accepting the responsibility to do the training, makes a con- tract with a contractor. The
contractor dimension is important because it emphasizes that there are acknowledged expectations
for the instruction and that an additional party to instructor and participants is interested in the
outcomes of instruction. This differs from much traditional instruction, in which there is, in effect,
no active contractor.
Facilities, the third dimension of short-term training, obviously are used by all training programs.
The main issue regarding short- term training is that the facilities are often controlled and
maintained by someone other than the trainer, and they may be very temporary. Consequently, the
instructor doing short-term training is often much less secure regarding adequacy and reliability
of facilities than the instructor in a traditional setting. Staff is the fourth dimension.
In short-term training the instructional staff may have a high rate of change, resulting in relatively
tentative working relationships. Procedures may be vague and personalities not well understood.
Project staffs are often organized for a one-time-only program. Degree of commitment may be low
or uncertain and accountability difficult to monitor. In other words, staff concerns are less
structured and defined than they are in traditional instruction. The fifth dimension of short-term
training is participants. The basic issue, of course, is that they are students who are not students.
Their primary role or occupation is something other than that of a full-time student. In fact, being
a student for a short time is an interruption to their normal, regular life-style. It can be a pleasant
interruption, but sometimes it is not. Participation in short-term training is sometimes mandated.
Prerequisite skill levels may have been ignored. Conflicting status levels and inaccurate
expectations may exist. The participant dimension obviously exists in traditional instruction, where
it can also cause problems. The bind in regard to short-term training is that there is often very little
time to deal with these problems.
Thus, our contention is that short-term training involves special characteristics and conditions that
provide the instructors with challenges that are different from those of traditional instruction. The
differences are of both degree and kind, but they are significant. We believe that examining the
five dimensions of short-term training will clarify the major challenges that short-term training
instructors encounter. We lead you through that examination in the next section.
Dimension 1: Time
a) Intensity
 13

The most dramatic condition of the time dimension is the in- tensity that can develop in short-term
training programs, particularly in programs that use full-day schedules. Instructors and participants
feel that they are working against the clock. People become very much aware of the passage of
time, and they place increasing value on it. Each moment counts, and some people be- come
irritated with those who waste time with seemingly irrelevant questions and impatient with those
who seem to be slow learners. As instruction progresses, one can assume that learner problems
will increase.
More people will become confused about some of the instruction. How much time should the
instructor devote to ongoing testing and review? How much deviation from the sched- ule should
there be? Or is deviation even possible? In our experiences, we’ve seen programs where no
deviation was allowed and an approximate fail-dropout rate was expected. The under- lying
philosophy was that this was economically better than expanding the length (and thus cost) of the
programs to increase the number of participants completing them.
When programs become intense, instructors and students can become preoccupied exclusively
with doing the tasks and thereby fail to maintain a supportive learning climate. Intensity, in other
words, can breed discontent, frustration, and poor morale, which in turn can result in lowered
learning rates. One of our more important tasks in the following chapters will be to illustrate how
to prevent intensity from having such negative impact on short- term training.

b) Paco
Related to the issue of intensity is the problem of pacing short- term training. How does one
establish or maintain a rhythm? In concentrated programs of several consecutive days’ duration,
there may be few rest periods. It is especially important, then, to select and determine the
programs’ high points and control the building up and relaxing that precedes and follows them.
There are critical problems of information overload-how much can be ab- sorbed and of achieving
an effective balance of instructional procedures. Students can be overwhelmed by too many audio-
visual presentations and turned off by overkill didactic presentations and never-ceasing group
discussions. Through the purposeful use of different instructional procedures, you can create a
pace, that facilitates learning, an additional pacing problem can develop In programs that include
several periods of non-instruction. In a program held during three consecutive weekends, for
example, how can the enthusiasm developed by the end of the first weekend be sustained during
the intervening week? How can you continue to affect participants’ learning and attitudes when
you are out of contact with them? Home assignments and buddy systems are two procedures
whereby you can accomplish this.

In brief, pacing can be as important as program content. We’ve seen programs that, when viewed
piece by piece, seemed excel- lent, but they failed in regard to both student interest and learning.
The problem in each case was inadequate pacing. Students were overwhelmed with excellent
 14

presentations and experiences, but little thought had been given to pacing the events to maximize
learning.

c) Low error tolerance

Another aspect of the time dimension is the low tolerance for instructor error. Once a short-term
training program begins, there is little time to correct errors or to redesign and redirect. In pro-
grams with intervening nonteaching periods, such as a series of weekends, there is obviously some
flexibility. Even so, when full days of instruction are involved, regaining lost ground is difficult.
This means that careful planning and accounting for as many varied circumstances as possible is
important. Poor learning experiences can result in more than the waste of precious time. Consider
a problem-solving exercise that is poorly done and resisted by students. Besides the time wasted,
the instructor has probably lost credibility and rapport In addition to redoing the instruction, he or
she must use additional time to rebuild the relationship with the students.

d) Ongoing assessment

Related to low error tolerance is the concern for ongoing evaluation of instruction. Because time
is so precious in short-term training, it is important to know as soon as possible how successful the
training is. In traditional programs, such as those lasting ten to eighteen weeks, instructors often
feel less urgency about evaluation. They may wait until after several class sessions before giving
an examination. And these midterms are usually intended to assess student performance rather
than program effectiveness.
In other words, the instructor and students view the results of the examinations in terms of the
students’ learning. If the results are poor, both instructor and student usually assign the student the
responsibility for improving. If the problem is actually poor instruction, the instructor may sense
this several weeks into the course and perhaps revise the approach. Even if this isn’t done, there is
time for the poorly performing student to seek out alternative sources of help.
Neither of these solutions to poor learning is feasible in short- term training. Short-term training
programs may be over before the instructor realizes something is amiss. Even when trouble is
sensed early, there is little time in which to change. Similarly, a student seeking alternative learning
assistance does so in what can be an impossible short time period.
In order to be of much value, therefore, program evaluation in- formation should be available
immediately following the start of a program and continue throughout its life. While a difficult
task, ongoing evaluation is quite feasible. For example, a first goal in many programs is to
determine whether participant resistance exists and then to evaluate efforts to deal with it. Through
the effective use of small group exercises, resistance can usually be assessed in ten to fifteen
minutes. There are also methods of deal- ing with it in short time periods and ways to measure
your effectiveness.
 15

e) Termination points

Because of the relatively small amount of total time in short- term training programs, it is beneficial
to be very clear about time periods within the program.

If, for example, participants are to do written work from 10:00 to 10:30 and then during the
following period to use what they have written, it is essential that writing time begin and stop as
scheduled. In a five-hour workshop, for example, to allow the writing period to slip fifteen minutes
until 10:45 uses 5 percent of the total time available. If your schedule is tight, the 5 percent may
be impossible to regain.

Instructors new to short-term training often overlook the im- portance of terminating periods as
scheduled. They usually dis- cover, however, that the traditional instructional luxury of wandering
through topics, making irrelevant asides, and editorializing on the headlines of the morning
newspaper get them into trouble. Don’t misunderstand. Short-term training can be exciting,
stimulating, entertaining, and fun. It is just that in most instances time allocations must be respected
rigorously.

Another aspect of the termination idea is in relation to con- tractor and staff. Instruction in
traditional settings can go on forever from the perspective of staff and contractors (administrators
and boards of education). Semesters start and stop, students move on and graduate, programs
change, but slowly. There is no hurry. What doesn’t get done today may get done tomorrow.

Short-term training is different. Workshops and seminars are frequently produced once, never to
happen again. There is no repeat. From the contractor’s position this means that results are
Expected as of the termination date. Instructional staff members also have a perspective different
from that in traditional settings. Professional payoffs and personal satisfaction must come within
a short time period. When a program is finished, it is largely for- gotten-all attention is given to
the next one to be produced.

f) Goal specificity

Regardless of what one teaches or the format one uses, effective instruction is enhanced by being
specific about goals and objectives. In recent years there has been a great emphasis on performance
objectives, which means describing educational goals in terms of performance or behavior that
would demonstrate that the learner had attained the goal. While these objectives are some- times
pushed to the ridiculous, both instructor and student benefit from clearly stated goals. Because of
the limited time in short- term training, being specific about goals is especially important. It
reduces unrealistic expectations of participants and aids staff in not being overly ambitious. Goal
 16

specificity can also make an important contribution to program design. Specific goals provide a
means of assessing the contribution and function of each learn- ing/teaching activity in a program.

Dimension 2: Contractor

a) Specific expectations
For both in-house and external trainers one major difference be- tween short-term and long-term
training is that the short-term trainer is contracted to do a specific piece of work. You are not hired,
for example, as is a college instructor, to do a number of tasks, including the teaching of some
courses. You are contracted to run specific training programs. You will be judged as successful or
otherwise depending upon how the program fares. If you are an in-house trainer, you may be
evaluated by other criteria as well, but you will be assessed for each program you run.

b) The contract document

Because short-term training programs come and go, an actual contract document of some kind is
especially important as a source of stability and a point of reference for program evaluation. In
traditional training, educational institutions themselves provide the stability. There is, in a word,
tradition upon which to rely. Much short-term training occurs in less predictable and more dynamic
environments. It is produced to meet specific demands and then disappears until the demands
reappear. It happens relatively quickly, and consequently it is important to create a tangible referent
regarding its nature and purpose-a contract that can substitute for tradition.

Dimension 3: Facilities

a) Materials development

If your film projector breaks down during a short course, you may not get a second chance to show
your film. That’s one difference between short- and long-term training. The quality of your
materials must be higher, since you have no time to make up for inadequacies. Trainers spend
considerable time developing punchy handouts and relevant slide shows, using films and videos
only if they are central to the training objectives. Often materials are developed for one course’s
special needs and either cannot be reused or require revamping before being used with a different
group. Another consideration is that materials must be prepared in advance. There is rarely an
opportunity to produce materials once the course has begun.

b) Physical facilities

Climate building has to be done very quickly, and you need all the help you can get. For example,
having an attractive building with good-sized rooms and adequate seating, lighting, and heating
 17

builds good climate. Unpalatable food and undrinkable coffee are irritants you can do without. It
is vital that all the teaching materials and equipment you require are there and working. All of this
has to be at the forefront of your mind in addition to the actual task of teaching the course. This is
one reason why short- term training is often so stressful for trainers.
If anything goes wrong, you have to take time to make changes and rearrange the program. If you
have a brilliant idea midway through the course, you may have no opportunity or secretarial
facilities to implement it.

c) Dependence on others

We went to a course as participants once when it was pouring rain. There was no shelter outside
the building. We had to wait until the trainer arrived, and he in turn had to find the janitor to let us
in. It helps to have a better start than that! Great courses require good relationships between
trainers, but equally important is the cooperation of everyone else involved in any part of the
program.

You are often dependent upon others to provide technical equipment and materials. Technicians,
perhaps above all others, are to be treasured. Even if you have the expertise, you yourself will
probably not have the time to make necessary repairs. At times, you have to be pleasant and warm
to people who appear to be walking icebergs. There’s no time to try to change them and no
advantage in your being unpleasant. You could cheer- fully strangle them, but you need them.
That’s yet one more strain for the trainers to grin and bear!

Dimension 4: Staff

a) Planning for staff relationships

In a long-term course you can allow staff relationships to develop gradually. Difficulties can be
ironed out over a period of time when the right moment occurs. With short-term training the right
moment is before the course ever starts. Staff problems are likely to affect the course and will be
played out in front of the participants. It is usually difficult to isolate yourself from a fellow trainer
with whom you have problems, as might be possible in a school or college setting. In addition,
how the staff behave is one of the strongest motivators for getting trainee participation. You are
important role models.

b) Planning skills requirements

If a successful trainer needs above all else to be superhuman, he or she also needs to be part
computer. A trainer has to be able to think sequentially and always in terms of alternatives/”If we
put a lecture in there, we had better follow it with something active-an exercise or role play.” A
trainer also has to think constantly in terms of time: “It will take five minutes to demonstrate the
 18

skill; we’ll put the participants into pairs, and that will take two to three minutes. They will then
need to find space for them- selves and notebooks and pencils-say, five minutes altogether. We
have thirty minutes before coffee, so they could have five minutes’ practice, five minutes’
feedback, reverse, which leaves ten minutes for a large group session.” A trainer also needs to be
on the ball at mental arithmetic: “Here are twenty-seven trainees; but we don’t want more than
five in each group, and that is six groups, three of five and three of four.”

A trainer has to be meticulous over detail without becoming obsessive. He or she has developed
checklists-mental and actual that enable him or her to proceed through contracting, choosing
teaching procedures, organizing physical facilities, plan- ning meals, and developing key
relationships. A trainer has to anticipate problems, build in fail-safe procedures, and plan for
equipment failures.

All teachers should think (n terms of outcomes, alternative strategies,) choosing between teaching
alternatives and practices, simultaneously assessing effects on the learning climate monitor- ing
the event concentrating on student needs. But if a short-term trainer does not do so, disaster is
courted. Unlike for long-term courses, a trainer will probably get only one chance.

c) Leadership sensitivity to participants

Because success is a consequence of a good learning climate, the trainer needs to be extra sensitive
to how participants are reacting. What do they look like when they arrive? Which of their moods
are likely to be baggage brought in from elsewhere, and which are a result of the course?
Participant reactions need constant monitoring. Should you slow down, build in a rest pause, tell
a funny anecdote, get them to do something active to inject some energy, ask for feedback, check
expectations? In short-term training, relationships have to be developed quickly. Staff can- not
wait for a “natural” progression to occur. Nature has to be hurried along a bit. Climates can happen,
or you plan for them to happen. In short-term training you have no alternative but to plan for them
to happen.

The trainer notes the verbal behavior of the participants-what does he or she really mean when
saying that there isn’t time to complete the homework assignment? You become adept at read- ing
nonverbal behavior-doodling, nervous finger tapping, staring vacantly, rushing to get out, sudden
silence when you approach. You never stop monitoring. Some of the most useful data you receive
will come in the more relaxed atmosphere of coffee and meal breaks.

d) Range of teaching procedures

You need a greater range of procedures and structures than most traditional teachers typically
employ. Short-term training is not simply giving a set spiel in the hope that many participants will
 19

be able to make some sense of it. Every input requires planning. Every session is designed in terms
of what has come before and what might come after.

You need to be aware of new teaching techniques, materials, and training technology. Innovation
and experimentation are two of your survival skills. You have to be able to think on your feet,
turning reactions, even negative ones, into usable data. Participants’ responses are often
unpredictable, and you need a variety of alternative strategies to cope with them.

e) Instant credibility

If you have a group for only a day, you have to gain their confidence immediately. There is not
time for the gradual buildup of trust and respect. You have to become an expert in the ways of
establishing credibility-precourse literature, which just happens to mention your achievements,
mid-course anecdotes that convey the range of your experiences.
The key to instant credibility, of course, is not name- or success- dropping but the ability to
demonstrate your competence through course arrangements and precourse publicity, being clear
in your objectives at the beginning, showing concern and flexibility by on-course contract building
with participants, having a reason for everything that you are doing and asking of them, having
equipment that works and enough well-organized and concise handouts to go around, being
sociable, listening, being open, sharing appropriate aspects of yourself, and being aware of feelings
and using them constructively.

Participants have to develop confidence in you so that they will be prepared to risk themselves or
at least give you the benefit of the doubt and go along with the program. The first thirty minutes
are vital, the first five minutes crucial. Do you convey warmth? Do you demonstrate that all
contributions are valued? How do you deal with the first negative reaction? Sometimes you are
quite clearly being tested. Are you prepared for it?

f) Staff’s physical and mental health

Short-term training is the most demanding and exhausting teaching work we know. The payoffs
can be high. The costs can some- times be too high. We know independent full-time trainers whose
life-styles involve long periods away from home, considerable traveling, too much food and drink,
not enough sleep and recreation. Marriage casualties are high; friendships are often instant. (This
is, of course, an extreme, but part-time and in-house trainers are subject to some of the same
pressures.)

Dimension 5: Participants
 20

In many ways participants in short-term training programs present the same kinds of problems and
concerns as traditional students. After all, people are people. Nevertheless, people within the con-
text of short-term training programs can present relatively unique concerns to instructors. These
concerns are all related to the premium placed on time.

a) Resistance

Nothing can be as devastating to short-term training programs as participant resistance. Resistance

occurs when, for whatever reason, there is opposition to participating in the planned gram of
instruction. Resistance also occurs in traditional instructional programs, but the longer time span
and less intense pace usually allow more time to overcome or eliminate it. Even though very
frustrating, resistance can be seen as an understandable re action once its sources are understood.
Resistance can develop for many reasons, including forced or involuntary attendance, difficult
learning tasks, personally threatening learning situations, lack of interest in topics, lack of
challenge, personality clash, and dislike of the learning procedure used. Pro-

Whatever the source of resistance, participants who want to oppose your program will usually have
no trouble finding fault with you, your methods and materials, the facilities, the schedule- almost
any part of your program. That is true because resistance is not necessarily rational. Very often it
is not. People begin with the thought “I don’t want to participate in the program,” then quickly
translate that into “I should not have to participate in this program.” Then that thought is expanded
to “This program is poorly done so I have every right to resist it.”

b) Climate building

Whether or not resistance exists, the building of an effective learning climate is a basic
consideration of short-term training. We believe that it is often the paramount concern. A positive,
supporting, and encouraging learning climate can compensate for many kinds of program
shortcomings. In other words, within a healthy learning climate, people can learn in spite of a poor
program.

What is a learning climate? There is no single set of specifications, but there are certain basic
characteristics regardless of the specific form. First is that participants feel accepted and respected.
They may be nervous, anxious, and uncertain, but in a healthy climate the instructor has
communicated his or her respect and concern to the participants. In order to develop such an
awareness,
The instructor needs a genuine respect for individual differences. He or she must understand that
not everyone will find the subject exciting, that some people may have difficulty learning it, and
 21

that people have different learning styles. When instructors don’t have this awareness and
acceptance of individual differences in values, interests, and abilities, they can quickly and
effectively offend and put down students. A negative and hostile climate can soon develop in which
some students, in addition to attempting to learn the subject matter, are also dealing with defensive
and negative emotions.

People don’t respond well to people whom they dislike, distrust, or resent. In traditional instruction
there is often sufficient time to search out resources (other students, books, journals) and learn in
spite of a negative learning climate. In short-term training there are no such alternatives.
Participants’ perceptions of the instructor are the main determinant of climate, and the instructor’s
behavior largely determines that perception.

c) Checking participant expectations

Participants arrive at training programs with some kind of “set” regarding what is likely to take
place and what is to be gained from the forthcoming experience. Their expectations may range
from very specific to none. But they will have some mental set.

It is important for you to assess their expectations very soon. If, for example, you intend to teach
human relations skills, and they come expecting to learn techniques for increasing sales volume,
then the sooner you-and they-discover the discrepancy, the better. Assessing participant
expectations and sharpening your contract with them is a very good means of assuring effective
instruction/learning. Not to do so is often self-defeating. This, incidentally, involves more than
informing participants about your goals. It is not uncommon to see instructors state their objectives
and never check to see if they are consistent with student expectations. The attitude of “You can
like it or lump it” may be possible in a traditional instruction setting, but it is usually disastrous in
short-term training. While there can be a good reason for an instructor’s not changing a course to
meet student expectations, an unwillingness to discuss expectation discrepancies suggests a
defensive and insecure instructor.

d) Follow-up/applications

Another participant consideration that differentiates much short-term from traditional training is
follow-up concerns. Be- cause so much short-term training has specific purposes and im- mediate
applications, participants want to use what they have learned. Their friends, colleagues, and
families may see them as having made significant changes in their thinking, feeling, and behaving.
These associates, however, may not be ready for the changes. The literature is full of stories about
people returning from two-week sensitivity training programs full of love and openness, only to
encounter criticism and rejection. They changed, but the rest of their worlds remained the same.
This issue extends to a broader range of concerns than sensitivity training.
 22

People learning new management and supervisory procedures, new ac- counting methods, new
eating habits, and new ways of solving problems are examples of short-term training participants
who may encounter opposition when they apply their new learning in old situations. Almost
anything one learns that results in different behavior can receive negative reactions from others. If
the re- actions are sufficiently strong, the participant may react by stop- ping the new behavior,
particularly if he or she is the only person in the group who attended the training program.

In training jargon, the problem is lack of reinforcement of the new behavior after returning home.
The problem can exist even without negative reactions. One of the first things participants may
discover upon trying the new behavior is that they don’t understand it as well as they thought they
did. The procedure for resolving family squabbles or the system for scheduling supplies seemed
very clear on the last day of the course. But now certain ideas and details are fuzzy. To whom can
participants turn for follow-up information? And where can they receive reinforcement for
continuing to apply the new skills and procedures until they are perfected?

Unit 2: Contracting

There is usually some kind of agreement between you and the person who has asked you to produce
a short-term training pro- gram. We recommend that a contract be agreed upon and re- corded.
The decision to produce a program is sometimes made before negotiating a contract, and other
times it is part of the actual negotiation. Sometimes there is little or no negotiation or even no
preliminary discussion between the contractor and the producer, and other times there is a great
deal. If you are a member of the firm, you may receive a memo requesting (ordering) you to “teach
the salespeople how to use the new ordering system,” in which case contracting may consist of
reading the memo and arranging dates and times for the training session. At the other extreme,
you may be outside an organization and be asked to produce a company-wide human relations
training program.

The negotiations can be extended and involved. They could even result in a decision not to produce
a program.

The basic function of the contracting phase is to clarify the purpose and desired outcomes and
work out the operational ground rules. Budget facilities, staff, desired outcomes, participants, and
selection procedures are important topics for contracting. Contracting can take two basic
approaches. One is to attempt to include all the details and decisions that can be anticipated. The
other is to establish the rules and procedures for making decisions, leaving the actual decisions
until later. Our preference is to include some of both but to emphasize agreeing upon a procedure
for making decisions.

Obviously, decisions regarding costs and number of participants usually need to be firm. But, for
example, during contracting it is usually wiser to establish criteria for participation than to list
actual participants. We once produced a supervision skills workshop for first-line supervisors.
 23

During contracting discussions, it became clear that one important issue was lack of
communication between these super- visors and their managers. There was widespread
apprehension about the managers’ power and support. Were they watchdogs or helpers? The
question had not been well articulated, let alone answered. In any event, we believed that it would
be helpful for the supervisors to examine their relationships with the managers within the privacy
of their (the supervisors) own group.

This point was accepted during our contracting discussions with the plant executive and had been
conveyed only to the super- visors who were to participate, or so we assumed. We were sur- prised,
then, when several managers appeared at the workshop and indicated that they were there to
observe! Even giving them the benefit of the doubt regarding their intentions, the situation was
unfortunate, for we had to deny their request. More to the point, the situation would also have been
unnecessary had we made our concerns more explicit and checked our assumptions during the
contract negotiations.

Another way of looking at contracting is to view it as the first step in building a healthy learning
climate. It gives specific attention to basic decisions and decision-making criteria, which will

Be the foundation for everything else that is done. Confusion in the contract can foster confusion
in the program. Unrealistic budgets promote unrealistic programs. Sloppy criteria and guide. Lines
lead to controversial decisions. Unclear goals promote vague programs, and vague programs are
difficult to evaluate. At the completion of the contracting phase, you have pose, desired outcomes
have been defined, and an agreement for producing a training program exists. In addition, you
initial consideration to program content, instructional procedures, and learning climate.

Unit 3: Designing and Developing

Designing
Designing a program is the process of describing what it should accomplish and how. It may be a
simple list of topics and teaching procedures or a complex chart that describes how people, mate-
rials, and equipment will interact to produce the program’s goals. A program design is akin to a
plan or blueprint. It is the basis for developing the actual program. The designing phase includes
several steps. The following are the most important:
• Becoming more specific about outcomes.
• Determining people, material, and equipment specifications.
• Sequencing activities.
A brief comment about each of these steps should be useful. Becoming more specific about
outcomes involves applying values to the general outcomes developed during the contract
negotiations-in other words, deciding how much and how well people to learn. This will vary from
situation to situation. For example, if your objective is to teach people to conduct plant you want
tours, you will probably demand a lower performance level than if you are training paramedics to
use new lifesaving equipment.
 24

If you are doing a short art or music appreciation course, is performance level even important?
Probably not. Participant enjoyment is probably paramount. You will let them determine how
much they want to learn from and enjoy the experience. Never- theless, you still may want to
become more specific about the ways in which participants can experience enjoyment-what
payoffs besides competencies they are pursuing. Being specific about these provides a basis for
designing a more satisfying course. You may have come to this level of specificity in the
contracting phase, but if not, now is the time to sharpen program goals.
It Is important to remember that the goal clarification does not end with the design phase. Working
through the development and conducting phases can provide further insights into goals. While the
benefits regarding goal clarification are by-products of the latter two phases, goal clarification per
se is an essential aspect of designing programs.
The task of determining people, material, and equipment specifications consists basically of (1)
deciding how course objectives are to be taught and (2) assuring a healthy learning climate.
The task is one of considering instructional procedure alternatives, evaluating these in regard to
such criteria as cost, time, and avail- ability, and then selecting procedures to be used.

Note that the task is not to acquire people, material, or equipment but to describe the standards,
qualities, or criteria that these must meet. Assume you are designing a short-term training pro-
gram for instructing a group of physicians about the use of a new series of drugs. Since the program
will be produced only once or twice, you decide not to build a media presentation but to use a live
presenter instead. That is a design decision. The next decision, also part of design, is to list the
criteria a live presenter must meet. You might come up with the following:
• Good voice delivery.
• Professional credentials-preferably M.D. or Ph.D.
• Technical familiarity with the related drugs.
• Professional credibility regarding experience or research.
Having listed your specifications, you then set about finding a speaker who meets them.
If you decide to include a thirty-five-millimetre slide presentation in a short-term training course
for expectant parents, the following specifications for the presentation could be listed;
• Eighth-grade vocabulary level.
• Graphics instead of photos.
• Limit of six basic concepts.
• Definition of all technical terms prior to use.
• Avoidance of negative examples.
Add your content goals to the list, and you have a design from which a presentation can be
developed.
 25

Note that the specifications pay attention to both procedures and learning climate. It is important
to think through both the procedures to be used to teach an objective and the context within which
the procedure will be used.
The final aspect of the design phase is to sequence the various teaching/learning procedures. What
will be taught first, second, and so on? When will reviews and tests come, if at all?
How should you mix media? A morning of lectures and an afternoon of movies? Deadly! Physical
movement following meals is best. Instructor fatigue is another consideration. When the
sequencing is done, then you have an initial schedule of events. When the design phase is complete,
you are clear about the developmental work that must be done in order to conduct the program.
Developing
This is the phase in which you put content and procedures together. It involves developing teaching
materials, planning and rehearsing instructional procedures, making arrangements for equipment
and facilities, checking the program for possible deterrents to climate, and making administrative
arrangements (for example, rooms, meals, stipends, and expense checks).
These are the last activities before the short-term program is actually conducted. In the
development phase, the design specifications on paper are translated into actual materials and real
activities.
Depending upon the complexity of the particular short-term training program and your prior
experience with the topic, the development phase can involve the testing of materials and
procedures. For example, using a questionnaire that is unclear to participants or presenting
confusing directions for a learning exercise has a negative effect on the usefulness of the learning
procedures involved and also detracts from a healthy climate. Participants don’t like to be
confused. It can cause some to be defensive, and in turn they blame you for being incompetent.
That is no way to build climate.
Another reason for testing materials and procedures is to determine whether they do what you
intend them to do. A perfectly clear procedure may not have the desired result. We once brought
a group of five- and six-year-old children into a workshop to demonstrate how easily they could
learn some concepts via a gaming procedure. What actually took place was disastrous. The children
didn’t like the game and wouldn’t cooperate, and the situation verged on chaos. We demonstrated
just the opposite of what we had intended. It was clear as soon as the exercise was over, however,
that making a few small adjustments in our instructions would have made it very effective. Testing
the procedure prior to using it would have identified the needed adjustments.
Testing experiential learning activities in which participants risk their self-esteem is important,
especially when you are not familiar with the values and assumptions of your participants.
Instructors who move from high school or university teaching to adult education settings are often
surprised when procedures and materials they have developed don’t work well in the adult setting.
The issue is not better or poorer students but rather different values, assumptions, and expectations.
For example, college students are more or less used to small group discussions. Thus, when they
are told to break up into small discussion groups, they know the routine.
 26

When, in contrast, you ask a class of shipping clerks to break up into groups of four and identify
points of the presentation that are confusing, chances are that you will not achieve the desired
results. The participants, having few or no small behavior skills, may be very self-conscious and
thus sit staring at their feet. In this example, testing your procedure (presentation, small group
discussion, and question/answer session) might con- sist simply of thinking through what you are
requesting them to do and considering whether it is a reasonable request, given their experience.
If it seems questionable, then you might prepare a list of discussion questions to guide their small
group work. When the development phase is completed, you are ready to conduct your program.
Unit 4: Conducting
This phase involves the actual presenting of the short-term training program. It may begin with the
first contact with participants as they arrive or, in more complex programs, with prearrival work.
Examples of the latter would be a first on-site staff meeting or setting up equipment prior to the
opening session.
In regard to climate, the first contact with participants is especially important. They should feel
expected, welcome, and, as quickly as possible, part of the assembled group. Twenty minutes
devoted to ice-breaking or warm-up activities can establish a group cohesiveness and a readiness
to participate that can require days to develop when participants’ personal concerns are ignored.
Many times cohesiveness in training programs never occurs, and some participants leave courses
feeling more un- comfortable than when they arrived.
Participants who are preoccupied with their own discomfort and anxiety are less able to focus on
the task of the course. It is puzzling why some instructors from traditionally oriented set- tings
don’t recognize this. In our workshops on teaching procedures, we have often raised the issue.
Some instructors participating in these classes respond that they really aren’t concerned with how
the students feel. The students are there to learn, and the instructors are there to teach. They simply
want to get on with teaching.
This is a bit like arranging for a vacation at a nudist camp with one’s friend without first assessing
his or her attitudes regarding nudity.
Admittedly, some instructors have a natural way of putting people at ease-whether the people are
participants in their courses or guests in their homes. But there are procedures that any instructor
can use at the beginning of a course to make participants feel positive about being there. For
example, given a group of complete strangers, it is possible in fifteen minutes to have each person
know two or three others at more than just a surface level.
Conducting the workshop involves more than interacting with participants. Failure to attend to
facilities and key staff when you are doing the course away from home can make or break a
program. Janitors who must unlock doors and move equipment, secretaries who may be asked to
make unanticipated arrangements and type or duplicate newly inspired materials, and cooks who
are expected to serve meals on a tight schedule all need tending to instructor credibility is another
critical concern in conducting short-term training programs. There is insufficient time for
developing it slowly. It must be established quickly. But honest attempts to establish instructor
 27

credibility can backfire and put you in a negative light. Name or place dropping is a classical
example of a high-risk attempt to establish credibility. Some participants will never have heard of
Henry Wellknown; others will have but won’t be impressed-Henry being a phony in their opinion;
and a few will resent your using the “credibility by association” method. There are things that you
can do, however. Have staff members introduce themselves and merge your self- introduction with
the self-introductions of participants. Immediate demonstrations of competency and sensitivity to
participant interests are other effective means of establishing your credibility.
Staff relationships are important and need tending. Providing evaluative feedback and
reinforcement and making opportunities for debriefing and private time are examples of important
staff concerns. We experienced an interesting situation in one work- shop in which the staff had
come to depend upon the leader for reinforcement and direction. For whatever reason, the leader
was not his usual reinforcing, dynamic self during this short-term training program. Rather than
complain and become upset, the other staff members agreed that the leader wasn’t to be depended
upon to serve his usual function and agreed to share it among themselves. Instead of wallowing in
resentment and disappointment, they took responsibility for staff well-being.
Another important concern during the conducting phase is the implementation of alternative
procedures. If the planned approach isn’t working, what else can you do? Many short-term training
instructors have had the experience of staying up half the night making major revisions after the
first day of a workshop. This may be due to a bad contract or designing a program greatly at odds
with the participants’ expectations. Alternatives are also useful on a more immediate basis.
Changing part of an exercise, reversing the sequence of presentation, and abandoning a pre- pared
transparency for a freehand drawing on the chalkboard are examples. A real test of an instructor’s
competency regarding the conducting stage of short-term training is the ability to create
alternatives on the spot. “Thinking on your feet," some people call It.

Unit 5: Terminating and Evaluating

Evaluation is the fifth and final phase of the short-term training model. Actually, some evaluation is done
during the conducting phase. To the extent that you are collecting information and making
judgments about the effectiveness of your training, you are evaluating. Clearly, in some training
programs, evaluation begins almost immediately. To cite a simple example, one work- shop we
planned required as much time as we could squeeze out of the four eight-hour days available to
us. To gain an extra thirty to forty minutes each day, we planned for morning and afternoon
refreshments to be served during working sessions instead of taking the traditional coffee breaks.
Anticipating possible opposi- tion to this change from tradition, we observed reactions to the
procedure during the first day and surveyed the group at the end of the day. The information we
collected indicated’ clearly that our procedure was very unpopular and affected climate.
Consequently we decided to change the schedule and reinstate regular coffee breaks.
 28

In general, doing some kind of data collection and evaluation at the end of each major component
of a short-term training program is useful. When pace and intensity are demanding, a small trouble
can turn into a big problem. For example, a group of counselors were attending a workshop on the
elements of psychological testing. By the beginning of the second day, the instructor felt he was
losing about one-third of the group. He guessed that he had not been clear enough in his initial
presentation and so repeated much of the material. Students still seemed to flounder, and by the
end of the second day, he had blown his schedule seriously. A colleague, to whom he complained
of his seeming failure, suggested testing the group-not on the material he had presented but on the
four basic arithmetical functions. To make the story short, he did and discovered that one-third of
the class could not do long division. Without that skill, it was impossible to learn much of what he
was attempting to teach. Had he collected relevant information early in the program, he could have
avoided what developed into a major problem.

We have referred to both collecting information and making judgments. Both are part of
evaluation, and clearly distinguishing between them is important. When we collect information,
we are trying to answer the question How many? How many learned the lesson? How many lessons
did they learn? How many liked the teaching procedure? How many thought it was interesting?
These are objective questions. We are, in a word, measuring the learning and attitudes of
participants. Once we have that in- formation, we can ask the How good? Question. This is a sub-
jective question. The answer depends on our values. There is nothing good or bad about the fact,
for example, that partici- pants learned 60 percent of the information presented. The judg- ment
regarding whether that is adequate or not depends on other circumstances. If you are talking about
a group that is being exposed to a complicated subject for the first time, or a group that does not
really want to participate in your short-term training program, then 60 percent may not be half bad.
It may, in fact, be very good. If, on the other hand, the short-term training program is a review
session for people skilled in the subject, then a 00 percent rate may indicate trouble.

One of the common sources of problems in evaluating training, programs is making judgments
without relevant information. An evaluation based on hunches and speculation is likely to be un
duly influenced by wishful thinking and single dramatic events or atypical occurrences. Collecting
information requires time and effort, but it is a necessary part of evaluation.

Evaluation of training usually has a double focus. One spot. Light is on the outcomes of the
program; it attempts to show participant achievement levels. How much did they learn? The second
evaluation spotlight is on the teaching/learning process. This tries to clarify participants’ reactions
to the program. We find that trainers are generally less interested in the evaluation phase of short-
term training than in other phases. When they do devote resources to evaluation, the focus is most
likely to be on process rather than outcomes. One reason for this is the complexity of doing
outcomes evaluation. It is often difficult to determine the extent to which participants achieved
desired out- comes. Appraising their reaction to process, in contrast, involves little more than
asking them.
 29

This, in brief form, is the short-term training model.

Of course, it is rarely as neat as this in practice. You get to the development stage and realize that
you do not have the go-ahead to approach particular trainers to join the staff, and you have to return
to the contracting stage. You are conducting the work- shop and discover with horror that a handout
designed for a previous course has not been rewritten for the current course- instantly you are back
to the development stage.

The main point is that the more aware you are of the five phases of short-term training production,
the less likely it is that such problems will arise. The remainder of the book will examine each
phase in detail to ensure that your chances of successful short- term training programs are
maximized and that you enjoy running them, learn from each one, and live longer!

Module 4: Essential Skills for trainers

Unit 1: Interpersonal skills: decision making, problem solving, communication, leadership & assertiveness.
Unit 2: Establishing norms & credibility, pacing, starting & stopping, dealing with hostility, disinterest and
other forms of participant behaviours.
Unit 3: Presentation skills: writing, data collection, analytical, time scheduling, technical & evaluation.
Unit 4: Maintaining professional and personal ethics, managing health and avoiding burn out.

Unit 1: Interpersonal skills: decision making, problem solving, communication, leadership

& assertiveness.

Training is only as effective as the trainer providing it. Organizations who decide to invite a trainer
or multiple trainers in to help deliver a training solution for their employees are placing a lot of
trust in the abilities of these trainers. The quality of a trainer can either make or break the
effectiveness of a training program. The trainer you select to instruct your learners has a direct
impact on the effectiveness of training. For a professional trainer, the greatest measure of success
is the success of the participants. Therefore, it’s essential for a professional trainer to have a special
set of skills designed to impact the course participants in the desired way.

INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

Interpersonal skills are an important aspect of one’s personality. The various psychological factors
that exist within every human being and which consequently influence our behaviour while
interacting with others, are referred to as interpersonal skills. Those possessing effective
 30

interpersonal skills are capable of appropriately communicating with different people who possess
a variety of personality traits.

Interpersonal relationship skills help us to relate in positive ways with the people we interact with.
This may mean being able to make and keep friendly relationships, which can be of great
importance to our mental and social well-being. It may mean keeping, good relations with family
members, which are an important source of social support.

It may also mean being able to end relationships constructively. One should develop the skills of
establishing and maintaining an appropriate, friendly relationship with most of the persons, one
should also learn skills to manage hostile and troublesome persons by keeping the required
distance.

Interpersonal skills are skills that we use on a quotidian (everyday) basis in our daily life to interact
with other people. These are skills that both employers, managers and other staff in a workplace,
all use. The world and workplace are such that no matter what sized company or business we run
or work in (or even if we work from home), we inevitably have to deal with other people. We have
to communicate, work with and interact with colleagues, other departments, customers in person
or on the phone and so on. Interacting with other people is unavoidable. These people’s interactions
become vitally important in the workplace because they begin to dictate how smoothly and
efficiently the workplace runs.

These Interpersonal Skills training will help develop participants the ability to adapt their
behaviour and approach based on the situation and the response that they get. They’ll learn how
their behaviour affects others when they communicate and how best to overcome barriers to
effective communication.

Interpersonal skills are those pertaining to relationships with people. Interpersonal skills gauge
how good you are at interacting with others. For example, the interpersonal skill of knowing how
to respectfully communicate with someone is called “active listening.”

Interpersonal skills encompass many different important soft skills, including:

• Mentoring: Coaching one or more people

• Leadership: Leading and assisting others by example
 31

• Communication: Conveying ideas effectively through verbal and non-verbal means

• Problem Solving: Resolving personal, group, and business conflict
• Negotiation: Coming to an agreement with others when opinions differ
• Empathy: Understanding individuals in the workspace
• Teamwork: Working together with various people to achieve a single goal.

These skill sets require practice and awareness until they become habit. Here are just a few ways
you can improve your interpersonal skills:

• Practice active listening skills during all conversations: Whenever you have a
conversation, a particularly work-related or instructional one, be mindful of what the other
person is saying. Repeat what they say in your own words to ensure you understand. By
showing them you are actively listening, you are fostering a better working relationship.
• Let coworkers know when you appreciate them: It feels great when you know those you
work hard with or for appreciate your efforts. Rather than keeping your appreciation to
yourself, let others know when they do a good job. When people know they are
appreciated, they are motivated to keep up the good work.
• Smile and use positive body language: Body language is important in communication.
Taking pride in your appearance is just the first step. Practice standing in a welcoming
way and other non-verbal communication skills. Most of all, smile when interacting with
others.
• Promote a positive work environment: Positive work environments equal happy
coworkers. A positive work environment reduces stress, promotes creativity and
innovation, and helps keep employees productive. Touch base with coworkers often and
see how they are doing. If you have downtime, offer your assistance to those who need it.

One of the most effective ways to improve your interpersonal skills is to imagine how you would
like to be treated by others.

Decision Making

Decision making refers to the process by which an individual comes to choose between two (or
more) alternative courses of action. Decision making helps us to deal constructively with decisions
about our lives. It can teach people how to actively make decisions about their actions in relation
 32

to healthy assessment of different options and, what effects these different decisions are likely to
have.

Various approaches to decision making are:

1) The single-feature approach can be effective in situations where the decision is relatively
simple and you are pressed for time. However, it is generally not the best strategy when
dealing with more complex decisions.
2) The additive feature model can be a great way to determine the best option for a variety of
choices. It can be quite time-consuming and is probably not the best decision-making
strategy to use if you are pressed for time.
3) The elimination by aspects model was first proposed by psychologist Amos Tversky in
1972. In this approach, you evaluate each option one characteristic at a time beginning with
whatever feature you believe is the most important. When an item fails to meet the criteria
you have established, you cross the item off your list of options. Your list of possible
choices gets smaller and smaller as you cross items off the list until you eventually arrive
at just one alternative.

The DECIDE model is the acronym of 6 particular activities needed in the decision-making
process: (1) D = define the problem, (2) E = establish the criteria, (3) C = consider all the
alternatives, (4) I = identify the best alternative, (5) D = develop and implement a plan of action,
and (6) E = evaluate and monitor the solution and feedback when necessary. The DECIDE model
is intended as a resource for health care managers when applying the crucial components of
decision making, and it enables managers to improve their decision-making skills.

Stages in Decision Making:

1) Deliberation: The first stage of decision making process starts from the point at which
deliberation begins. In this stage different aspects of the problem and the pros and cons of
the possible alternatives are examined in proper prospective.
2) Act of making a choice: While making a choice between different alternative, certain
alternatives which do not have much relevance may be omitted from the list of possible
alternatives, so that it becomes easy to take a decision from a few alternative.
 33

3) Final choice: After examining all aspects, finally a decision is arrived at, which is
considered right, helpful, practicable and profitable in the present situation.
4) Post decision period: The post decision period includes the psychological consequences of
making a choice, the relationship between decision making and the major sources of
conflict and modes of conflict resolution at each stage of the decision sequence. leads to
more effective decisions.

Problem Solving

Problem solving helps us to deal constructively with problems in our lives. Significant problems
that are left unresolved can cause mental stress and give rise to accompanying physical strain.
Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing, and solving problems.
The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves
the issue. The best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. The
following steps include developing strategies and organizing knowledge.

• Identifying the problem: identifying the problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In
some cases, people might mistakenly identify the wrong source of a problem, which will
make attempts to solve it inefficient or even useless.
• Defining the problem: After the problem has been identified, it is important to fully define
the problem so that it can be solved.
• Forming a strategy: The next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem. The
approach used will vary depending upon the situation and the individual's unique
preferences.
• Organizing information: Before coming up with a solution, we need to first organize the
available information. What do we know about the problem? What do we not know? The
more information that is available, the better prepared we will be to come up with an
accurate solution.
• Allocating resources: Before you begin to solve a problem, you need to determine how
high priority it is. If it is an important problem, it is probably worth allocating more
resources to solving it. If, however, it is a fairly unimportant problem, then you do not
want to spend too much of your available resources into coming up with a solution.
 34

• Monitoring progress: Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress as they

work towards a solution. If they are not making good progress toward reaching their goal,
they will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies
• Evaluating the results: After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the
results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem. This evaluation might
be immediate, such as checking the results of a math problem to ensure the answer is
correct, or it can be delayed, such as evaluating the success of a therapy program after
several months of treatment.

Communication

Being able to actively listen to others and articulate your ideas in writing and verbally to any
audience in a way where you are heard and you achieve the goals you intended with that
communication. This also include languages skills if the spoken language at work is your second
language.

Effective communication means that we are able to express ourselves, both verbally and non-
verbally, in ways that are appropriate to our cultures and situations. This means being able to
express opinions and desires, and also needs and fears. And it may mean being able to ask for
advice and help in a time of need. Coping with stress means recognizing the sources of stress in
our lives, recognizing how this affects us, and acting in ways that help us control our levels of
stress, by changing our environment or lifestyle and learning how to relax. Coping with emotions
means involving recognizing emotions within us and others, being aware of how emotions
influence behaviour and being able to respond to emotions appropriately. Intense emotions like
anger or sadness can have negative effects on our health if we do not respond appropriately.

The ability to communicate effectively is a quality seen in the most successful trainers.
Communication is not just about language or vocabulary; it is also about engaging the learners in
the discussion and developing a two-way communication path. This enables a trainer to convey
information easily and accurately and properly respond to questions or comments from learners.
Communication is also necessary to develop an atmosphere of sharing without barriers so that the
learners do not hesitate to share problems and communicate feedback.
 35

Effective interpersonal communication skills are important, even in clinical settings. A clinical
psychologist must be able to actively listen and comprehend what clients tell them, and be able to
speak clearly with clients about sensitive issues. Clinical psychologists interact with clients and
use interview techniques to gather information used to diagnose mental illness and disorders. They
also counsel clients, engage in interactive therapies and produce detailed written reports or notes
after each session. As a result, the clinical psychologist must understand sociocultural norms and
communicate effectively with a diverse population, while protecting the client's privacy and
adhering to ethical principles.

There are many specialized fields of focus in communication, including nonverbal communication,
verbal communication, and symbolic communication.

Nonverbal communication types include facial expressions, gestures, paralinguistics such as

loudness or tone of voice, body language, proxemics or personal space, eye gaze, haptics (touch),
appearance, and artifacts. 93% of “emotional meaning” we take from other people is found in the
person’s facial expressions and tone of voice, the other 7% is taken from what the person actually
says. Nonverbal communication improve a person’s ability to relate, engage, and establish
meaningful interactions in everyday life. A better understanding of this type of communication
may lead people to develop stronger relationships with others.

Verbal communication is when we communicate our message verbally to whoever is receiving the
message.

Symbolic communications are the things that we have given meaning to and that represent a certain
idea we have in place.

Leadership

Defining and communicating vision and ideas that inspires others to follow with commitment and
dedication are the key in leadership skills. Successful leaders are often credited with having high
social intelligence, the ability to embrace change, inner resources such as self-awareness and self-
mastery, and above all, the capacity to focus on the things that truly merit their attention. Effective
leaders likely share some key personality traits, including sociability, ambition, and curiosity—
and these traits may be more relevant to the role than intelligence. Genetics appear to influence
leadership ability, due to inherited personality traits, but environmental factors such as education
 36

and opportunity play a significant role as well. In 1939, psychologist Kurt Lewin and a team of
researchers determined that there were three basic leadership styles: Authoritarian (Autocratic),
Participative (Democratic) and Delegative (Laissez-Faire).

• Authoritarian (Autocratic) Leadership A leader who adopts the authoritarian style dictates
policy and procedure, and directs the work done by the group without looking for any
meaningful input from them. The group led by an authoritarian would be expected to
complete their tasks under close supervision.
• Participative (Democratic) Leadership Those leaders practicing the participative
leadership style offer guidance to the group, as for their input in decision making but retain
final say. Participative leaders make their group feel like they’re part of a team, which
creates commitment within the group.
• Delegative (Laissez-Faire) Leadership Leaders practicing the delegative leadership style
are very hands-off. They offer little or no guidance to their group and leave decision
making up to the group. A delegative leader will provide the necessary tools and resources
to complete a project and will take responsibility for the group’s decisions and actions, but
power is basically handed over to the group.

Further research has yielded more leadership styles:

• Transactional leadership is a set of activities that involve an exchange between followers

and leader and deal with daily tasks (Bass, 1990). Transactional leadership deals with
those day-to-day tasks that get the job done.
• Charismatic Leadership is marked by high degree of confidence and lack of internal
conflict. They move through a crowd of their followers shaking hands and lending an
encouraging word.

Assertiveness

Assertiveness is the complex ability to think, emotionally react and act in a way that is nonpassive
and non-aggressive. This is the main principle behind assertiveness: satisfying the non-passive and
non-aggressive criterion. Assertiveness can be considered simultaneously a Set of Skills, a
Communication Style and a Type of Behaviour. The Set of Skills involves cognitive, emotional
and behavioural elements. You think, manage your emotions and act in an assertive way. Empathy,
 37

effective listening skills and thinking patterns that are predominantly rational are among the
qualities that describe an assertive person. The Communication Style refers to using assertive
verbal and non-verbal techniques and strategies in your social interactions. An assertive individual
is able to express his/her opinions, feelings and needs openly, in a direct and authentic manner.
Assertive Communication includes the regulation of inner speech.

The Assertive Behaviour means being able to generally act in ways that project the assertive
principles and traits. Basic principles linked to Assertiveness include the following:

• Knowing and claiming your own rights while at the same time respecting the rights of
others.
• Having the ability to set and respect personal boundaries.
• Recognizing and assigning value to both yourself and others.
• Knowing your own strengths and vulnerabilities and at the same time recognizing the
strengths of others and treating their vulnerabilities in a considerate manner.
• Knowing you are in control of your own life. You are also aware that the others have the
right and skills to control their own lives as well.
• Taking an active role in guiding your own life.
• Being guided by a sense of equality and seeking to promote equity in social interactions.
• Taking responsibility for your actions and also understanding the limits of that
responsibility. You also understand that others are responsible for their own actions.

Interpersonal skills are not just important at the workplace, in school, and in life. They are critical
regardless of what level you are on in the social or workplace hierarchy. While there is no single
definition or a preset list of qualities to identify a good trainer, many share several traits that have
been observed in the most successful amongst them. To be successful in the method of training, a
coach or trainer should be able to help the learner achieve their goal as well as instil an appetite
for continuous improvement and learning. A great trainer is first and foremost an amazing student,
constantly building their knowledge base and method of delivery.

Unit 2: Establishing norms & credibility, pacing, starting & stopping, dealing with
hostility, disinterest and other forms of participant behaviours.

Establishing norms
 38

How can you establish group norms? By both actions and words. The obvious unstated means of
establishing the level of formality is through your own behavior. You and the other staff members
set examples. The manner in which you dress sets a level of for mality. There are exceptions, of
course, but, generally speaking, if instructors dress up, so will participants. A group of people
always dressed up offers a reminder that they are in a serious, business as usual, situation. A group
in which the staff and the participants are less formally attired acknowledges greater equality.

The way in which the staff members talk to each other and the participants also influences the
formality of relationships. If we are Barrie and Jack, the participants read the situation as informal.
If we refer to each other as Mr. or Dr., they get a different message. Use first names if you want
informality, Mr. and Ms. to encourage formality.

Even the initial arrangement of the group within the room influences the level of formality. A first
encounter in which people are lined in rows, at desks or tables, looking into backs of heads, is less
likely to be open and informal than one in which people sit in a circle. Placing a table or podium
between you and your group makes you seem less one of them than if you joined their circle.
Standing while they sit puts the level of formality some where in between.

The first coffee break and meal also provide covert means of setting the relationship level. Joining
the group for meals and circulating during coffee breaks move you closer to them. Isolating
yourself during these times, or using them to prepare for the next session, seems to reinforce the
differences between you and the participants.

How about a more open approach to establishing the level of formality? You simply discuss the
issue. Identify any concerns and indicate the level of formality you want to exist. It is important
that your own behavior be consistent with what you claim to desire, but an open discussion can
speed up the process. Say, for example, "Tm Mary, and this is Bob. Let's use frst names while
we're together," or "Please come to us with any questions. Well be joining you for coffee and
meals, but in order to plan and review, the staff will go off by itself sometimes. We're not being
antisocial-we just need to do some coordination from time to time."

To reiterate, if you want to influence the formality of relationships, you must do something about
it. If you're unsure about your participants' perceptions and attitudes toward the short-term train
ing program, or think that there may be some negative aspects, why not precede the first encounter
 39

with refreshments? A small cost for a very effective demonstration of your concern for their
comfort.

And remember, somewhere during the first encounter, check out your contract with the
participants. What do they expect to gain from the short-term training program, and what do you
and your staff expect to provide? If the two are not congruent, you have a basis for serious
problems. Their frustration will grow as they invest more time and energy and gain less of what
they anticipated, and yours will mount as they become less cooperative and enthusiastic.

Establishing Credibility

Instructor credibility, in the final analysis, is a matter of respect. For the most part, you must earn
it. Participants must perceive you as competent, concerned, and confident. We have already
discussed several ways to establish credibility. Arranging for appropriate introductions by other
staff members can be effective. So can appropriate self-disclosure in warm-up exercises regarding
experiences and accomplishments. Meals and other in formal interactions provide an opportunity
for participants to see another side of your personality.

Two additional means of establishing initial credibility are demonstrating enthusiasm and showing
confidence in your subject and your material. Speak in positive terms, assume the audience will
be interested, and whenever possible cite examples and anecdotes-war stories if you will that give
life to your subject. Practice using audiovisual materials and explaining difficult points beforehand
so that you are smooth. We'll say more about presentations later, but do remember that it's difficult
to grant credibility to instructors who are unenthusiastic and apologetic.

A final means of establishing credibility is, strangely enough, the effective use of mistakes. Don't
make a habit of it, but when you are wrong or bungle part of a presentation, acknowledge it first,
and then, if you can, turn it to your advantage. This is not always possible, but when it is, it's worth
considering.

For example, an instructor in a supervision workshop had given a mid-course test to evaluate
participants' performances or such was his stated purpose to participants. His real motive was to
use the test as a means of assuring that students would complete reading assignments. His
experience had been that without some external pressure, many students would not keep up with
 40

the assigned readings. When they didn't, his instruction, which was based on participants' having
read the materials, was difficult and less effective.

To provide reality to his test, he graded it and reported marks of excellent, good, average, and
below average to the participants. They became very upset over this procedure and expressed their
concerns on a mid-course evaluation and review held just after the testing incident. Resentment
was high among participants. The instructor had lost credibility, and the climate was chilly.

How could he resolve the issue? Defending himself seemed fruitless, and there simply wasn't time
in the short-term training program to allow for a slow return of better feelings. Consequently, he
decided to turn the event into a learning situation. First, he acknowledged his underlying motive
in giving the exam and explained why he had followed through with grades. Having laid himself
open to a whipping at the post, he then suggested that the group approach the situation as an
exercise in conflict resolution. Resolving conflicts is an important supervisory function, and, after
all, this was a supervision course. His method worked very well. A few doubters remained for a
while, but his openness and the competency he demonstrated for dealing with a conflict situation
regained him his lost credibility.

Pacing

You will recall that the last step in the design phase was sequencing the learning activities.
Attention was given to both pedagogical and climate concerns. Your schedule prescribes the pace
you desire to keep. Maintaining the pace is another matter and one that demands your attention
throughout the conducting of the program. Here are some suggestions for maintaining the pace
you desire.

Preview your schedule in regard to timing just prior to beginning the program. Unanticipated
circumstances, such as significant changes in predicted attendance or problems with facilities, and
weather conditions may suggest altering the sequence of events or adding activities for the specific
purpose of helping maintain the pace you desire.

Humor is an effective way of maintaining a variable pace. Humor related to the short-term training
program itself is prob ably most effective. The subject matter, procedure, staff, and common
experiences are all fair game. Participants can often supply useful humor if you give them the
opportunity. Sometimes you must give them permission or acknowledge by your actions that
 41

humor is acceptable. The danger in this, of course, is that it might encourage a wiseacre to inhibit
learning by too frequent and irrelevant humor. There are ways to deal with this, including con
fronting the person directly and requesting that he or she not be disruptive.

If your subject seems totally serious, then consider introducing humor that is unrelated to it. One
instructor who did short courses on bacterial analysis of septic tank samples and similar stimulating
topics developed a collection of topical jokes, which he told with some skill. He used these to pace
his instructional programs. He claimed that starting each session with a story helped set a favor
Conducting the Program 147 able climate. He would also tell a story after particularly dry or taxing
presentations. Participants learned to anticipate these, and he maintained that the stories had a
reinforcing effect and thus were useful in holding the group's attention.

Another factor involved in pacing a short-term training program is the concerns and values of
participants for what may seem to you unimportant details. For example, if you are running behind
schedule, don't cut short the coffee breaks, lunch, or informal periods. If you feel gaining time is
critical, describe your concern to the participants and involve them in solving the problem.

An example of a small issue making a big difference regarding pacing is hands-on experience. In
one seminar of thirty technicians, the instructor demonstrated a new electronic scope. As part of
the demonstration, he invited two participants to use the instrument. For some reason, the gadget
was extremely appealing, and every one in the group wanted very much to try it. Taking time to
do so would have been devastating to the pace he had set. However, he sensed that he would be
viewed as arbitrary and thus re sented by participants if he refused to allow them hands-on time.
Being a bright and sensitive fellow, he described his dilemma to the group and volunteered to
remain after the day's program and work with those who wanted to try the instrument.

Finally, if you anticipate problems with pacing, talk about it with the group. If you will be moving
relatively fast, for example, tell this to the group. Acknowledge that it may be frustrating or taxing
and that you would prefer a slower pace but circumstances don't allow it. Then begin with the pace
you had intended. Moni tor the group's reaction to it, and if the frustration you anticipated develops,
take a few minutes for the group to express its feelings and for you to acknowledge their validity.
You may need to do this several times. It is usually unrealistic to expect a once-only reference to
a difficult pace to be effective. In other words, you have to do more than say just once at the
beginning, "This is going to be a tough course, gang, and we haven't much time. So we're going to
 42

move right along, and that may be frustrating." You need to continue to remind the group of that
and to acknowledge several times that their frustrations are normal.

Starting and stopping

Structure sessions so that people know what to expect. Except when surprise is part of the program,
tell participants what they can expect to learn and what they will be doing. One might say to a
class of beginning bus drivers, "This morning we are going to study the routes in the central part
of the city. You will be using the route maps in your kit and marking them with felt pens. When
we finish this session, you will be able to describe about half of the routes and time schedules."
End sessions by telling participants what they have learned. For example, "This morning you
learned about half of the down town routes and demonstrated that you could describe them. Note
those that may not be totally clear to you so that we can work on these routes later." In short, begin
a session by telling a group how they will be different when it is over and conclude it by pointing
out how they have changed. To learn something is to make a change in oneself.

Dealing With Hostility, Disinterest and Other Forms Of Participant Behaviours

• Hecklers

Occasionally one encounters stupid, rude, or hostile comments. How should these be handledP
Positively-even when the par ticipants' remarks are outrageous. Never put down participants by
responding negatively to a person with an uninformed ques tion or comment; you're risking your
rapport with the group. More often than not, most of the participants identify more with one another
than with you. Thus when you put one of them down for asking a "dumb question," they're likely
to perceive you as being derogatory to the total group.

In the case of rude or hostile remarks, it may well be that most of the participants are on your side.
But even here there is no reason for you to respond negatively. By keeping your cool you
demonstrate your ability, probably maintain control of the situation, and gain respect from
participants for not lowering yourself to a defensive position.

While we know of no guaranteed techniques for dealing with malcontents and hecklers, here are
some general ideas to keep in mind. Separate the person's remark from the need to make the
remark. Imagine that you have just completed a presentation and a participant says in a hostile
 43

tone, "I really don't think any of that is important. It isn't related to our jobs, and it's a waste of
time.

Why can't you get to something more practical?"

For purposes of the illustration, assume that you are very confident that your presentation is
relevant, and either this fellow doesn't understand his own job or something else is bothering him.
Your first reaction is probably a tightening of your stomach muscles and a desire to point out that
he has failed to understand your point. The stomach reaction you'll have to live with, but you will
probably be more effective by responding with something like this:

"I believe that the topic is relevant and practical. Sorry I didn't make that clear. I know it's
annoying when you don't see the point of a presentation. Can you be more specific about your
concern?"

With this response, you've not backed off, but you have acknowledged his concern, stated your
willingness to help, and thrown the problem back at him. If he has a genuine concern about the
relevancy of your presentation, he now has an opportunity to do something about it. If he doesn't,
and something else is annoying him, then that will be pretty obvious.

Let's pursue this example further. Imagine that the participant's real gripe is not with your
presentation at all but with his being forced to attend the short-term training program. He didn't
want to come and is mad at his supervisor who put pressure on him to attend-and probably angry
with himself for not standing up to his supervisor. He doesn't accept your offer of clarification, nor
does he back off.

"Well, we disagree about that," he says. "The problem with all these training sessions is that you
guys haven't any on-the-job experience. You don't know what it's like out there in the real world.
It's all theory."

What to do? The situation can deteriorate into a ridiculous argument unless you take some action.
This fellow seems bound to pursue his discontent. One way to take the wind out of his sails is to
grant him time, but at your convenience. You could say, "You seem concerned; I'm certainly
willing to talk with you. Let's meet before lunch, and maybe you can resolve your frustration. But
this isn't an appropriate time, and I would like to go on with our program."
 44

The general principle with situations like this is to acknowledge the person's feelings and make it
clear that there is a problem--it is not yours, but make some offer to assist.

• Late arrivers

What about late arrivers? Do you postpone beginning until they come? Whenever possible, don't.
It is disrespectful of the participants who arrived on time. It is also a message to the group that the
schedule is not important and that tardiness will be tolerated.

As noted earlier, opening sessions may be the biggest exception to this suggestion. People may
have trouble finding the facility or getting a parking space or run into other difficulties. Opening
instructions may be so essential that you can't begin until all are present.

That is the time to make your intentions known. Be as clear as possible.

“I like to begin on time, so please be ready to start at the times indicated. We won't wait for
latecomers." Then do as you say.

• Staff-Participant Relationships

The crucial decision has to be made by the staff -what kind of relationship you want with
participants. How formal do you wish to be? Having made that decision, it is then a question of
selecting appropriate behaviors -manner of address, where you sit at meal times, dress, and manner
and jargon to be used.

Seducing the Instructor

There are many ways of being seduced by participants apart from the obvious one. Some will
demand private time and attention. If you give too much to a few, this can reverberate on the
climate as a whole. Here is our rogue's gallery of seducers.

Teacher's pet: Small gifts-even apples! Sometimes newspaper clippings pertaining to what you
have been teaching. Be careful; this might simply register keenness.

Cotrainer: The one who always engages you in eye contact, especially when supposedly talking
to someone else. What is really being communicated is: "You and I really know all about this,
don't we? How can we make it simple enough for the others to understand?"
 45

Prosecuting counsel Attacks every point you make. The seduction here is to play the game of
defending, Then you're hooked. 156 Producing Workshops, Seminars, and Short Courses

Sex symbol Applies to both sexes. They gaze at you with meaningful expressions and winsome
smiles. They always stand too close and manage to touch you at every opportunity. Delightful, but
deadly- -for the climate, that is.

Bosom pal The overfriendly one who invites you home, brings the family for you to meet, slaps
you on the back, and asks search ing personal questions.

Disciple Praises you at each opportunity. Can't wait to spread the word.

Neurotic The one who sits staring into space, looking nervous, totally uninvolved. May keep
jotting down notes that obviously have nothing to do with the course. Turns up late-or not at all.
Watch this one. May be genuinely uninterested, in which case you need to find out why. May also
be genuinely upset and carrying a lot of baggage.

Saboteur Unlike the prosecuting counsel, this one doesn't nitpick. This one makes sweeping
attempts to sabotage the whole procedure. Interrupts constantly, makes loud asides, turns up late,
or leaves early. It's important to check this one out at first coffee break; otherwise, a great deal of
your time and energy can be taken up. People who try to sabotage usually have a reason for doing
it.

Sneak Comes to tell you about the nasty things that people are saying about you-usually naming
them.

Troublemaker The one who takes you aside and tells you confidentially about having problems
with one of the other staff members. There's only one solution-tell the person to sort it out directly
with the staff member involved. Don't be seduced into being message carrier or negotiator.
 Unit 3: Presentation Skills: Writing, Data Collection, Analytical, Time Scheduling,
Technical & Evaluation.

Written material

Pre-program brochures, application forms, letters, and other printed material are your first
introduction to the participants. Given no other information, this is what will determine their initial
impression. So put some thought and effort into what you say and how it looks. An application
form that is confusing, com plicated, or unnecessarily long doesn't win friends.

Whenever possible, the written material that reaches participants should reinforce their desire to
attend the program. It should be information that will be useful to them. Try to distinguish be tween
what you want to put in a brochure and what they will find useful. There is often a difference. For
example, is it really useful to list all the staff members in a brochure when participants won't
recognize any of them? Probably not. It will simply take up space. Now, if certain staff members
have credentials or experiences that will contribute to the learning climate by heightening
participant enthusiasm, that's another matter.

One procedure we find useful is to read the brochure, bulletin, or announcement copy and then ask
ourselves about each item:

(1) How will that be useful to the participants and

(2) How will it affect climate? If we can't give a positive answer to at least one question, we omit
the item.

Another suggestion is to prepare or at least approve copy that is to be used in announcements,

news releases, and other documents. Make sure that what participants are being told is true and
that the impressions being created are consistent with your intentions. Such procedures as
circulating a list of participants' names to them prior to the program, preparing preprinted name
tags, and distributing kits that contain pencil, pad, and information about local cultural and
recreational activities can all contribute to a positive first encounter. If you are successful in this
pre-program aspect of the first encounter, participants will have two positive reactions-"They've
made a special effort" and "I's nice they recognize me personally."

Trainer's Tip: It matters not so much what you do but that you do something special.
 1

Time schedule

Producing Workshops, Seminars, and Short Courses The time schedule is a basic document.
Adhere to it if you have developed it carefully. Punctuality is important if you want your program
to progress as planned. With the exception of late arrivals, you begin the program having control
over punctuality. As soon as you begin, you can lose control quickly. There are two ways to
maintain control of the time schedule. The first is to model the behavior you want from
participants. Arrive at sessions early. Allow plenty of time for setting up and for small talk. Then
begin on time.

The second way of controlling your time schedule is to openly state your intentions. Somewhere
in the orientation session, you can say something to the effect that "We like to start on time. Please
allow yourself plenty of time to get settled before each session because we will stick to our
schedule." Controlling refreshment breaks can be a particularly annoying problem. There are ways
of getting participants to return on time. For example, instructors of a twelve-hour intensive course
in photography always announced unusual coffee break lengths. Never ten, fifteen, or twenty
minutes but instead, "Okay, let's break nine minutes for coffee." Precisely nine minutes later they
resumed their presentation. Participants learned immediately that the time periods were not
approximations

Trainer's Tip: Good timekeeping begins with you.

Rarely do we offer to negotiate changes in the schedule. But occasionally participants will ask for
changes. These requests should be discussed for two reasons. First, it demonstrates your interest
in the concerns of the participants and thus can con tribute to climate. Second, they may have
suggestions that will strengthen the program. For example, assume we've scheduled a one-hour
lunch period for a workshop away from home. A local participant points out that there are few
restaurants nearby, and thus any time allotment of less than one and one-half hours is inadequate.
If this is correct, a schedule change would be appropriate. (We could, of course, have checked out
the food situation when designing the program.)
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In contrast, a request by a few members to start and stop an hour later than planned because of the
distance they are com muting would normally not be sufficient reason for changing the schedule.
These few knew about this when they agreed to attend, so why inconvenience the rest of the
participants? However, if the others don't care, and it makes no difference to you, a change might
be made in the interest of climate.

Unit 3: Presentation Skills: Writing, Data Collection, Analytical, Time Scheduling,

Technical &Evaluation. (MES notes)
Presentation skills are the skills you need in delivering effective and engaging presentations to a
variety of audiences. These skills cover a variety of areas such as the structure of your presentation,
the design of your slides, the tone of your voice and the body language you convey.
What Are Presentation Skills?
Presentation skills refer to all the qualities you need to create and deliver a clear and effective
presentation. While what you say during a presentation matters, employers also value the ability
to create supporting materials, such as slides.
Presentation Phases
Any presentation has three phases: preparation, delivery, and follow-up. All presentation skills fit
into one of these three phases.1
Preparation involves research and building the presentation. This may mean crafting the entire
text (or at least writing notes) and creating any slides and other supporting visual/audio materials.
You will also have to make sure that the appropriate venue is available and properly set up
beforehand and that the projector works (if you'll need one) and connects with your laptop. You'll
also want to practice your presentation as many times as you need to to feel comfortable delivering
it with ease and confidence within the time allotted for the presentation.

Skills related to preparation include:

• Conducting research related to your presentation topic

• Devising charts and graphs depicting your research findings
• Learning about your audience to better tailor your presentation to their needs
• Creating digital slides
• Breaking up a presentation into parts of reasonable length
• Using statistics effectively to persuade an audience
• Incorporating concrete examples and stories to illustrate points and maintain audience
attention
• Preparing handouts or digital references so the audience isn't preoccupied with note-taking
• Promoting presentations effectively to generate an appropriate audience
 3

Delivery is the part the audience sees. A good delivery depends on careful preparation and
confident presentation and requires its own distinctive skill set.

Skills related to delivery include:

• Delivering an attention-grabbing opening for a talk

• Providing a summary of what will be covered to introduce a presentation and provide
context
• Using body language and eye contact to convey energy and confidence
• Pausing to emphasize key points
• Modulating vocal tone for emphasis
• Articulating clearly and smoothly
• Injecting humor
• Speaking with enthusiasm and animation
• Projecting confidence
• Summarizing key points at the conclusion
• Fielding questions to clarify points

Follow-up includes properly breaking down and storing any equipment, contacting any audience
members with whom you agreed to communicate further, and soliciting, collecting, and analyzing
feedback. In some presentations, you may collect information from audience members—such as
names and contact information or completed surveys—that you also must organize and store.
Skills related to follow-up include:

Creating an evaluation form to solicit feedback from attendees

Interpreting feedback from evaluations and modifying content and/or delivery for future
presentations

• Organizing a database of attendees for future presentations

• Interviewing key attendees to gain additional feedback
• Emailing presentation slides to attendees
Key components of a presentation:
Context

Ask yourself the following questions to develop a full understanding of the context of the
presentation.

When and where will you deliver your presentation?

 4

There is a world of difference between a small room with natural light and an informal
setting, and a huge lecture room, lit with stage lights. The two require quite different
presentations, and different techniques.

Will it be in a setting you are familiar with, or somewhere new?

If somewhere new, it would be worth trying to visit it in advance, or at least arriving early,
to familiarise yourself with the room.

Will the presentation be within a formal or less formal setting?

A work setting will, more or less by definition, be more formal, but there are also various
degrees of formality within that.

Will the presentation be to a small group or a large crowd?

Are you already familiar with the audience?

With a new audience, you will have to build rapport quickly and effectively, to get them on
your side.

What equipment and technology will be available to you, and what will you be expected to
use?

In particular, you will need to ask about microphones and whether you will be expected to
stand in one place, or move around.

What is the audience expecting to learn from you and your presentation?

Check how you will be ‘billed’ to give you clues as to what information needs to be included
in your presentation.

Presenter

The role of the presenter is to communicate with the audience and control the presentation.

Remember, though, that this may also include handing over the control to your audience, especially
if you want some kind of interaction.
Audience

The audience receives the presenter’s message(s).

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However, this reception will be filtered through and affected by such things as the listener’s own
experience, knowledge and personal sense of values.

Message

The message or messages are delivered by the presenter to the audience.

The message is delivered not just by the spoken word (verbal communication) but can be
augmented by techniques such as voice projection, body language, gestures, eye contact (non-
verbal communication), and visual aids.

The message will also be affected by the audience’s expectations. For example, if you have been
billed as speaking on one particular topic, and you choose to speak on another, the audience is
unlikely to take your message on board even if you present very well. They will judge your
presentation a failure, because you have not met their expectations.

Reaction

The audience’s reaction and therefore the success of the presentation will largely depend
upon whether you, as presenter, effectively communicated your message, and whether it met
their expectations.

As a presenter, you don’t control the audience’s expectations. What you can do is find out what
they have been told about you by the conference organisers, and what they are expecting to hear.
Only if you know that can you be confident of delivering something that will meet expectations.

Method

How will the presentation be delivered?

Presentations are usually delivered direct to an audience. However, there may be occasions where
they are delivered from a distance over the Internet using video conferencing systems, such as
Skype.

It is also important to remember that if your talk is recorded and posted on the internet, then people
may be able to access it for several years. This will mean that your contemporaneous references
should be kept to a minimum.
 6

Impediments

Many factors can influence the effectiveness of how your message is communicated to the
audience.

For example background noise or other distractions, an overly warm or cool room, or the time of
day and state of audience alertness can all influence your audience’s level of concentration.

As presenter, you have to be prepared to cope with any such problems and try to keep your audience
focussed on your message.

Structuring your Presentation

What Structure?

Structure is important because a well organized presentation creates an impression that you know
what you are talking about-you will gain the audience's trust and they will be more likely to listen
to you. A structure provides a logical flow so that you can provide the information that the audience
needs to follow your presentation. The structure will help you become more comfortable following
this flow. There is a natural structure to presenting and the following structure formalizes this
process.
Purpose

To determine your purpose ask "What are the main points I want my audience to take away from
my presentation"? This provides focus for you and the audience is clear on what they will gain
listening to your presentation.
Audience pre-assessment

It is important to identify the characteristics, knowledge and needs of your audience so that you
are delivering the 'right' presentation to the 'right' audience. Know who your audience is, what they
want/need to know and what is their background. This step is done before the presentation or
throughout.
Opening your Presentation/Bridge

This is also known as the hook. It is designed to grab the audience's attention and provide them
with a reason to be interested in the presentation.
Body of Presentation
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This is the major portion of the presentation. It is necessary that it connects directly to your purpose
or bridge. Cover enough points to achieve your purpose (no more) and be sure to support your
points clearly and concisely.
Closing your Presentation

This is the final impression that you will leave with your audience-make sure it is a strong one.
Connect back to your purpose and let them know where you have been. Leave your audience with
a clear understanding of your points.

Writing skills:

10 - 20 - 30 Rule

In 2005, Guy Kawasaki, a venture capitalist in Silicon Valley wrote on his blog about a rule of
thumb in making great presentations. Focusing on conciseness and visibility, he suggested the 10
- 20 - 30 Rule of PowerPoint Presentations.
10 Slides
By having a limit of 10 slides, you will be managing the cognitive load for your audiences.
They can easily follow the flow of your presentations. It also challenges you to design your
presentations well: choose what's important and leave out what's unnecessary
20 Minutes
By giving yourself limited time on your presentation, you are challenging yourself to leave
out unnecessary details and focus on the important stories that will convey your message.
Even if your session has been allotted with more time, you can devote the remaining
minutes to discussions, questions or any technique that involves audiences with your
presentation.
30-size Font
Depending on the room and screen size, most audiences will be able to see text that are at
least 30-size font. When designing your presentation, keep in mind that anything you show
must be visible to everybody in attendance, especially those in the back.
If you are concerned about fitting more text in a slide, always remember they do not
necessarily make a better presentation.
Keep in mind that these rules are very subjective and each situation is unique.
Apply them as a good rule of thumb to guide you in planning your
presentations. Other circumstances may come and you need to be flexible
however, have your visible and concise presentations.
 8

6 x 6 Rule
Following the 6 x 6 rule, limits any text to 6 words per line and 6 lines per slide. Similar to the 10
- 20 - 30 rule, it focuses on readability and conciseness.
When used effectively, text can be useful in conveying ideas in presentations. Too much text
though can look monotonous and tiring for audiences to read. You are reminded to distill your
thoughts into short lines and use your presence to expand into more detail. Audiences are there to
listen and watch you, not read your slides.

Some basic starting points

1. Give your presentation an introduction, a main message, and a conclusion.

Your introduction needs to ‘set the scene’ a bit and give a broad outline of what you are going to
cover in your presentation. If you are using presentation software such as PowerPoint, this should
be a single slide. Your conclusion needs to sum up and present your main message to your
audience, probably again in a single slide.

2. Think about using stories to get your message across

We are hard-wired by thousands of years of evolution to listen to stories. Stories helped us survive
by reminding us about important behaviours. We therefore tend to remember them much better
than dry lists of facts or bullet points.

It is much easier to work with this than ignore it.

There are two aspects of this.

First, you should try to think about your presentation as telling a story to your audience.
What is the point that you are trying to make, and how can you best get it across?

Second, it is helpful to use stories as part of your presentation. For example, if you start by
telling a story or anecdote, it will act as a ‘hook’ to draw in your audience. You can also use stories
to illustrate each point you want to make. Of course, your story has to link to your main message,
because you can pretty much guarantee that your audience will remember the story much longer
than the conclusion!

Harnessing the Power of Three

In public speaking and rhetorical debate, as well as in much communication, three is a magic
number. The brain finds it relatively easy to grasp three points at a time.
 9

People find three points, ideas or numbers, easier to understand and remember than four or
more.

You could therefore structure your presentation using the magic number of three.

For example, your presentation should have three main elements: the introduction, middle and
conclusions. Within the main body of your presentation, divide your key message into three
elements and then expand each of these points into three sub-points. If you are using a visual aid
such as PowerPoint, limit the number of bullet points to three on each slide and expand on each of
these as you go along.
What, Why, How?

An alternative structure uses the questions “What?”, “Why?” and “How?” to communicate your
message to the audience. In a way, this also harnesses the power of three, but is a special case for
driving action.

“What?” identifies the key message you wish to communicate. Think about the benefit of your
message for your audience. What will they gain, what can they do with the information, and what
will the benefit be?

“Why?” addresses the next obvious question that arises for the audience. Having been told
“what”, the audience will naturally then start to think “why should I do that?”, “why should I think
that?” or “why should that be the case?”. Directly addressing the “why?” question in the next stage
of your presentation means that you are answering these questions and your talk is following a
natural route through the material. This will ensure that you have the audience on your side
immediately.

“How?” is the final question that naturally arises in the audience’s mind. They want to know
how they are going to achieve what you have just suggested. Try not to be too prescriptive here.
Instead of telling people exactly how they should act on your message, offer suggestions as to how
they can act, perhaps using examples.

You should try to back up what you say with evidence. You can use case studies, personal
examples or statistics here, but try to ensure that you use them in the form of stories.

Editing Your Content

Once you have a first draft of your presentation, it is important to review and edit this.

This will help to ensure that it really does get your message across in the most effective way.
 10

When editing presentation content, you should consider:

The language. Make sure that what you are saying will be clear to your audience. Remove any
jargon and try to use plain English instead. If necessary, explain terms when you first use them.

Sentence structure. Use short sentences and keep the structure simple. Remember that you will
be talking through your ideas and that the audience will be listening rather than reading.

The flow. Make sure that your presentation structure leads your audience through your ideas and
helps them to draw your conclusion for themselves.

Use metaphors and stories to aid understanding and retention.

‘Hooks’ to get and hold the audience’s attention. Ensure that you have included several ‘hooks’
at various points in the presentation. This will help you to get and then keep the audience’s
attention. These might be stories, or audience participation, or some alternative visual aids, such
as a short video.

Check, and double check, for spelling and grammar. Make sure that any presentation slides or
illustrations, titles, captions, handouts or similar are free from spelling mistakes
Analytical

The best presenters are constantly improving their skills. To get better, you must be able to look
honestly at your performance, assess the feedback you get, and figure out what you need to do to
improve. That takes analytical thinking.
More importantly, you need to have a firm grasp of the information you are about to communicate
to others. You need to analyze your audience and be prepared to think quickly if asked questions
that force you to demonstrate that you are fully aware of the material and its implications.
• Problem sensitivity
• Reporting
• Surveying
• Optimization
• Predictive modeling
• Problem-solving
• Restructuring
• Strategic planning
• Integration
• Process management
• Ongoing improvement
• Diagnostics
• Dissecting
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• Evaluating
• Judgment
Research
Research is the first step in preparing most presentations and could range from a multi-year process
to spending 20 minutes online, depending on context and subject matter. At the very least, you
must be able to clearly frame research questions, identify appropriate information sources, and
organize your results.
• Brainstorming
• Collaboration
• Big data analytics
• Business intelligence
• Calculating
• Case analysis
• Causal relationships
• Classifying
• Comparative analysis
• Data interpretation
• Deductive reasoning
• Inductive reasoning
• Search engine research

Time scheduling:
1. Decide on your “talking time”
You can’t keep to time unless you know beforehand how long you should be talking. Your “talking
time” is different than the total time you’ve been given for your presentation for two reasons:
You need to allow time for questions. This may be decided by the meeting organizer. If not, as a
rule of thumb I would allow 20-25% of your presentation time for questions.
Generally, live presentations take longer than the rehearsal. This is because of a combination of
factors. You might start a couple of minutes late, you might take longer to make a point, and there
may be other interruptions that delay you.
So if your presentation time is one hour, your talking time will be 40 minutes (15 minutes for
questions and 5 minutes for interruptions and delays).
2. Find out how long it takes to deliver your material
This is a prerequisite to being able to keep to time. If you don’t know long your talk takes how can
you hope to meet the time limit. Many presenters are very bad at judging how long it will take to
deliver something. Time yourself early on in your planning process. This will save you time and
agony. If you leave timing your presentation till the end of your planning process you’re likely to
find that you’ve prepared too much material which will mean you have to edit your presentation.
And editing can be agonizing when you’ve grown attached to your material.
3. Write a timed schedule for your presentation
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When you do a final rehearsal, note down the time that each segment takes and then take that
information to prepare a timed schedule. So say your presentation started at 3pm your schedule
would look like this:
3 pm Opening
3.05 Part 1
3.15 Part 2
3.25 Part 3
3.35 Closing
3.40 Stop talking
That means that during the live presentation, you’ll be able to easily tell whether you’re keeping
to time. Note that it’s not enough to know that each part takes 10 minutes. In the presentation itself
you won’t have the head space available to calculate whether you’re ahead or behind.
4. Write assertions so that you don’t waffle
Waffling is one of the things that can make a live presentation go longer than the rehearsal. Here’s
what can happen: you make your point but the audience looks blank. So you elaborate on it some
more, and then some more… and before you know it you’re waffling. The antidote to this is proper
planning. During you’re planning, write each point as a full sentence (not a bullet-point) which
expresses what you want to get across. You may later reduce this to a keyword or phrase in your
notes but you’ll have done the hard thinking required. It’s much better to do your thinking before,
rather than during, the presentation.
5. Have a clock or timekeeper
You can’t manage your time unless you can see the time. And you can’t rely on every meeting or
conference room having a clock. Have a small, but easily readable, travel clock that you can put
on the lectern or even in front of you on the stage. Make sure you can read it at a distance without
your glasses on. There are remotes that also have a countdown timer and that will buzz you at 5
minutes and 2 minutes before the end of your presentation.
6. Start on time
Many presentations go over time simply because they started late. Often that’s because the
presenter or meeting organizer has decided to wait for late-comers.
You may be concerned that people who are late will miss out on crucial information. So don’t start
with crucial material. Instead open with a relevant and engaging story which leads into your first
main point. The stragglers will come in while you’re telling your story.
7. Be ready to adapt
Despite all your advance preparations you may still run out of time. The solution is not simply to
talk faster! Work out ahead of time what segment you will drop if this should happen. Make a note
of the first slide number after the dropped segment. By keying in the number of that slide and then
pressing ‘Enter’ you will jump straight to that slide. This is much more professional than clicking
through your slides. Your audience need never know that you had to edit on the fly.
Go well with keeping to time in your next presentation! If you have any other tips that have helped
you keep to time share them in the comments.
 13

Evaluation skills:
Evaluating your presentation requires the ability to analyze your performance based on
some very specific criteria related to delivery and content. More importantly, you must do it
in an objective sense, without letting your self-bias come in the way.
Importance and benefits of evaluating your presentations yourself
Public speaking requires skills that are developed over time. Whether you’re a pro at it or a
beginner, there is always room to grow because people have a varying set of abilities.
Presentations are all about influence. You aim to create a dynamic with your audience so they buy
into whatever it is that you’re trying to convey.
And if you keep innovating your techniques and find your strength (which all comes with self-
ower to influence.
In addition to that, it makes you a better presenter. The lack of being told what to do by someone
else gives you a sense of self-confidence and patience.
What criteria do I need to follow for evaluation?
Let’s address the skills we need for pulling off a good presentation.
Structure
Delivery
Quality of content
Engagement with audience
Visual aids
Focusing on strengths.
Based on these categories, you need to form criteria to test yourself. Think of it like setting a frame
of reference for yourself, placing yourself on a scale ranging between good and bad would help
you track your progress.
Following are the pointers you need to keep in mind while evaluating your presentation skills-
Structure
The two most things to keep in mind about structure is that you need to have a very intriguing start
to your presentation, something that hooks the audience. (an anecdote, perhaps)
Secondly, make sure your ending is clear and in alignment with the purpose of the presentation.
And include a call to action. For example, if your presentation is about mental health awareness,
make sure one of your end slides has a comprehensive contact list of psychologists/therapists.
Apart from that, the transitions between your pointers have to be smooth. Try adding segues (which
is basically building context for your next point) In the previous example, a personal anecdote
involving someone with depression can be a good segue to talk about the importance of mental
health.
Delivery
Delivery is everything. From gestures to hand movements, your body language must emphasize
CONVEYING something.
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When you say something especially important, there must be some emphasis on part of your
delivery. Like slowing your speech, or knocking the table, or repetition of the point, etc.
There should be some sort of continuity to your narrative, the ‘flow’ must come naturally. This
can be done using the smooth transition technique mentioned above.
Adding a story-like quality to your speech might help. (having proper segregation between the
beginning, middle, and end)
Quality of content
You cannot be providing generic content. Always remember, in presentations, quality surpasses
quantity.
Rambling about your topic on and on would not only bore your audience but also hinder the
aforementioned flow and transitions that are so important.
You need to make sure you’re adding something of value that is unique to you, and not general.
Engagement with the audience
Your content must always be altered according to your audience. Knowing your audience is a
very crucial step. You cannot say the same things in front of an MNC board meeting members as
you would in front of a bunch of college students.
Knowing your audience helps you decide your content, flow, transition, practically everything.
Also, engagement with the audience means the interaction that takes place between
But at the same time, you need to prepare yourself in advance to be able to answer the questions
that might come your way. A little prediction here and there can save you a lot of anxiety.
Visual Aids
Visual aids during a presentation include everything from the design and arrangement of content
in your presentation to your appearance. (But mostly the former)
Now when it comes to visual aids in a PPT, there is no better advice than the 5rule.
How exactly do I evaluate my presentation?
Here are the six-pointers that will guide you through it step-by-step.
Identify patterns
Keeping in mind the above-mentioned pointers, start looking for what you’re doing wrong.
Is there something that you repetitively keep doing wrong? Maybe the topics you choose aren’t
relevant, maybe you use too much text in slides, maybe you don’t There are alwattention to detail.

Focus on the audience

our audience engagement can make or break the deal. While you’re presenting, make sure you
make eye contact with as many people as you can. And keep an eye out for people’s reactions. It
helps you get real-time feedback.
Now there’s a chance this might not work and you get distracted or disheartened. In which case,
drop this tactic. Nothing is worth blowing your confidence down during the presentation.
Take feedback
 15

Part of the reward for good audience engagement is honest feedback. If people like your content
but find your delivery a little off, if you engage well with them, they will be a little more open to
bringing it to your attention.
Maybe to make it a little more certain, announce at the end that you’re open to constructive
criticism. It also adds to the impression you make.
People find people who are willing to admit their flaws, admirable.
Keep track
Make sure you maintain a record of your progress, right from making those criteria scales to your
speeches through successive presentations. You could do it on paper or a device, whatever is more
comfortable.
Make notes about what you need to work on right after presentations, and tick them off when you
do in the next ones. It brings along a sense of accomplishment.

Objective set of eyes

Ask a friend or a colleague to give you honest advice. Truth is, no matter what, your clients would
always be skeptical of telling you what’s wrong. And there’s only so much you would criticize
about yourself.
Asking someone you trust can help you get a fresh perspective on your progress since we get a
little over in our heads sometimes.
Use your strengths and weaknesses
After having acquainted yourself with this whole system of evaluation, it is no doubt you’d be very
aware of your strong and weak points. It is a good thing.
Honestly, there could always be some little things here and there that we cannot wrap our heads
around, and that’s okay. Because we also have our strengths to cover up for them.
For example, you could be a little off with a smooth transition between subpoints, but if you drop
a super-strong call to action, in the end, it gets compensated.
And the best part is, only you can use them to your benefit since you’re the only one who knows
about them!
Here’s a checklist to keep in mind while self-evaluating:
Print the checklist out for easy accessibility, mark yes or no after every presentation to keep track
of your progress.

Pointers for Structure YES NO

My speech has a well-segregated beginning, middle, and end

I have prepared anecdotes, jokes, and other segues for smooth transition between
sub-topics
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My speech flow has a story like quality to it

I have a strong conclusion summarising the points along with a call to action followed
by it

Pointers for Preparation YES NO

I have rehearsed this speech at least thrice before presenting

(either in front of a mirror or with a friend)

I know what my audience is looking forward to

I have taken into account the feedback from the previous presentation

I have made a bunch of notecards with sub-topics and pointers to help me remember
my speech, just in case (backup)

Pointers for Content YES NO

My content is relevant to the purpose of this presentation

My presentation is rich with visual aids like pictures, videos, and gifs (optional)

I have a strong introduction to grip the audience from the get-go

My content is well-researched and not generic

Pointers for Delivery YES NO

Maintaining eye-contact and adequate facial expressions

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Use of purposeful body movement

I move from one sub-topic to another with ease

I am appropriately dressed according to the place and audience of the presentation

Practical Tools to use for self-evaluation

Feedback forms

Feedback from your audience is important, as stated before. However, you can’t store all of the
verbal feedback in your brain, let alone use it for selfevaluation later. Moreover, sometimes the
audience might be vague with how l

What you can do, instead, is devise a feedback form enlisting specific questions, the answers to
which would be relevant for your purpose. This not only lifts the burden of remembering all you
heard after presenting, but also eliminates unnecessary jargon from the audience.

Self-reflection
Self-reflection is the most important part of this process. Now, this does not only involve you going
to the feedback forms but also reviewing specific areas that you need extra work on. You can make
a categorized list or a scale of easily ‘fixable issues’ to issues that need relatively more practice
and work.

If there is an issue that you don’t seem to be able to work around, another form of self-reflection
you can do is record yourself. As mentioned before, use the camera and present as you would in
the conference room. Looking at a tape of yourself after presenting(as opposed to while presenting
in front of the mirror), can help you detect what’s wrong in a better way. Plus, it helps you check
body language.

Guidelines for Using Slides

The most commonly used visual aid is the Power Point slide presentation.
The equipment requirements include a computer and an LCD projector.

1. Limit their use :do not use too many visuals.

 18

2. Keep it simple: Put only one idea on each visual and no more than one illustration.

3. Make It Easy to Read :Each visual should be seen clearly by the entireaudience. Use type no
smaller than 24-point for text and larger for titles. Use sans serif type .Also use a combination
of upper-case and lower-case letters. Here should be only six or seven words per line and six
or seven lines per slide.

4. Use colour: Use a solid background colour. Medium blue is good for a background with the
text in white, bright yellow, or pink. Do not use dark red, dark green, or dark blue. design
the slides so that items come up one at a time and the previous items change to a different
colour.

5. Use pictures: You can says much on your slides by using photographs and graphics. The
trend today is to use more pictures and fewer words, and with today’s technology, the
possibilities are endless. Many presenters use photos only to reinforce a point or make an
emotional impact. A side with less textual material forces the audience to focus on the
presenter.

6. Use it then lose it: Use the visual aid only when it is necessary, People are easily distracted
as it is, so do not give them anything that might divert them from your important message.

7. Do a Dry Run Slides : that look great on your computer monitor may not look as good
projected on a screen. Test your slide presentation in a semi-dark room with the projector as
far back as you expect it to be in your actual room. What you see on your computer monitor
is not what you will see in a semi-dark room, for example, colors may be washed out.

Unit 4: Maintaining professional and personal ethics, managing health and avoiding burn
out.

What are ethics?

Ethics is based on well-founded standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to
do, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues.

Relates to basic virtues of human nature and human rights.

Studying one’s own moral standards, conduct and beliefs

Ethics is not the same as following religious principles or following the law. Not the same as doing
what society accepts as the right thing.
 19

Beneficence and non-maleficence, fidelity and responsibility, integrity, justice, respect for
people’s right and dignity.

Professional ethics in a trainer:

Personal ethics:

A person's beliefs about what's right and wrong and guides individuals in the decisions they make
both in and out of the workplace.

Influences various aspects of a person’s life and help individuals develop their work ethic, personal
and professional goals, and values.

Each person’s code of ethics varies, but many people share common ethics such as honesty and
respect.
Why are they important?

Allows trainers to lead their team more effectively: respectable and consistent ethical principles
makes it easier for others to follow your lead.

Instils a sense of trust and support from trainees: Increases credibility.

Gives a solid basis to determine the most appropriate action in a situation.

Improves the decision making process: decision making becomes easier and more streamlined.

Sets a standard of behavior in the training environment.

Increases self-motivation of trainers.

Professional ethics

Professional ethics are those that must be adhered to in a workplace or work environment.
Dictates how a professional trainers should act in a training situation and with trainees.

Different professions can have different principles of professional ethics.

Professional ethics for trainers

Adhere to highest standards of professional conduct.

Impartiality and objectivity when dealing with others.

Open and honest communication with colleagues and trainees.

Fulfill commitments in a reliable, responsive and efficient manner.

 20

Be fully accountable for actions, use of resources and financial dealings.

Training materials and methods must be used with prior permission. Avoid conflicts of interest.

Training must be given by an expert in the domain.

Credentials of the trainers must be accurate.

Show respect and understanding toward all people and honor diversity in terms of language and
material used during training.

Neutral to religious values and laws.

Do not use the training platform for anything other than training like promotion of other products
or institutions.

Clear ideas about objectives and outcome of training.

Adhere to the time limit. Any changes that are made must be communicated in advance.

Place the integrity of the profession and the interests of clients above their own personal interests.

Use reasonable care and exercise independent professional judgment when conducting training
evaluation, providing recommendations etc.

Practice and encourage others to practice in a professional and ethical manner that will reflect
credit on themselves and the profession.

Manging health and avoiding burnout

"A state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion caused by long term involvement in
emotionally demanding situations." – Ayala Pines and Elliot Aronson.

"A state of fatigue or frustration brought about by devotion to a cause, way of life, or relationship
that failed to produce the expected reward." – Herbert J. Freudenberger.
 21

Components of burnout:

Exhaustion

Central symptom of burnout.

It comprises profound physical, cognitive, and emotional fatigue that undermines people’s ability
to work effectively and feel positive about what they’re doing.

This can stem from the demands of an always-on job, intense time pressure, or having too much
to do, especially when you lack control over your work, dislike it, or don’t have the necessary
skills to accomplish it.

Unable to concentrate or see the big picture; even routine and previously enjoyable tasks seem
arduous, and it becomes difficult to even go to a training setting.
Cynicism

Also called depersonalization, represents an erosion of engagement.

It is essentially a way of distancing yourself psychologically from your work.

Instead of feeling invested in your assignments, projects, colleagues, customers, and other
collaborators, you feel detached, negative, even callous.

Cynicism can be the result of work overload, but it is also likely to occur in the presence of high
conflict, unfairness, and lack of participation in decision making.
Inefficacy
 22

Feelings of incompetence and a lack of achievement and productivity.

People with this symptom of burnout feel their skills slipping and worry that they won’t be able to
succeed in certain situations or accomplish certain tasks.

It often develops in tandem with exhaustion and cynicism because people can’t perform at their
peak when they’re out of fuel and have lost their connection to work.

Can also start with inefficacy if you lack the resources and support to do your job well, including
adequate time, information, clear expectations, autonomy, and good relationships with those
whose involvement you need to succeed.

The absence of feedback and meaningful recognition, which leaves you wondering about the
quality of your work and feeling that it’s unappreciated, can also activate this component.

Causes Of Burnout
 23

Management

Finding the purpose of your work.

Perform a job analysis. Analyse your workload and your tasks.
Reach out to those closest to you, such as your partner, family, and friends.
Connect with a cause or a community group that is personally meaningful to you. Joining a
religious, social, or support group can give you a place to talk to like-minded people about how to
deal with daily stress.
Set boundaries. Don’t overextend yourself. Learn how to say “no” to requests on your time.
Set aside relaxation time. Relaxation techniques such as yoga, meditation, and deep breathing
activate the body’s relaxation response, a state of restfulness that is the opposite of the stress
response.
• Stress management techniques.
• Proper sleep and diet.
• Making exercising a priority.
• Practise mindfulness.

Module 5: Modes Of Presentation And Levels Of Learner Involvement

Unit 1: Warm up activities & creating a climate of learning
Unit 2: Presentation: Lecture, Demonstration.
Unit 3: Group learning: panel debate, brain storming.
Unit 4: role play, drama,
Unit 5: case study, critical incident, in-basket

Unit 1: Warm Up Activities & Creating A Climate Of Learning

WARM UP ACTIVITIES
Getting the workshop off on the right foot is essential. Using structured activities at the beginning
of the training ensures that the participants get involved right away, increases their energy and
interest, and perhaps gives an early introduction to key ideas or skills that will be developed later.
This method actively involves participants. Participants usually enjoy hands on experiences.
1. Identify what you know about your participants and their organization (its structure, unique
culture, and language.")
 24

2. Compare what you've diagnosed in step one with an activity you are considering using for a
warm-up. What doesn't quite fit your diagnosis and objectives? Note the part(s) that participants
may not identify with easily. Note which parts could be re-written so that participants could relate
better to them.
3. Re-write those parts and details. Either expand or reduce parts to fit the time you have alloted
for this activity.
4. Try it out, evaluate its effectiveness and re-write as needed.
Ice Breakers
Icebreakers are activities that relax learners, introduce each other, and energize them.
Ice breakers can be an effective way of starting a training session or team-building event.
As interactive and often fun sessions run before the main proceedings, they help people get to
know each other and buy into the purpose of the event.
If such a session is well-designed and well-facilitated, it can really help get things off to a great
start. By getting to know each other, getting to know the facilitators, and learning about the
objectives of the event, people can become more engaged in the proceedings and so contribute
more effectively towards a successful outcome.
Just as a great session can smooth the way for a great event, a bad session can be a recipe for
disaster. A bad session is at best simply a waste of time, or worse an embarrassment for everyone
involved.
As a facilitator, the secret of a successful icebreaking session is to keep it simple: design the session
with specific objectives in mind and make sure that the session is appropriate and comfortable for
everyone involved.
When to Use Icebreakers
As the name suggests, these sessions are designed to "break the ice" at an event or meeting. The
technique is often used when people who do not usually work together, or may not know each
other at all, meet for a specific, common purpose.
Consider using an ice breaker when:
• Participants come from different backgrounds.

• People need to bond quickly so as to work towards a common goal.

• Your team is newly formed.

• The topics you are discussing are new or unfamiliar to many people involved.

• As facilitator you need to get to know participants and have them know you better.
 25

So What's the "Ice"?

When designing your ice breaker, think about the "ice" that needs to be broken.
If you are bringing together like-minded people, the "ice" may simply reflect the fact that people
have not yet met.
If you are bringing together people of different grades and levels in your organization for an open
discussion, the "ice" may come from the difference in status between participants.
If you are bringing together people of different backgrounds, cultures and outlooks for work within
your community, then the "ice" may come from people's perceptions of each other.
You'll need to handle these differences sensitively. Only focus on what's important to your event.
(Remember, you want to break some ice for your event, not uncover the whole iceberg, or bring
about world peace!)
And as you move on to design and facilitate the event, it's always best to focus on similarities
(rather than differences), such as a shared interest in the event's outcome.
Designing Your Ice Breaker
The key to success is to make sure that the activity is specifically focused on meeting your
objectives and appropriate to the group of people involved.
Once you have established what the "ice" is, the next step is to clarify the specific objectives for
your session.
For example, when meeting to solve problems at work, the objectives may be:
To establish a productive working environment for today's event with good participation from
everyone involved, irrespective of their level or job role in the organization.
With clear objectives, you can start to design the session. Ask yourself questions about how you
will meet your objectives. For example:
• "How will people become comfortable with contributing?

• "How will you establish a level playing field for people with different levels and jobs?

• "How will you create a common sense of purpose?"

These questions can be used as a checklist once you have designed the session:
Will this session help people feel comfortable, establish a level playing field, and so on?
As a further check, you should also ask yourself how each person is likely to react to the session.
Will participants feel comfortable? Will they feel the session is appropriate and worthwhile?
Guidelines
 26

1. Identify structured activities that fits the workshop objectives. Activities must be adapted in a
way so as to fit the participants background. The participants or their organizations structure,
unique culture and language must be identified.
2. Prepare the room and divide the participants into groups as directed.
3. Explain the purpose of the activity and review the directions.
4. Participants complete the activity.
5. Tie the purpose of the activity into the workshop objectives and design.
CREATE A CLIMATE OF LEARNING
You have to get a lot right for a training program to be effective. And one of the most critical things
one can do for learners is create a learning climate – promoting a positive and supportive view of talent
development.

Of course, the training itself is important. But it’s not the only thing that matters. Perceptions and
attitudes towards workplace learning also affect training results. Even great training can fail in a hostile
environment. An organization’s learning climate really comes down to the attitudes of employees and
how leadership communicates to shape these attitudes. Here are four research-based recommendations
to help establish a healthy and productive learning climate:

1. Creating realistic learner expectations

Each learner’s experience is different. One may be deeply skeptical about training based on a poor
experience at a previous employer, while another may have outsized expectations for training’s
benefits. Training, of course, is neither a waste of time nor a magic potion. Therefore, it’s important to
present training programs with honesty and transparency. Be sure to communicate the purpose,
objectives and intended outcomes of each training session. Show the relevance training has to your
learners’ careers.

Demonstrate your own earnest belief in talent development without overselling it. Acknowledge that
some people are skeptical about the effectiveness of training, and then offer evidence that it works. At
the same time, be clear about its limitations. To a large extent, training only works when people are
willing to engage.

2. Showing learners that training is a process

In the past, many companies handled employee training with a full-day workshop — learners were
asked to retain all the information given to them over eight hours, practice it on their own and apply it
on the job. It didn’t work because training isn’t an event. It is a process.
 27

Studies show that learners who view training as a process have a greater commitment to the program.
So let them know that a training process consists of a learning event followed by opportunities for
practice and reinforcement.

3. Showing learners that training is an opportunity

For some learners, training creates anxiety — they fear they will be unfairly judged or evaluated during
a training session. Or, they feel irrational stress during an assessment and do poorly as a result.

When learning professionals use negative language to discuss training, it makes matters worse. Using
positive language and framing training experiences are opportunities for developing one’s talents.
Avoid discussing skill gaps, deficits or what your people are doing wrong. Instead, focus on the
benefits of training and the positive outcomes that learners can expect.

4. Showing learners that the organization is committed to training

A culture of career-long learning starts at the c-level and filters down to managers, supervisors and
employees. Once it becomes part of the fabric of an organization, a commitment to training is
contagious. If learners see leadership support the training program and believe in its value, they will
invest their energy and effort into it. If you want to create an effective learning culture, you may need
to educate top executives in your organization.

Talent development is more than just providing a solid training solution. It’s a company-wide
commitment to learning. One of the primary ways to create this culture is to advertise it –building a
learning climate where trainees know exactly how dedicated their employer is to investing in their
future.

Unit 2: Presentation: Lecture, Demonstration

• Presentation for providing essential background information about the core content

• Relevance, the core content, flow of the training.

• It should be motivating and encouraging participant to learn

• Prepare the content in an interesting way

• Write it and practice it

• It should be done based on the knowledge level of participants

Six steps of presentation

 28

1. Determine your objectives for the presentation

2. Analyze your audience

3. Prepare preliminary outline or plan

4. Select properties and visual aids

5. finalize the presentation outline

6. Practice

STEP 1: Determine the objectives of the presentation

In order to determine your objectives for giving this presentation, answer the following questions:
• Who suggested that the presentation should be done? (you? your boss?)
• When and where will it happen?
• Is your presentation a part of a longer design? If yes, what precedes or follow yours?
• How much do you know about the topic?
• Should the presentation be technical, theoretical, or practical?
• Why are you giving this presentation?

Write out a short goal statement that outlines the purpose of the presentation:

STEP 2 : Analyze your audience

The second step requires you to analyze your audience so the presentation can be geared to them.
In order to do this, answer these questions:
• How much do they already know about your topic?
• What is their attitude toward the topic? (hostile? approving?)
• Why are they attending this presentation? (volunteer? mandatory?)
• What is their level of vocabulary relative to what you will present?
• How open-minded are they (eager? neutral? resistant?)
• What are some presentation techniques that might gain their attention?
• What are some presentation techniques that might get negative reactions from them?

STEP 3: Prepare a preliminary outline or plan

You are now ready to prepare a preliminary outline or plan basing it on everything you know so
far about the participants.
Outline the main ideas you want to convey first. Consider putting each main idea on a separate
self-adhesive note and then arrange them in approximate order for presentation. At this point, you
could type your preliminary plan onto a word processor.
 29

Make additional notes on ideas or examples that would support each main idea.
STEP 4: Select and/or prepare visual aids
For each main idea, think about using visual aids that could present the information more clearly
or that would support what you will be presenting.
Which form of visual aid would be best to use or can you develop?
Video Film Flip Charts Transparencies Handouts
STEP 5: Finalize the presentation outline with details
Now you are ready to finalize your outline. First make sure that your points are in a logical order.
Indicate in your notes where you will use your visual aids. Also indicate in the outline when you
are willing to pause and answer questions.

Next determine how you will introduce your presentation. Some choices include:
• Direct statement of what will be presented and why it is important to your audience.
• Indirect opening using something that is of vital interest to your audience and would lead
into your topic.
• Vivid example or comparison that leads into your topic.
• A strong quotation that relates to your topic.
• Important statistics.
• A story that illustrates what you are about to say.

Last, plan how you will summarize and close your presentation. It is important to restate your main
ideas. End with a positive, direct appeal for action or vividly review the purpose of your
presentation. Sometimes a final example, quotation or story works well.
STEP 6: Practice! Practice! Practice!
Do a practice session based on the length of your presentation, how familiar you are with the
material, and your level of confidence.
Stand before a mirror and tape record your presentation or find a colleague who will sit through
your practice session and give you feedback.
DEMONSTRATION: one way of presentation
Powerful training method in which all the sense are been used.
For example: teaching an tool or test or taking case-history ,technical knowledge ,therapeutic
techniques – hypnotism, CBT, Client centered therapy SPSS, Use of Moodle and so on.
Very effective tool to convince the effectiveness of training efficacy of the trainer.
Guideline of demonstration
 30

1. prepare carefully: materials, language, equipment's, visit stage

(even the words you use, angle. Imagine how a magician do a presentation)
2. Explain the purpose : have clear idea about purpose of demonstration
3. Step-by-step: guide participants step by step (Small sequential steps)
4. Practice: provide opportunity for participants to practice provide feedback and
reinforcements

Demonstration exercise:
Prepare a demonstration by imagining that you need to teach someone how to handle a customer
who phones in a complaint.
1. What would be the purpose of this demonstration?
2. What equipment would be needed?
3. Write out a common complaint a customer might have.
4. Write out the steps for demonstrating how to handle a customer complaint.

Unit 3: Group learning: panel debate, brain storming

PANEL DISCUSSION in training
• Knowledgeable and effective communicator will be identified from the participants

• Time will be given for preparation

• Inputs will be will be shared by trainer

• Panel will share their opinion and suggestion

• Audience (remaining participants will be asking questions)

• Moderator can be the trainer or another knowledgeable participant.

Panel discussion
• A panel consists of a small group of 6-8 experts who were carried on guided and informal
discussion.

• Panelist will be selected on the basis of expertize, and good communication skill

• Welcome

• Panelist introductions
 31

• Panelist presentations/initial comments

• Moderator-curated questions directed to the panelists

• Questions from the audience directed to a panelist(s)

• Summary

• Thank you/administrative remarks

Advantage
• Many experts than one

• Multiple angle examination of topic

Disadvantage
• Selection of expert

• Less role for audience

BRAIN STORMING in group learning

• Brain storming: a creative group work in which group members produce large number
ideas quickly on a given topic or problem. In brain storming all are expected to contribute
and open to make any remark on the topic

• No one is supposed to criticize anyone or any opinion.

Planning a Brainstorming Session

1. State the problem or issue.

a. Avoid preparing students by giving them the problem or issue—you don’t want them to think
about the topic beforehand. Brainstorming sessions are meant to be spontaneous and creative.
Provide students with the problem/topic that is new to them and one that challenges their
current level of knowledge on the issue.
b. State the problem/topic as a question which is concise and to the point. State the
problem/topic succinctly yet loose enough to encourage more idea generation. A stated
problem which is too succinct may be difficult to understand and one which is too limiting
may restrict creative ideas.
c. Use sample question “stems”(adapted from Elkenberry, 2007):
1. In what ways might we improve product X?
2. What are the characteristics of X?
 32

3. What is it about X that sets it apart from other Xs?

4. How can we do A and B?

2. Identify the roles of all students in the group.

a. Often one student acts as the group facilitator who records all generated ideas, encourages
participation, prevents negative remarks, and watches the time.
b. All other group members are to be collaborative, respectful, and cooperative.

3. Explain the guidelines of the brainstorming session (the DOs and DON’Ts).

a. Stress that all ideas are welcome and even ideas which are perceived as “out there,” “funny
or silly,” or “weird” can lead to creative solutions.
b. During the session there is to be no criticism or evaluation of ideas which could inhibit
contributions.
c. Encourage the group to relax and be enthusiastic about the process.
d. Encourage use of items such as squish balls, pipe cleaners, and other gadgets to create a
relaxed environment.
e. Everyone must participate, even those students who tend not to contribute in class
discussions. All voices are to be heard and everyone must contribute ideas.
f. No one student can dominate the brainstorming session by shouting over the others or
contributing meaningless solutions.
g. Encourage students to not delve on one idea for too long.

4. Keep the group number group manageable (8-12 people works well).

a. Generally, more people in a group can lead to more ideas being generated. However, it
may be difficult manage large groups in a classroom setting. Experiment to see what works
well in your own courses.
b. Too many people could intimidate those who tend not to participate from offering their
ideas.

5. Create a relaxed environment which is supplied with adequate workspace and materials
and free from distractions.

a. Provide necessary tables, chairs, paper and writing instruments, white board and markers,
flip chart, or concept mapping software such as Inspiration® or SMART Ideas™.
b. Provide background music (unless students find it distracting).
c. Ask students to refrain from annoying mannerisms such as leg swinging, gum chewing,
and pen twirling which can interfere with other students’ concentration.
d. Announce that all cell phones and electronic devices be turned off.
 33

6. Create heterogenic groups.

a. Groups should consist of students who vary in experiences, backgrounds, knowledge and
academic disciplines.
b. A varied group of students will suggest more varied and unique ideas and suggestions.

7. Rank the generated ideas and suggestions.

a. After the designated time frame is over, students should begin to evaluate and rank all of
the ideas generated during the brainstorming session. Suggest that students create a list of
criteria used to evaluate the ideas. They should work toward a final list of three to five
highly possible solutions to the problem.
b. Criteria should be given scores, with 5 being a perfect score to 0 which would indicate that
the idea does not meet any of the criteria.
c. Sticky notes are helpful and can be moved when chunking and categorizing ideas.
d. Criteria also can be established before the actual brainstorming begins.

8. Review the brainstorming session.

a. It is important to provide some form of follow-up to the brainstorming session as a sort of

follow-through to support student effort. Even if their suggested solutions are not used, it’s
good practice to provide feedback. Thanking the students for their efforts will prove to
them that their work is valued, and encourage them to participate in a future brainstorming
activity.
b. The final report should include the following elements (adapted from Baumgartner, 2005):
o Statement of the original problem or issue
o Criteria and scale used to evaluate the brainstorming ideas
o All ideas generated during the brainstorming session
o Criteria and rating scales used to evaluate the generated ideas
o Final rated items and their scores
o Relevant comments and further ideas provided by students during the rating process
o How final rated items are used (provide feedback with explanation if the final rated
items are not used)

Strengths of Brainstorming

• Provides a quick and easy class activity. Brainstorming sessions can be effectively used in
the classroom. However, they do require meaningful planning time for ultimate success.
• Contributes to classroom collective power. Brainstorming sessions allow individual
students’ voices to become one with the group’s voice. The final ideas are generally
identified through consensus.
 34

• Creates a student-centered activity. Students direct the group in which they generate their
own ideas, develop rating criteria, and are responsible for group dynamics.
• Supports learning in a relaxed environment. Students are able to collaborate in a relaxed,
informal learning environment.
• Strengthens problem-based learning. Brainstorming is a problem-solving activity where
students build on or develop higher order thinking skills.
• Encourages creative thought. Brainstorming encourages students to think creatively (out
of the box), encouraging all students to share their ideas, no matter how far “out there” they
may seem.

Challenges of Brainstorming

• Keeping the session from being just a chat session. The moderator should direct the session
to keep students on task.
• Ensuring students collaborate rather than compete with one another when generating ideas.
Walk around the room and listen for inappropriate group behavior.
• Encouraging students to build on each other’s ideas to help them build their critical
thinking skills.
• Getting “buy-in” or acceptance from those who have participated in brainstorming who
have never seen their ideas brought forth and acted upon. Work forward from this point
with any student who may be in this category and remark on their contribution both to them
personally, their group and to the whole class.
• Getting quiet or independent students to actively participate. Explain that as part of this
course all students are expected to bend a little which may have them participating in
activities which might make them uncomfortable. Never force someone who is adamant
about a particular situation. Instead, coax those who are hesitant at first by creating a
trusting and caring classroom environment from the beginning of the semester. This
approach can help students be more accepting of change and those who tend to feel
uncomfortable working with others.
• Helping groups to move forward if they are “stuck” and not able to generate ideas.
Reconvene the group to review the problem or issue or provide an example of a possible
solution.
• Reaching consensus. Getting students to reach consensus becomes less of a problem if all
students are given equal time to provide input, feel comfortable as a valued member of the
group and are respected for their points-of-view.

Advantage
• Larger participation

• Encourage creativity
 35

Disadvantage
• Not a systematic way so studying a topic

• Not all will participate in discussion

• Time consuming

Unit 4: Role Play, Drama

Role plays are another hands-on method for simulating real life. The role play enacts an incident
and gives participants a chance to re-examine their behavior. It allows them the opportunity to
practice and experiment with new behaviors, to emphasize different viewpoints, and to receive
feedback on their behavior. A role play draws upon the participants' experiences and knowledge
and forces them to apply theory to practice. Their role might be more passive if they only watch a
few others enact a role play. As described here, the multiple role play will increase the role of all
the learners.
Five types of role plays
1. Single
The simplest role play involves two players who are asked to re-enact a problem either from a
description or one that came up in a previous discussion. The advantage here is that the whole
group is able to see, then discuss, the same problem. The disadvantage is that the chosen players
may feel self-conscious about being the focus of attention and only those two players get to practice
the behaviors.
2. Double
Each primary player has an alter ego who stands behind the player adding comments or questions
during the role play that perhaps the primary player may be thinking but not saying.
The secondary players can be assigned to the role or participants can spontaneously get into the
action when they think of an additional response, help out the primary player with a new idea or
get that player back to reality. The facilitator may need to demonstrate this before getting others
to try it.
3. Reverse
During the role play, the facilitator asks the two people to switch roles and even seats. This helps
players to empathize with another's viewpoint and to share perceptions about the other person.
The facilitator needs to be sensitive about when to do a reversal. Feelings as well as content would
need to be processed carefully during the de-briefing stage.
4. Rotation
 36

During the role play, the trainer asks new participants to continue the role play. This spontaneous
replacement increases the number of people in the role play and reduces the tendency for players
to be embarrassed while in the spotlight. This also increases the number of different viewpoints
and approaches presented.
5. Multiple
Small groups are formed and they simultaneously enact the role play. Now everyone gets a chance
to practice and to get feedback. Processing may be more difficult, but the facilitator can focus on
the different approaches tried in small groups to resolve the posed problem.
Selecting a role play
Review your sources for an appropriate role play that fits your objectives and participants.
Many training reference books include role plays. Keep in mind these criteria when you select a
role play:
Do the objectives fit what is needed?
Is it a realistic problem?
Do the characters have distinctive conflicts?
Is it clearly written?
Are there only 2-3 characters?
Are there instructions for observers?
Can it be used as is or does it need adapting?
As needed, adapt the details of the role play to fit the participants' problems or those of the
organization.
Writing a role play
Writing your own role play ensures that the problems are relevant to those faced in that particular
organization. Refer to the guidelines on writing exercise provided earlier. Keep these in mind too:
1. Choose a problem that would require only two or three characters but that have distinctive
conflicts. Make sure it is a realistic problem and one that players have in their control to solve. It
shouldn't be overly complicated.
2. Give each character a name, age, gender, job title, personality traits, and perspective on the
problem. Each character needs to have a goal to achieve during the role play that is broad enough
to allow the player to experiment with alternative behaviors.
3. Write a concise role play providing only essential information and the facts of the problem.
 37

4. Prepare questions for the observers to think about while watching the role play that could be
discussed afterwards. Questions can cover the content of the role play and/or the feelings that were
generated during the role play.
Spontaneous role plays
As participants generate problems in your group discussions or activities, use this as an opportunity
for the problem to be acted out. Follow the guidelines outlined below as you move into setting up
the role play.
Conducting role plays
1. Arrange the room so that everyone can participate fully.
2. Explain the purpose and process to be used. Do this without a lot of fanfare, moving of furniture
or anything that suggests a theatrical production. (See tips below on how to overcome resistance
to role playing.)
3. Verbally designate roles or distribute printed descriptions of the roles nd observers' handout.
Answer any questions.
4. If it's a single role play, ask for volunteers to play the roles. Either give observers verbal
directions or give them printed sheets to follow while they are watching. During the enactment,
only intervene if a player is having difficulty, or if you want to reverse or rotate roles. Wait until
the second lull in the action before ending the role play.

If it's a multiple role play, divide participants into small groups equal to the number of characters
plus one observer. Allow them to do their enactment without interference. By monitoring the
progress of all the groups, you can judge how much time to allot to the role play.
Processing the role
1. Always conduct a feedback session that reviews and analyzes what happened in the role play.
2. Remind the observers to use the guidelines you've given them about how to give feedback.
3. Prepare open-ended questions that cover both content and feelings. Give the role players the
opportunity to respond to your questions before the observel do. If you have handed out printed
questions to the observers, use these for your discussion guide.
4. Never rush processing the role play. Allow at least as much time for processing the experience
as it took to do it originally.
5. Ask participants to reflect upon how this role play fits into their own reality and what they can
take from the exercise back to their lives.
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6. After using a role play, make notes to yourself on what did and didn't work. As your collection
on role plays grows, determine some system of filing them for easy reference. Perhaps cross
reference them by objectives and topics.
Overcoming resistance to role playing
Since many people tend to resist role playing (including many trainers), you need to take the
following into account:
1. Call it by another name, like "simulation" or "reality playing."
2. Use the role playing method later in your training design when participants are more at ease.
3. Set ground rules so that the players feel safe and re-assured that the facilitator will be protecting
them from inappropriate feedback.
4. Introduce the role play without fanfare but clearly explain the purpose and process that will be
used.
5. Start out with the multiple role playing so everyone is involved.
6. Ask for volunteers to role play rather than selecting the players (unless the problem emerged
from a particular participant).
7. Don't use players who will be inhibited by each other due to their job roles previous conflicts.
8. Focus the process questions on the objectives of the lesson. Also give feedback using the role
players' names and not their real names.
Exercise role plays
Practice: write a role play
1. Write the objective(s) based on the skills and/or principles you are covering in your workshop.
2. Write a problem that illustrates the skill or principle you want to reinforce with a role play. Be
sure it is realistic.
3. Decide on the characters who might be a part of this problem. Give them names, a place they
work or live, their roles, and even an attitude. Limit the number of characters to three.
4. Write out what the non-players should be watching for.
5. Prepare how the role play will be introduced.
6. Write out the questions you will ask after the role play has been enacted.
Application of role play
• Training for interpersonal skills at family, friendship group, work place and so on

• Job training at medical profession, management skills

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• Military combat

• Psychological skill training related counselling

• Skill training for conducting job interview

Merits
• Practice before use in future

• Active participation of most of the members in training program

• Different perspectives can be learned and adopted

• Helps participant to experience success in a simulated context

• It creates a learning dissonance which will compel participant for change

Demerits
• It will be embarrassing for some participants

• Some will feel underperformed

• Time consuming

DRAMA
What is Drama Based Training?
The ability of Drama Based Training to engage people in learning came about from forum theatre
methods pioneered by Augusto Boal in the early 1970s.

Although drama is widely used in business training, it is still a concept that many do not know.
People often assume that DBT is ‘role-play’ or a way of teaching ‘acting techniques’ for business.
These are things that can be built into a DBT session, or used for follow-on work, but they are not
what DBT is mostly all about.
Drama Based Training helps you identify, challenge, and change behaviour in the workplace. In a
typical session, professional actors present different scenarios and bring your tricky business
issues, processes, and practices to life. It is about learning through experience. Creating a lively
but safe space, engages staff and encourages participation. It is motivating and empowering to
share experiences, problem-solve, and come up with new ideas together. And all of this helps to
embrace change, which can play a big part in improving your overall customer and employee
experience.
How does Drama Based Training work?
 40

The Gibber Drama Based Training model uses of mix of Live Theatre, Film and Multimedia. Using
all these together is proven to accelerate learning, build motivation and confidence to support
personal development.
Firstly the main aims and learning goals are decided. Then scripted scenarios are written to
highlight any focus areas for development. The scenes come alive when our actors present them,
using both bespoke drama techniques and traditional training approaches. They raise issues and
fuel debate around the central questions:
What is it like to work here?
Are we happy with this way of working?
Does it fit with our vision and values?
How can we do things better?
When you have skilful facilitators and a fun learning atmosphere, it encourages people to take part.
It inspires them to find solutions to answers themselves. Gives them the chance to try out new
behaviours. As well as discover how these changes will benefit them and the organisation. That
means they can take what they have learnt and put it into everyday practice.

Positive Impact
So, how can Drama Based Training impact positively on staff morale? Here we offer five useful
reasons why it will benefit and help to improve your workplace.
1. It’s unique.
Break away from the norm. Do something different. Unlike regular traditional training, Drama
Based Training offers an entirely unique approach. An approach that is powerful, relevant,
different, and fun. Staff who take part in DBT describe it as ‘a more interesting, interactive and
enjoyable way of delivering training that is anything but boring!’ DBT is bespoke, so because it is
exclusive to you, you will achieve your outcomes and smash your goals!
2. It allows you to see things from a different perspective.
People often comment that the most significant impact of DBT comes from the chance to observe
familiar workplace scenarios from a 3rd party perspective. It’s because it drives them to explore
different approaches. They do this by directing the actors. They can stop, start, fast-forward,
rewind or start scenarios again. And make changes along the way to find a better outcome.
3. It brings real situations to life.
When actors/facilitators act out scenarios in a fun, engaging way, it brings real situations to life.
The robust and interactive delivery style can highlight problems and start conversations. And this
helps staff to understand and put into action everything they learn fully. Employees say that it’s
 41

useful to watch real scenes that they can relate to. They find it memorable too, much more
impactful than a standard PowerPoint presentation!
4. It provokes discussion and breaks down barriers.
Drama Based Training methods build trust, trigger an emotional response, and allow risk-taking.
When people are at ease, it helps to break down barriers and provoke discussion that wouldn’t
happen in a standard training situation. People are more open to try different approaches and
embrace new ideas into their thinking. When this happens, the benefits to your business are long-
lasting.

5. It improves motivation and confidence.

The mix of techniques in Drama Based Training appeal to all learning styles. The multimedia, the
drama, the engaging delivery style, captures attention. So it is a valuable tool for educating staff
and improving motivation and confidence in the workplace.

Unit 5: Case Study, Critical Incident, In-Basket

Case Study

The case study is a printed description of a problem situation with sufficient detail for participants
to determine appropriate action they might take. A case studies session consists of several detailed
description of events that are used for discussion and learning. The events can be taken from a real
life situation or can be completely fictional. The purpose of a case study is take the group closer
to the real context of a situation or problem and identify its cause and solution. The case studies
stimulates the reality, draws upon participants experiences and knowledge, and involves them
more actively in the learning process and forces them to apply theory to practice.

A case study can be used as part of a training workshop to facilitate a learning point or as part of
an assessment programme to gauge candidate’s response and analysis of situations. Case studies
can be great for sharing experiences and reaffirming knowledge and understanding.
Here are some reasons to give a case study a try:
▪ increases awareness of a problem and helps teams formulate possible solutions.
▪ exchanges ideas and helps team members share past experiences.
▪ helps to analyse a problem and reach a decision as a team.
▪ facilitates and reaffirms key learning points.

Guidelines
Use appropriate case study that fits your objectives. Adapt the details of the case study or write
case that fits your participants problems or those of the organisation.
Divide the participants into groups of 4 to 6.
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Explain the purpose of using a case study and read the directions.
Individuals follow the directions, read each case and rank the alternate response.
In small groups participants hold the discussion of their rankings. You may want them to reach
consensus on a group ranking or nearly hold a discussion on their rationale for their rankings.
Conduct a discussion with the total group, polling information from each group, perhaps tallying
group rankings on the flip chart. Tie the questions you ask to the objectives of your lesson.

Variations
Some case studies do not list alternative responses but instead describe the problem and
participants are asked to respond to a series of questions that would lead to a recommendation,
decision or action plan.

The action maze is a specialised form of the case study and involves more preparation. Participants
respond to the printed case study and select the option they think they should take. The facilitator
gives out a printed explanation of the consequence of that chosen option. Next the group decides
what they would do with the second set of options, which is followed by another consequence
sheet and so forth.

And other specialised form of the case study is the incident process. Too little data is given to the
participants in order for them to reach the decision, even a preliminary one. The trainer has all the
information needed but only reveals it when asked the specific question. Thus participants need to
learn how to ask questions correctly so that it will lead to the information they need in order to
make a decision. This incident process approach works particularly well in classes on labour
relations, grievance procedures, investigative techniques and problem solving.

How to write a case study

Write the objectives based on the skills and/ or principles you are covering in your workshop.

Write a problem that illustrates a skill or principal you want to reinforce with the case. Be sure it
is realistic.

Decide if there will be alternative solutions from which they will choose your a resolution. Write
out 4-5 alternatives.

Decide on how participants will work out this problem. Would they first meet a decision alone and
then discuss it in a small group? Would you have them work on this entirely in a small group? Will
they be required to reach consensus on the resolution of the problem?

Prepare how the case study will be introduced.

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Write about the questions you will ask after they have worked through the case study.
▪ What’s the problem?
▪ What’s the cause of the problem?
▪ How could the problem have been avoided?
▪ What are the solutions to the problem?
▪ What can you learn from this scenario?

IN BASKET
It is a form of simulation which involves the physical manipulation of paper that contains vital
information. The in-basket exercise simulates a typical office in-basket which contains various
items needing action.

An in-basket exercise assesses a candidate's ability to perform a manager’s job from an

administrative perspective. In the exercise, the candidate is confronted with issues and problems
that have accumulated in the manager’s "in-basket" after returning to work from an extended
absence. A sample of in-basket items might include memos, correspondence, e-mails, directives,
requests, reports, forms, messages, minutes, hand-written notes, etc., from management,
supervisors, staff members, inmates, and other stakeholders. The candidate's task is to review the
in-basket items and then take action on these varied issues and problems using action forms to
record notes, comments, and responses. These actions are then assessed and rated based on job
related competencies through a formal question and answer session by a group of trained raters.
Standardized criteria and predefined rating scales are used to assess the candidate.

This hands-on exercises increase participants involvement and force them to put concepts into
practice. Participants must draw upon their experiences and make decisions.

The following competencies will be tested in the in-basket exercise:

• Planning and Evaluating:
Organizes work, sets priorities, determines resource requirements; determines objectives
and strategies to achieve them; monitors and evaluates progress against goals.

• Problem Solving and Decision Making (judgment):

Identifies problems; gathers, interprets, and evaluates information to determine its
accuracy and relevance; generates and evaluates alternatives; makes sound and well-
informed decisions; and commits to action to accomplish organizational goals.

• Managing and Organizing Information:

Identifies need for information; analyzes and interprets data in complex situations
involving conflicting demands, needs, and priorities; determines its importance, accuracy,
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and communicates it by a variety of methods.

• Self-Management (initiative):
Show initiatives; sets well-defined and realistic personal goals; monitors progress and is
motivated to achieve; manages own time and deals with stress effectively.

Guidelines for an in-basket

1. Review your sources to find an appropriate In-Basket that fits your objectives. As needed, adapt
the details or write one that fits your participants' problems or those of the organization.
The In-Basket items should be realistic, contain some conflicting demands, force decisions, and
cover simple to complex problems. The goal is for the participant to process the paperwork until
all the items move from the In- Basket to the Out-Basket. Usually more work is given than can be
completed in the allotted time so there's an element of stress present.
2. Divide the participants into groups of four to six.
3. Explain the purpose of doing the In-Basket, distribute the materials, read the directions, and
answer questions.
4. Following the directions, individuals complete the exercise alone.
5. The small groups discuss their decisions, particularly their rationale for their rankings.
6. Conduct a discussion with the total group, polling information from sad group, perhaps listing
important points on the flipchart. Tie the questions to the objectives of your lesson. Follow the
guidelines on how to process an exercise.

CRITICAL INCIDENTS
Critical incidents involve participants more than any other method. Because of the personal nature
of the critical incidents, great care must be taken in the planning stage to ensure the final effect is
positive.

The critical incidents is a more personalized and individual technique. Actual participant
experiences are the basis of this method.

Participants share critical incident in their lives either a career or personally event that significantly
impacted their attitudes and behaviours. This information is another source of learning for the
group members who can relate to or generalized from what is shared.

The purpose is to share and validate the experience not to solve a problem.

When many participants share their critical incidents the others learn from a larger source than if
the facilitator alone provides examples.
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This method requires careful planning on how to build trust so that participants will be willing to
share the significant events. It also depends on your sensitivity to the participants feelings, ability
to draw out appropriate details and help participants learn from this critical incidents.

Module 6: Concluding and Evaluating the Program

Unit 1: Termination of sessions

Unit 2: Session feedback
Unit 3: Termination of program
Unit 4: Outcome feedback
Unit 5: Self evaluation& personal ethics

Unit 1: Termination Session

A Termination Session is the last session at the end of a course of therapy. In general, the following
issues are discussed:

• How does s/he or they feel about finishing therapy

• Goal assessment
• What did the client learn; how did s/he or they heal
• Challenges s/he or they still face
• How will s/he or they handle similar issues in the future
• Resources (including the therapist)
• Feedback for the therapist (what was helpful and what would have helped)
• What the therapist learned from the client; client’s strengths

Why is a Termination Session Important?

• Closure
It’s purpose is to provide closure. Why is closure important? Many clients lack closure in previous
relationships and situations. We can teach them what it is like to wrap things up well. To look at
what was accomplished is very important. In sessions with clients, we look at the goals, where we
started in relation to those goals, periodic status updates, and then where we finished. It helps both
client and therapist to see the progress that was made and changes the client made in his/her life.

• Challenges and Resources

It is common for the client to still face challenges in his/her life. Acknowledging what these are
and highlighting the tools they have learned helps to see progress. We also talk about the resources
the client has to face challenges in the future. The client often feels empowered.
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• Feedback
For the therapist, feedback provides an invaluable source of self evaluation. It helps you improve,
but it also helps you realize what you did well. As therapists we so seldom get feedback either
way unless we actively solicit feedback. If you solicit feedback from a client, you need to be open
to hearing both the good and the bad. Realize that most feedback is constructive and remain
positive. They have been vulnerable in providing you feedback so be sure to thank them!

Why Doesn’t a Termination Session Happen and What to Do About It?

It can be difficult to have clients show up for the final session. Many clients schedule and either
cancel or just don’t show up.

Why do people not want to do termination sessions:

• They feel rejected by the therapist
• It brings up feelings of situations that didn’t have closure in the past
• They think they are done and don’t want to pay for another session
• They don’t want to or never learned how to say goodbye
• Fear of losing a support person
• They don’t want to end the relationship
• Clients may be afraid of critiquing the therapist

How to get the client to the termination session:

• Discuss the fact that many clients don’t want to come to a termination session and talk
about it
• Talk about what will be discussed in the final session so clients know what to expect
• Explore the specific benefits of a termination session
• Perhaps use a different word other than “termination” such as “closure” or “final”
session

Unit 2: Session Feedback

Another effective means of obtaining ongoing feedback is to use the Session Feedback form that
follows. It is useful in almost any short-term training program. We recommend using it with each
session or period that stands alone and lasts for an hour or longer. Items 1 and 2 provide quick
indications of the students' interest in the session and their perception of its relevance. Item 3
obtains their reactions to the teaching/learning procedures used in the session. You need to list the
three learning methods used in the session that you want rated. Item 4 gives you a quick check on
the extent to which you made your main point, and item 5 invites open-ended suggestions.
Participants can complete the form in less than a minute. You can scan the responses quickly and
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obtain a general impression of the students' feedback. If it is negative, you may want to hold a brief
discussion to clarify their reactions.

Introduction
In the field of counseling and therapy, the process of providing session feedback has become
increasingly recognized as a valuable tool for both counselors and clients. Session feedback
involves gathering information from clients about their experiences during counseling sessions,
providing insights into the effectiveness of interventions, and fostering a collaborative therapeutic
relationship. This essay explores the significance of session feedback, its benefits, and the practical
steps involved in utilizing this valuable resource.
Benefits of Session Feedback:

1. Evaluation of Effectiveness: Session feedback allows counselors to evaluate the effectiveness

of their interventions and therapeutic approaches. By collecting feedback, counselors gain valuable
insights into what techniques or strategies resonated with the client and contributed to positive
outcomes. This evaluation process enables counselors to make adjustments, fine-tune their
methods, and continually enhance their skills.
2. Empowering the Client: Feedback empowers clients by giving them a voice in the therapeutic
process. It provides an opportunity for clients to express their thoughts, feelings, and concerns,
thereby fostering a collaborative and client-centered approach. By actively seeking feedback,
counselors validate the client's experiences and perspectives, promoting a sense of ownership and
active participation in their own healing journey.
3. Enhancing the Therapeutic Alliance: Session feedback strengthens the therapeutic alliance
between counselors and clients. By demonstrating openness to feedback, counselors create a safe
and non-judgmental space where clients feel comfortable sharing their thoughts. This collaborative
approach fosters trust, strengthens the therapeutic bond, and promotes a sense of partnership
between the counselor and the client.
4. Tailoring Interventions: Feedback from clients helps counselors tailor their interventions to
better meet the individual needs of each client. By gaining insights into what worked and what did
not work for the client, counselors can adjust their approaches, techniques, and treatment plans
accordingly. This customization ensures that the counseling process is more aligned with the
client's unique circumstances and preferences, enhancing the overall effectiveness of the therapy.
Practical Steps in Utilizing Session Feedback:

1. Creating a Safe Environment: Establishing a safe and non-judgmental environment is crucial

for eliciting honest and open feedback from clients. Counselors must actively listen, show
empathy, and create a space where clients feel comfortable sharing their thoughts, concerns, and
suggestions.
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2. Utilizing Open-Ended Questions: Open-ended questions are effective in eliciting meaningful

feedback. By asking questions that encourage clients to reflect and express themselves, counselors
gain deeper insights into their experiences. Open-ended questions provide clients with the
opportunity to provide detailed responses, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of
their perspective.
3. Active Listening and Validation: Active listening is a fundamental aspect of session feedback.
Counselors should attentively listen to clients, demonstrate understanding, and validate their
experiences. Validating clients' feedback helps establish rapport, cultivates trust, and encourages
clients to provide more honest and valuable feedback.
4. Continuous Improvement: Feedback should be viewed as a valuable resource for continuous
improvement. Counselors should reflect on the feedback received, analyze patterns, identify
strengths, and areas for improvement. Engaging in ongoing professional development, seeking
supervision or consultation, and collaborating with colleagues can contribute to enhancing
counseling skills and practices.

Session feedback is a powerful tool in the counseling and therapy process. It enables counselors
to evaluate the effectiveness of their interventions, empowers clients to actively participate in their
healing journey, strengthens the therapeutic alliance, and tailors interventions to meet individual
needs. By creating a safe and collaborative environment, utilizing open-ended questions, actively
listening, and embracing continuous improvement, counselors can harness the benefits of session
feedback to enhance the overall therapeutic experience for clients. Through the integration of
session feedback, counselors can continue to refine their skills and approaches, ultimately
facilitating positive change and growth in the lives of their clients.
Unit 3: Termination of Program

In the realm of mental health promotion, termination of a program represents a crucial phase where
the focus shifts from active intervention to sustaining the positive outcomes achieved. This phase
is essential for consolidating progress, empowering individuals, and ensuring the long-term
effectiveness of mental health initiatives. This essay explores the significance of termination in
mental health promotion programs, examines key considerations during this phase, and highlights
the importance of sustainable well-being.

Consolidating Progress:
Termination in mental health promotion programs allows for the consolidation of progress made
by individuals. It involves a comprehensive evaluation of the program's impact on participants'
mental well-being, self-awareness, and overall quality of life. Through assessment tools and
feedback mechanisms, program organizers can measure and recognize positive changes, identify
areas that need further attention, and tailor future interventions accordingly. By acknowledging
and celebrating achievements, termination reinforces the value of mental health promotion efforts
and promotes a sense of personal growth and empowerment among participants.
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Transitioning to Sustainable Practices:

Termination serves as a catalyst for transitioning from program-focused interventions to
sustainable mental health practices. Individuals who have benefited from the program can be
empowered to continue their well-being journey independently, armed with the knowledge, skills,
and resources acquired during the program. Termination discussions should emphasize the
importance of integrating mental health practices into everyday life, such as self-care routines,
healthy coping strategies, and ongoing self-reflection. By promoting self-reliance and sustainable
practices, individuals become active agents in maintaining their mental well-being beyond the
program's duration.

Community Engagement and Support:

Termination also highlights the significance of community engagement and support networks in
mental health promotion programs. Program organizers can foster connections among participants,
encouraging the formation of peer support groups or networks that continue to provide mutual
encouragement and accountability. Furthermore, termination discussions should identify and
highlight community resources and services that participants can access for ongoing support. By
establishing a robust support system, termination ensures that individuals have access to a network
of assistance, reducing the risk of relapse or deterioration in mental well-being.

Evaluation and Program Enhancement:

Termination provides an opportunity for program organizers to conduct a comprehensive
evaluation of the mental health promotion initiative. By analyzing feedback from participants,
assessing program outcomes, and identifying areas for improvement, organizers can refine their
approach, methodologies, and materials. Evaluation at this stage also includes an examination of
the program's sustainability, scalability, and potential for long-term impact. Incorporating
participant perspectives and involving stakeholders in the evaluation process ensures that future
iterations of the program are responsive to evolving mental health needs.
Advocacy and Policy Influence:

Termination presents a unique moment to advocate for sustained commitment to mental health
promotion at various levels, including individuals, communities, organizations, and policymakers.
Program organizers can leverage the positive outcomes and testimonials of participants to advocate
for the integration of mental health promotion initiatives into existing policies and practices.
Termination discussions can emphasize the need for continued investment in mental health
resources, destigmatization efforts, and the integration of mental health promotion into educational
curricula and workplace wellness programs. By promoting policy influence, termination aims to
create a supportive environment that nurtures mental well-being beyond the program's scope.
Conclusion:
 50

Termination of mental health promotion programs holds significant importance in ensuring

sustained well-being and empowerment for individuals and communities. It marks a transition
from program-focused interventions to sustainable practices that integrate mental health into daily
life. By consolidating progress, promoting community engagement and support, and advocating
for policy influence, termination strengthens the impact of mental health promotion initiatives and
nurtures a culture of sustainable well-being. Ultimately, termination is a catalyst for empowering
individuals to take ownership of their mental health journey and fostering environments that
prioritize and support mental well-being.

Unit 4: Outcome Feedback

Introduction:

Mental health promotion plays a critical role in improving the well-being of individuals and
communities. As the field of mental health continues to evolve, it is imperative to assess the
effectiveness of interventions and programs to ensure positive outcomes. Outcome feedback serves
as a valuable tool in this regard, allowing for the evaluation and refinement of mental health
promotion efforts. This essay explores the significance of outcome feedback in mental health
promotion, highlights its benefits, and emphasizes the importance of incorporating feedback
mechanisms into practice.
Assessing Effectiveness:
Outcome feedback provides a means to assess the effectiveness of mental health promotion
initiatives. It allows practitioners to gather data on the impact of interventions and programs,
helping to determine whether they are achieving the intended goals and objectives. Through
outcome feedback, practitioners can measure changes in individuals' mental health knowledge,
attitudes, behaviors, and overall well-being. This information enables them to evaluate the
effectiveness of specific strategies and interventions, identifying what works and what needs
improvement.

Improving Program Design:

By gathering outcome feedback, mental health promotion programs can be refined and tailored to
better meet the needs of the target population. Feedback data can reveal areas where the program
is effective and highlight areas for improvement or expansion. Practitioners can identify program
components that resonate with participants and modify or eliminate elements that are less
impactful. This iterative process ensures that mental health promotion efforts are evidence-based,
relevant, and responsive to the evolving needs of individuals and communities.
Enhancing Participant Engagement:
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Outcome feedback actively involves participants in the evaluation process, fostering a sense of
ownership and empowerment. By seeking feedback from those directly impacted by mental health
promotion programs, practitioners create an environment that values and incorporates the voices
and experiences of participants. This approach encourages participants to reflect on their own
progress and provides them with an opportunity to share their insights and suggestions. Engaging
participants in the feedback process enhances their investment in the program and increases the
likelihood of sustained behavior change.
Informing Decision-Making:

Outcome feedback provides practitioners with valuable information that informs decision-making
processes. It helps identify the most effective strategies, interventions, or approaches to mental
health promotion. Data collected through outcome feedback can guide practitioners in allocating
resources, refining program content, and targeting specific populations. By making informed
decisions based on feedback, practitioners can maximize the impact of mental health promotion
efforts and allocate resources efficiently.

Promoting Accountability and Quality Improvement:

Outcome feedback promotes accountability within the field of mental health promotion. It
encourages practitioners to critically evaluate their work, assess the outcomes of their efforts, and
make adjustments as needed. Feedback mechanisms facilitate a culture of continuous quality
improvement, where practitioners strive to deliver evidence-based, effective, and culturally
appropriate interventions. By utilizing outcome feedback, practitioners can identify areas for
professional growth, refine their skills, and deliver services of the highest quality.

Conclusion:
Outcome feedback plays a vital role in mental health promotion by facilitating program evaluation,
enhancing participant engagement, informing decision-making, and promoting accountability. By
actively seeking feedback from participants, practitioners can assess the effectiveness of their
interventions, refine program design, and continuously improve their services. Incorporating
outcome feedback into mental health promotion efforts ensures evidence-based practice and
strengthens the impact of interventions. It is imperative for mental health promotion practitioners
and organizations to prioritize the collection and analysis of outcome feedback, fostering a culture
of ongoing learning, growth, and excellence in promoting mental well-being.

Unit 5: Self-Evaluation and Personal Ethics

Introduction:

Self-evaluation and personal ethics are integral components of mental health programs, as they
guide the behavior and practice of mental health professionals. This unit focuses on the importance
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of self-evaluation and personal ethics in ensuring the delivery of ethical and effective mental health
services. It explores the process of self-evaluation, the role of personal ethics in decision-making,
and the impact of these aspects on the overall quality of mental health programs.
Self-Evaluation:

Self-evaluation is an ongoing process that allows mental health professionals to critically assess
their knowledge, skills, and performance. It involves reflecting on one's strengths, weaknesses,
and areas for growth. Self-evaluation enables professionals to identify areas that require
improvement and make informed decisions regarding professional development. By engaging in
self-evaluation, mental health professionals can enhance their competencies, stay updated with
emerging research and best practices, and ensure the provision of quality care to clients.

The Process of Self-Evaluation:

Self-evaluation involves a systematic approach to reflect on one's professional practice. Mental
health professionals can use various methods to evaluate their performance, such as self-
assessment questionnaires, seeking feedback from colleagues or supervisors, and engaging in self-
reflection. They can evaluate their communication skills, cultural competence, ethical decision-
making, and adherence to professional standards. By engaging in this process, professionals gain
insights into their strengths, areas for improvement, and potential biases or blind spots that may
impact their work.

Personal Ethics:
Personal ethics refer to an individual's values, principles, and moral beliefs that guide their conduct
and decision-making. In the context of mental health programs, personal ethics play a crucial role
in maintaining professional boundaries, respecting client autonomy, and upholding ethical
standards. Mental health professionals should regularly examine their personal ethics to ensure
alignment with professional codes of conduct and the well-being of their clients. This introspection
helps professionals navigate ethical dilemmas and make decisions that prioritize the best interests
of their clients.
Role of Personal Ethics in Decision-Making:

Personal ethics serve as a moral compass for mental health professionals when faced with
challenging situations or ethical dilemmas. These dilemmas may involve issues such as
confidentiality, dual relationships, informed consent, or cultural sensitivity. By reflecting on their
personal ethics, professionals can make ethical decisions that consider the rights, dignity, and
autonomy of their clients. Personal ethics guide professionals in maintaining professional
boundaries, respecting diversity, and promoting the overall well-being of those they serve.

Impact on the Quality of Mental Health Programs:

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Self-evaluation and personal ethics significantly impact the overall quality of mental health
programs. Mental health professionals who engage in self-evaluation are more likely to identify
areas for improvement and actively seek opportunities for professional growth. This continuous
improvement positively influences the quality of services provided to clients. Similarly, adhering
to personal ethics ensures that professionals deliver ethical and culturally sensitive care, fostering
trust, and enhancing the therapeutic relationship. When mental health professionals prioritize self-
evaluation and personal ethics, the overall quality and effectiveness of mental health programs are
enhanced.

Conclusion:
Self-evaluation and personal ethics are vital components of mental health programs. Through self-
evaluation, mental health professionals can assess their strengths and areas for growth, leading to
ongoing professional development. Personal ethics guide professionals in making ethical decisions
and maintaining high standards of practice. When mental health professionals prioritize self-
evaluation and personal ethics, they contribute to the delivery of ethical and effective mental health
services. By continually reflecting on their practice and aligning their actions with personal ethics
and professional standards, mental health professionals ensure the provision of quality care to
clients and promote the overall well-being of individuals and communities.

Module 6: Concluding And Evaluating The Program(MES Notes)

Unit 1: Termination Of Sessions

Termination of program
Concluding the training program well helps to increase the effectiveness of the program.
Different options when concluding a training program are:
Reviewing course content
Final questions and concerns
Promoting self-assessment
Back on the job application
Expressing sentiments about each other
Reviewing the program content
Recall: Use games, exercises, quizzes, or tests that challenge participants to recall facts, concepts,
and procedures they have learned.
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Reminisce: Gather the group together to review memorable experiences that occurred in the
training program.
Rehearse: Arrange an opportunity for participants to demonstrate all the skills they have
learned in one final performance. Role play, simulations etc
Reconsider: At a program's conclusion, participants may have altered their views about many of
the topics examined during the program. It can be useful to allow time to discuss these shifts in
perception. Use methods such as panel or case study discussions to allow participants to reconsider
their opinions and attitudes.
Obtaining final questions and concerns
Prepare a list of questions you would like the participants to take away with them. Ask participants
to select a few to discuss it.
Hold a final question-and-answer period. Blank index cards.
Write the following on a flip chart: “One thing that still concerns me about [fill in the training
topic] is…” and ask each participant to complete the sentence.
Break participants into small groups and ask each group to record their final questions and concerns
on flip chart pages. Make them into one list and send it to participants.
Hand out two index cards. Ask each participant to complete the following sentences:
Card 1: I still have a question about ____.
Card 2: I can answer a question about ____.

Promoting self-assessment
Ask participants to complete a questionnaire or test that provides feedback about their current
functioning in areas related to the training.
Design a way for fellow participants to give each other feedback and then ask them each to develop
a personal profile based on the feedback they receive.
Create statements to assess change in themselves. Example: I have changed my views about ____
as a result of this training session.
Ask participants to write a short essay in response to the question, “How do you see yourself now
as a result of this program?” read out essays or exchange them.
At the beginning of a training session, ask participants to write down how they hope to be able to
use the training on the job. Set aside time for participants to periodically assess them.
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Back-on the job application

Self assessment
Job aids: checklists, worksheets, and a variety of other forms that may be in electronic or paper
format. These aids provide a structure that helps participants remember and apply what they
learned in the course.
Reentry advice: realistic first steps for applying the training on the job.
Obstacle assessment: realistic assessment of the obstacles to applying training and ways to
overcome them.
Peer consultation: Participants are arranged in small groups for the purpose of discussing a specific
back-home issue for each member. After each issue is clarified, the client (the participant with the
issue) receives advice from the consultants (the other group members).
Peer teaching: This can be done within the program by assigning participants to different projects
and having them present their findings to others in the training group. Participants may also be
able to present the material to peers back on the job who have not yet received the training.
Self-monitoring: personal blog, journal, checklists etc. Try it out within the program first.
Contracting: simple written expression of the intent to change one's behavior in some respect or to
undertake a particular action appropriate to the goals of the training program. The contract can be
made with oneself or with others. Formal or informal.
Action plans: participants define appropriate outcomes and the steps to achieving them as a result
of the training program. Obstacles are anticipated as well. Self-motivational tool.
Follow-up questionnaire
Expressing final sentiments
Group photographs
Artistic product
Closing circle: share their feelings
Web of connections: ball of yarn
End with celebration
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Unit 2: Session Feedback

SESSIONS RUN BY THE TRAINERS IN TRAINING
The major part of the training programme should consist of sessions run by the trainers in training
(that is the participants on the course), and in giving feedback to them. Time should be allocated
to allow participants to develop their sessions. As a general rule, allow three times the length of
the session for preparation. Thus, if the participants are required to run a 30 minute session, allow
them one and a half hours for preparation.
Before the participants start work on developing their sessions, divide them into training teams.
Then the topic areas that each training team will be facilitating should be negotiated and agreed.
If the participants are learning to deliver a specific training package, care should be taken to ensure
that the key topics are covered, and that the sessions are divided among the participants in such
way as to cover as much of the package as possible without duplication. The feedback sessions,
following each session lead by potential trainers, should always be facilitated by the trainers of
potential trainers. This is to ensure feedback remains constructive and safe.
Review and Evaluation (to be led by Trainers of Potential Trainers)
Throughout the course, time must be allowed for review, but a final review and evaluation session
is especially important. The final review and evaluation serves two important purposes: firstly it
gives participants the opportunity to consider their learning over the whole of the course. Secondly,
the final evaluation and review provides tangible material for the trainers of trainers to use in their
own assessment of the course. These lessons learned can be used to improve future trainings.
Closing Exercise (to be led by Trainers of Potential Trainers)
Just as the start of the course sets the tone for the course, it is important, especially if participants
have spent a lot of time working together, to ensure that the course ‘ends well’. The presentation
of certificates is normally done at this time, but we like to have a closing exercise as a way of
ending the course. This does not have to be elaborate – one way is for participants simply to express
openly one or two things that they will be taking away from the course.
Ending the course in a positive manner sets the tone for work in the future. It helps create
constructive memories of the course, gives respect and value to the time spent working together,
and helps motivate participants for forthcoming training activities.
EXAMINING THE IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING SESSION FEEDBACK
As the coordinator of a corporate training event, it is essential to make sure that your training
strategies are effective and well-received by all of your attendants. When you rent an employee
training facility in Houston, you may want to include a feedback program as a part of your overall
training strategy. A business training facility that offers corporate rentals will be able to provide
you with top quality facilities to use during your training program. To highlight the importance of
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including a feedback and reflection time at the end of your training, here is a look at how training
session feedback can benefit you.
Identify Areas of Improvement
One of the most important benefits of training session feedback is that this simple protocol will
help you to easily identify areas that could be improved during future training sessions. As you are
collecting feedback, you may want to ask your participants to assess the training methods,
materials, and overall quality of the experience. By collecting feedback, you will know how to
make your training more effective for your workers.
Ensure that Business Objectives Are Being Met
A key goal of corporate training is to make sure that all workers have the knowledge and skills
that they need to meet the objectives of the business. When you take the time to collect feedback
from your attendants, you will be able to make sure that your training has met key business
objectives. For example, you can use certain feedback metrics to measure the ways that your
training has improved productivity, time management, or other skills.
Demonstrate the Value of the Training
A corporate training event can be a major investment for any business. In order to make sure that
your company puts on training events in the future, you will want to use your feedback to
demonstrate the added value of your training program. Corporate training feedback can provide
you with solid data and evidence that will allow you to clearly show the ways that the training has
added value to the company.
Unit 3:Therapy Termination
The end of therapy can be a positive experience with a long-lasting impact on both the client and
therapist. When successful, termination is an opportunity for closure. Together, the client and
therapist take a step back and look at the personal growth that has slowly unfolded over the course
of treatment—growth that may have gone unnoticed, had attention not been called to it.

In reality, termination starts long before the end of therapy. In the very first sessions, the therapist
will begin to lay the groundwork for termination by setting clear therapeutic goals and describing
therapy as a time-limited process.

As the therapeutic relationship comes closer to an end, termination will be discussed more
frequently. The therapist will highlight the growth made by the client, and help them create a plan
to handle future problems.

In this guide, we outline a successful termination in two parts. “Laying the Groundwork for
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Termination” describes the role that termination plays throughout therapy. “The Termination
Process” discusses the final sessions of therapy, when termination comes to the forefront of the
conversation.

Laying the Groundwork for Termination

Prepare clients for termination from the start.
Begin laying the groundwork for successful termination from the very first session by describing
therapy as a time-limited process. This means that therapy will not go on forever. The client’s goal
is to develop the tools or make changes that allow them to lead a healthy life without therapy. This
sets the expectation from the start that termination is a positive goal.

It is also helpful to set a rough timeline for treatment. Doing so reinforces the idea that treatment
is time-limited. Of course, it’s impossible to know exactly how long a client will be in therapy, but
it’s helpful for clients to have an idea of what to expect. Estimates can be based on therapeutic
experience or suggestions from manualized treatments.

Set therapeutic goals to mark a “finish line” for therapy.

Treatment plans help guide therapy by outlining the client’s goals and objectives. Without such
goals, therapy can become aimless as new problems arise each week, causing therapy to continue
indefinitely. Goals create a clear “finish line” for therapy and give each session direction.

Collaborate with the client to establish specific, achievable, and measurable treatment goals. Create
a copy of the treatment plan for your records and for the client to keep. Refer to the plan regularly
to make sure therapy is on track and to reemphasize the structured nature of therapy. Remember
that goals are not set in stone--they should be revised as needed to ensure they’re still relevant and
attainable.

The Termination Process

As the client’s time in therapy draws to a close, termination becomes the focus of sessions.
Termination is a time to review the client’s achievements and reinforce plans for maintaining good
mental health. The information below will help you facilitate a smooth and successful termination
process.

Gauge readiness for termination.

Generally, therapy is completed when a client has achieved the goals outlined in their treatment
plan. However, this decision is a matter of professional judgment. When therapeutic goals are
nearing completion, discuss the client’s readiness to terminate and their feelings--whether positive,
negative, or ambivalent--related to ending therapy.
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Signs that a client may be ready for termination:

The client maintains a significant reduction in symptoms or issues related to their presenting
problem.
It is the clinician’s professional judgment that the client is no longer in need of mental health
counseling.
Remaining symptoms or problems are better treated by other means (e.g. medication management
or a support group).
Sometimes, clients feel content with the progress they have made, and express that they are ready
to end therapy. They may ask how much longer they need to be in therapy or how many sessions
they have left. Other times, clients will offer subtle cues to their being ready for termination. These
might include prioritizing other things over therapy, cancelling sessions, or not completing
homework. Discuss whether these behaviors mean the client is avoiding working in therapy, or
whether they are ready for termination but hesitant to say so.

If the clinician agrees with the client’s readiness for termination, this is an opportunity to begin
collaborating on closure. If the clinician has concerns about the client’s readiness, this is an
opportunity to discuss those concerns.

Some clients may be reluctant to end therapy. They might enjoy the routine of coming to regular
sessions, or worry they won’t be able to maintain their achievements on their own. Explore the
client’s reluctance and what can be done to help them feel ready for termination. In these cases,
it’s often appropriate to use a “fading out” approach, where the frequency of sessions is gradually
reduced.

Sometimes it is appropriate to end a therapeutic relationship and refer the client to a provider who
is better suited to their needs. This should happen when:

The client’s issues are outside the scope of the clinician’s areas of competency.
Interpersonal differences between the clinician and client cannot be overcome.
The client has been in treatment for a considerable amount of time and has shown no progress or
a worsening of symptoms.
Review gains made in treatment.
Sometimes the positive changes that are fostered during therapy happen so gradually that they go
unnoticed. Reviewing a client’s progress throughout treatment--and particularly at termination-
will highlight these positive changes.

As a therapist, you might see positive changes in the client that they have yet to notice. When you
compare the first few sessions to the most recent sessions, look for changes in the following areas:

More positive body language

Decreased symptom severity
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Improved relationships
Positive outlook on the future
Improved functioning at home, work, or school
Point out these improvements by sharing specific changes you’ve seen in the client. For
example:

Regular assessments are another tool for highlighting positive change. Choose an assessment that
fits with a client's presenting issue, and ask that they complete it regularly. Over time, these
assessments will begin to show trends in the client’s mood and functioning.

As therapy nears its end, these assessments will allow a client to clearly view their improvements,
based upon their own self-report. If it makes sense for the particular assessment, the therapist may
graph the results to further highlight the trends.

Finally, ask your client to review the changes they have noticed. Have they noticed improvements
in their lives outside of therapy? What has been noticeably helpful? Below are some questions to
begin exploring:

Of what we’ve done so far, what has been the most meaningful or valuable to you?
What have you learned or accomplished?
What positive changes have you noticed in your life?
How will you continue to use what you have learned?
What do you want to remember from therapy?
How do you think you will look back on our work?
Create a mental health maintenance plan.
Many issues that bring clients to therapy have a high risk of relapse and require ongoing
maintenance. Because of this, it is important that clients have a plan for dealing with a recurrence
of their presenting problem. Depending on the issue, this might mean returning to therapy.

A mental health maintenance plan helps clients recognize ongoing mental health needs by
summarizing their triggers and warning signs. Additionally, it reminds them how to manage these
needs by using self-care, coping strategies, and social support. These topics will be addressed
throughout therapy but should be reviewed during the termination process.

Triggers are emotions, situations, people, places, or things that elevate the risk of the presenting
problem recurring. For example, high levels of stress, interpersonal problems, and grief could all
act as triggers. A mental health maintenance plan helps a client understand their triggers and how
to avoid or manage them.
Warning signs are clues that the presenting problem might be returning or intensifying. For
example, a client who presented with depression might note that their illness worsened after they
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isolated themselves from friends and family. When the client notices this behavior in the future,
they will know to use an appropriate coping strategy or return to therapy.

Conclusion
When it’s time to part with the client, the process may be straightforward and professional, or it
may be more emotional. The client may experience a wide range of emotions, from sadness and a
sense of loss, to pride, satisfaction, and a sense of independence. Allow the client to express their
emotions, and validate their experience.

A therapist’s reactions may be just as varied. Commend the client for their hard work in therapy
and take pride in what you and the client accomplished together.

Unit 4 Outcome feedback

Effective feedback is designed to determine a learner's level of understanding and skill
development to plan the next steps towards achieving the learning intentions or goals.
Outcome feedback focuses on the outcome or result – was the answer correct, did the product
work, etc. Process feedback, on the other hand, focuses on how the project was done and the way
the person went about the project. Process feedback may include things like did the person ask the
right questions or collect the right data, did they check the product properly to see if it worked,
etc. Process feedback tends to be more effective at helping build skills or ability to do the project
while outcome feedback is more effective at achieving a positive outcome on the task at hand but
does not tend to foster long-term growth.

Feedback from practitioner to the learner

Effective feedback from the practitioner:
focuses on the quality of the learner’s work product and/or processes motivates
and challenges the learner to further develop their knowledge and skills does not
give praise, reward or punishment
recognises that which the student has done well and identifies what has been misunderstood or not
understood
focuses on the quality of the work and is specific
is directly linked to the learning intentions and success criteria may
be spoken, a gesture or formalised in writing.
Feedback from learner to practitioner

Listening to answers to questions and looking closely at the work of learners on learning tasks
provides practitioners with powerful feedback about the level of learner understanding and their
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practice. This evidence supports reflection and can provide strategies to more effectively assist
learners to make progress with their learning.

Feedback from and to peers

Feedback often comes informally from and to peers. It can be improved and used productively if
learners are taught concrete strategies for evaluating one another's work against the learning
intentions and the success criteria and providing appropriate feedback. Knowing the questions to
ask when evaluating learning assists learners in the process of self-assessment.

Unit 5: Self-evaluation& personal ethics

Evaluations are normally divided into two broad categories: formative and summative. Formative
evaluation (also known as internal) is a method of judging the worth of a program while the
program activities are forming (in progress). This part of the evaluation focuses on the process.
The summative evaluation (also know as external) is a method of judging the worth of a program
at the end of the program activities (summation). The focus is on the outcome. According to
Kirkpatrick’s four levels of evaluation, levels one and two (reactive and learning) are formative
evaluations while levels three and four (performance and impact) are summative evaluations. The
reactive evaluation is a tool to help determine if the objectives can be reached, the learning
evaluation is a tool to help reach the objectives, and the performance evaluation is a tool to see if
the objectives have actually been met, while the impact evaluation is a tool to judge the value or
worth of the objectives.
SELF ASSESSMENT
Assessment refers to the act of determining or estimating the value of something and making
appropriate judgments on issues. It is used interchangeably with words like evaluation,
examination etc. Similarly, self-assessment is the ability to examine yourself to find out how much
progress you have made. It is a skill that helps individuals monitor their own work or abilities, find
out what their weaknesses and strengths are, and self-diagnose relevant solutions. The purpose of
self-assessment is to help the individual know the extent of his abilities and to improve upon them
without the need of a performance appraiser. It involves the use of questions such as; what are my
strengths; what are the obstacles, etc. Self-assessment is part of the formal employee appraisal in
some organizations, where the employee is permitted to provide his own version of his
development over the past year. Although some organizations don’t regard it so much, others value
it in high esteem. Assessment refers to the act of determining or estimating the value of something
and making appropriate judgments on issues. It is used interchangeably with words like evaluation,
examination etc. Similarly, self-assessment is the ability to examine yourself to find out how much
progress you have made. It is a skill that helps individuals monitor their own work or abilities, find
out what their weaknesses and strengths are, and self-diagnose relevant solutions. The purpose of
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self-assessment is to help the individual know the extent of his abilities and to improve upon them
without the need of a performance appraiser. It involves the use of questions such as; what are my
strengths; what are the obstacles, etc. Self-assessment is part of the formal employee appraisal in
some organizations, where the employee is permitted to provide his own version of his
development over the past year. Although some organizations don’t regard it so much, others value
it in high esteem.
Importance of self-assessment
Self-assessment is as important to students as they are to professionals. Since this is practiced in
most organizations, it’s necessary you learn to do it properly. Aside it being a part of formal
employee appraisal, it is essential for every professional’s personal development. Some general
benefits of self-assessment are: Self-assessment makes you sure and confident about your
capabilities. It eliminates or reduces work related fear and uncertainty. It enables the employee to
assess himself, make corrections quickly and improve on his abilities. In other words, it enhances
capacity building. It helps people in selecting occupations or educational programs that are best
suited for them. For instance; if you find out that you are an unfriendly or antisocial person, you
can tell that a career in marketing wouldn’t be the best option for you. Self-assessment provides
direction for training. Once you know what your strengths and weaknesses are, you can choose
the right tutor or training that best fits your career needs. It helps the individual to write resumes
and cover letters that are specific about his abilities and highlight his special qualities. This makes
your cover letter a stand out among the others.
How to improve upon self-assessment skills
Self-assessment is a simple skill that can be acquired by anyone. A systematic approach can be
adopted for developing and improving this skill. Otherwise, ordinary simple approaches and
practices can be helpful. Here are few tips that will help improve this skill: Ask questions. An
important aspect of self-assessment is the ability to ask questions. Develop the ability to ask
specific and relevant questions. You cannot ask and answer every question in the world and not
every question is relevant. Ask yourself questions about what, how, and why you have a problem
at doing something or how and why you succeeded in something.
Script down clear-cut objectives. Being able to give an honest and objective assessment of yourself
is the toughest aspect of the entire process. Write down the targets for the most important aspects
or goals of your work and assess your performance in comparison to each of them. Compare the
actual performance or results to the target you set in the beginning of the year.
Develop a personal grading system. Create a grading system for yourself – formal assessments use
grading systems for evaluations. For instance; if you are a sales person, the most important skill
required is communication and the most important task is to generate sales. You may have an
evaluation sheet for skills alone that shows something like this: Communication 30%, Self
confidence20%, friendliness 30%, enthusiasm 10%, and self-confidence 10%. In the end, use an
objective means to determine your achievement.
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Job aids: checklists, worksheets, and a variety of other forms that may be in electronic or paper
format. These aids provide a structure that helps participants remember and apply what they
learned in the course. Not all information can be covered during training programs and hence job
aids can serve as a complementary resource to training. This blog talks about other benefits of
using job aids in training. Job aids act as a repository of information supporting individuals in their
day-to-day activities at work. Job aids in the form of checklists, worksheets or flowcharts make
training simple. They are important for learners as they provide information that makes it easier
for them to perform job related tasks. Not all information can be covered during training programs
and hence job aids can serve as a complementary resource to training.

Let us see the advantages of using job aids in training.

Act as a reference tool:
There is lot of knowledge that is exchanged during training programs. It is not possible for learners
to retain all that information accurately. Therefore job aids become a useful reference tool on the
job, particularly when an employee has to follow a complex procedure or task. Employees can
work faster as they have a ready reference guide which helps in increasing their productivity. In
case a task is not done on a regular basis, people tend to forget the correct method of doing it – in
such situations, job aids serve as a handy reference and refresher.
Provide updated information:
There may be some changes with respect to products or procedures, rules or regulations since the
time of training. Job aids can be used to communicate these changes effectively at lower costs to
the concerned employees. They may serve as convenient and cost effective tools for providing
continuous training.
Help in following safety parameters:
Job aids in the form of charts and checklists can help reinforce regulatory compliance at the
workplace and thereby reduce high cost errors. They can encourage safety practices and help
employees to make fewer mistakes, thereby reducing accidents.
Aid in retaining information:
Providing job aids during a training program helps learners to retain information and recall it at
the right time, which can be applied in the right manner when required. As a training tool, it helps
new hires to recall and reinforce what has been taught during a training program. Learners do not
have to memorize the procedures or methods. Since it is readily available when learners need it,
they don’t have to get overwhelmed with information that is shared during the training program.

Simplify the learning process:

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Proper use of Job aids helps in simplifying the learning process and ensures consistency in the
performance of employees. It supplements and reinforces what has been taught during a formal
training program. It helps to transfer skills and knowledge gained during the training program to
the work area. Jobs aids in training help the learners in retaining information and act as a future
reference tool when employees have to follow complex procedures. They are handy when
nonroutine tasks have to be performed.
Reentry advice: realistic first steps for applying the training on the job.
Obstacle assessment: realistic assessment of the obstacles to applying training and ways to
overcome them.
Peer consultation: Participants are arranged in small groups for the purpose of discussing a specific
back-home issue for each member. After each issue is clarified, the client (the participant with the
issue) receives advice from the consultants (the other group members).
Peer teaching: This can be done within the program by assigning participants to different projects
and having them present their findings to others in the training group. Participants may also be
able to present the material to peers back on the job who have not yet received the training.
Self-monitoring: personal blog, journal, checklists etc. Try it out within the program first.
Contracting: simple written expression of the intent to change one's behavior in some respect or to
undertake a particular action appropriate to the goals of the training program. The contract can be
made with oneself or with others. Formal or informal.
Action plans: participants define appropriate outcomes and the steps to achieving them as a result
of the training program. Obstacles are anticipated as well. Self-motivational tool.
Follow-up questionnaire
Follow-Up Guidelines. Use these guidelines for follow-up evaluation:
Prepare participants. At the end of the training session, tell participants that you will be
conducting a follow-up evaluation and what type of evaluation it will be.
If the training wasn’t effective, find out why. Encourage participants to identify reasons
why they haven’t improved and what factors obstruct their progress. Sometimes there are
factors that inhibit or prevent the application of the new knowledge and skills on the job.
These barriers might include poor environmental conditions, lack of proper equipment, the
supervisor, existing policies and procedures, or even the organizational climate.
Share follow-up evaluations with participants’ managers or supervisors. These individuals
should know about program results and follow-up information and should be involved with
the participants’ practice and application of training
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