MODULE 5: PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT

UNIT 1
Personality assessment may be defined as the measurement and evaluation of psychological traits, states,
values, interests, attitudes, worldview, acculturation, personal identity, sense of humor, cognitive and behavioral
styles, and/or related individual characteristics
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a standardized questionnaire that elicits a wide
range of self-descriptions scored to give a quantitative measurement of an individual’s level of emotional
adjustment and attitude toward test taking.
It was developed in 19939 by Starke R. Hathaway and J. Charnley McKinley. They wanted an instrument that
could serve as an aid in assessing adult patients during routine psychiatric case workups and that could
accurately determine the severity of their disturbances. It is not based on any theories of personality, it simply
measures where an individual falls on 10 different mental health scales in order to diagnose the patient and get
them the proper treatment they need.
The most important approach taken during construction of the MMPI was empirical criterion keying. This
refers to the development, selection, and scoring of items within the scales based on some external criterion of
reference. If a clinical population was given a series of questions to answer, the individuals developing the test
would select questions for inclusion or exclusion based on whether this clinical population answered differently
from a comparison group.
MMPI 1939:
 Hathaway and McKinley began with an original item pool of more than 1,000 statements derived from a
variety of different sources, including previously developed scales of personal and social attitudes,
clinical reports, case histories, psychiatric interviewing manuals, and personal clinical experience.
 The result was 504 statements that were considered to be clear, readable, not duplicated, and balanced
between positive and negative wording.
 The statements were extremely varied and were purposely designed to tap as wide a number of areas in
an individual’s life as possible.
 They selected different groups of normal and psychiatric patients to whom the 504 questions could be
administered.

Clinical scales: MMPI clinical scale items were derived empirically by administration to clinical criterion
groups and normal control groups. The items that successfully differentiated between the two groups were
retained in the final version of the test. they organized in the items in 10 specific groups, each of those 10
groups of items represented a clinical scale, and the higher a client scored on a particular scale, the greater the
likelihood that he or she demonstrated that form of psychopathology.
Validity Scales
The MMPI has a way to assess clients’ test-taking attitudes. The MMPI and MMPI-2 include a number of items
designed to “catch” test-taking attitudes. Validity scales inform the clinical psychologist about the client’s
approach to the test and allow the psychologist to determine whether the test is valid and what kinds of
adjustments might be appropriate during the process of interpreting the clinical scales.
 The L Scale, also referred to as the "lie scale", was developed to detect attempts by patients to present
themselves in a favorable light. High scores on the Lie scale indicate a naive and unsophisticated effort
on the part of the examinee to create an overly favorable impression. The items selected for this scale
were those that indicated a reluctance to admit to even minor personal shortcomings

 The F Scale is used to detect attempts at "faking good" or "faking bad". Essentially, people who score
highly on this test are trying to appear better or worse than they really are. This scale asks questions
designed to determine whether test-takers are contradicting themselves in their responses.

 The K Scale, sometimes referred to as the "defensiveness scale", is a more effective and less obvious
way of detecting attempts to present oneself in the best possible way. Those of a higher educational level
and socioeconomic status tend to score more highly on the K Scale.

 The ? Scale, also known as the "cannot say" scale, is the number of items left unanswered. The MMPI
manual recommends that any test with 30 or more unanswered questions be declared invalid.

 The TRIN (True Response Inconsistency) Scale was developed to detect patients who respond
inconsistently. This section consists of 23 paired questions that are opposite to each other.

 The VRIN (Variable Response Inconsistency) it identifies response made without consideration of the
content.

 The Fb Scale (F-back scale) is composed of 40 items that less than 10% of normal respondents support.
High scores on this scale sometimes indicate that the respondent stopped paying attention and began
answering questions randomly.
MMPI-2
 In 1989, the first major revision to MMPI occur to address the criticisms that the original had. The
MMPI-2 was standardized based on 2,600 individuals who were from more diverse backgrounds. Some
of the items on the test were revised and some sub-scales were introduced to better help the clinicians
administering the MMPI interpret the results.
 The MMPI-2 is meant for adults and contains 576 true/false items that takes approximately 60-90 min to
complete. It is designed for all adults over the age of 18 and requires a sixth-grade reading level
MMPI-A
 The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent is a 478-item, true–false test designed for
use in clinical, counseling, and school settings for the purpose of assessing psychopathology and
identifying personal, social, and behavioral problems.
 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent (MMPI-A) was designed for clients aged 14 to
18 years. It was published in 1992 and is very similar in administration, format, scoring, and
interpretation to the MMPI-2. It yields the same validity scales and clinical scales as the MMPI-2.

 It was normed on 2,500 adolescents chosen to match 1980 U.S. Census data on many important
demographic variables

MMPI-2 RF
 The MMPI-2 RF (restructured form) was published in 2008, inspired by a restructuring of the ten clinical
scales that was done in 2003.

 This new version has been extensively tested in the empirical setting and is able to differentiate between
different clinical symptoms and broader diagnoses.

 It only has 338 questions, significantly fewer than the MMPI-2, and takes around 35-50 minutes to
complete.

MMPI-A RF
 The MMPI-A RF was first published in 2016 and sought to address the many criticisms that the original
adolescent multiphasic inventory received.

 Namely, it only contains 241 true-false items – less than half the number of items of the original MMPI-
A to help combat the challenges of adolescent attention span and concentration.

 The MMPI-A RF is one of the most commonly used psychological tools among the adolescent
population

MMPI-3
  The MMPI-3 is the most recent version of the MMPI instruments. This inventory is designed to provide
a comprehensive and efficient assessment of clinically relevant variables. Age group is 8 above.
 It is composed of 335 items. Key features of the MMPI-3 include revised, updated, and new items; new
and updated scales; and new normative samples.
 The MMPI-3 is intended for use with adults in the diverse range of settings in which the MMPI
instruments have traditionally been applied, including forensic assessments.
Advantages
• The MMPI provides broad information about aspects of personality and the existence of components of
psychopathology.

• The MMPI is completed by indicating true/false to a series of declarative statements that identify
personal beliefs or symptomology.

• The MMPI is effective at distinguishing psychopathy from malingering or purposeful test-taking as well
as from medical conditions

THE CALIFORNIA PSYCHOLOGICAL INVENTORY

 The California Psychological Inventory (CPI) is a self-administered, paper-and-pencil test composed of
434 true-false statements. The test can be administered either to individuals or groups. Although the test
has been used to evaluate individuals between the ages of 12 and 70. The CPI then is a personality
inventory designed to be taken by a “normal” adolescent or adult person, with no time limit, but usually
taking 45 to 60 minutes.
 The CPI was originally developed by Harrison Gough and published in its original form in 1957.
 Originally contained 480 true-false items and 18personality scales. The items has been shortened to 462
items in the 1987 revision and most recently to 434 items which is the third edition.
 One of the major features of CPI is that more than a third of the 434 items are drawn from MMPI and it
is specifically used for assessing personalities of normal adult populations. On this point, CPI differs
from MMPI which assesses only the personalities of abnormal persons. In the latest version of CPI, of
20 scales, three are validity scales designed to assess test-taking attitudes. The three validity scales are:
Well-being (Wb), Good impression (Gi) and Communality (Cm)>

 It is an in-depth personality assessment tool to evaluate interpersonal behavior and social interaction
characteristics.

 The CPI has become a respected and frequently used device in personality assessment, particularly in
the areas of career development, personnel selection, interpersonal maladjustment, and predicting
antisocial behavior.
  CPI is currently available in two versions, named after the number of items contained in each:
○ The CPI-434 ○ The CPI-260

CPI 260: The CPI 260 is a shorter version of the assessment, containing 260 items. It is commonly used in
organizational and personnel selection contexts.
 The 20 scales of CPI 434 are:
1. Dominance
2. Sociability
3. Capacity for status
4. Social presence
5. Self-acceptance
6. Independence
7. Empathy
8. Responsibility
9. Socialization
10. Self-control
11. Tolerance
12. Achievement via conformance
13. Achievement via independence
14. Intellectual efficiency
15. Psychological mindedness
16. Flexibility
17. Feminity
18. Wellbeing
19. Good impression
20. Communality
Advantages
● CPI focuses on measuring and understanding common interpersonal behaviors (e.g., self-control,
dominance etc.) in the general population. Extreme scores on some of the scales provide important
information on specific maladjustments an individual may be experiencing.

● CPI has generally straightforward and it is more user-friendly.

● It is also used widely in industrial/organizational psychology with the intent of understanding

personality for the purpose of maximizing productivity, interpersonal compatibility, and leadership
abilities.
Alphas
Persons scoring in this quadrant tend to be highly extraverted and to adhere to societal norms. They will be
good leaders because they are task-focused and productive but also interested in associating with others.
Their social style may be somewhat managerial. Externally, they may be assertive, talkative, and have high
levels of achievement and social presence.
Betas
Betas combine qualities of both introversion and norm-favoring. Thus, they prefer external structure and are
generally most comfortable in the role of a follower. They have a high degree of self-control, are highly
dependable, conservative, value traditions, and may place the needs of others before their own. If highly
realized, they can be nurturant, represent ideal models of goodness, and convey conventional sources of
wisdom. Poorly developed Betas might be nonresponsive, overly conformist, inflexible, constricted, and
rigid.
Gammas
Gammas are extraverted and, at the same time, question traditional beliefs and values. Thus, they make their
questions, beliefs, and challenges quite apparent. These are the skeptics, doubters, and persons who might
try to change society. They perceive the world in highly individualistic ways but are still actively involved
with others. At their best, Gammas are innovative, visionary, perceptive, and imaginative. They are likely to
be inventors, create new ideas, and push their field to new limits. If inadequately developed, they are
intolerant, belligerent, self-indulgent, rebellious, and disruptive.
Deltas
Persons scoring in this quadrant have qualities of introversion and also question traditional values and
beliefs. As a result, Deltas are highly reflective, somewhat detached, preoccupied, and possibly overly
absorbed in their own fantasies and daydreams. They might prefer that others make decisions for them and,
if extreme, may live primarily in their own private world. If fully developed, they might be highly
imaginative, artistic, visionary, and innovative.

MBTI: Myers Briggs Type Indicator

 Development: Created by Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers in the mid-
20th century, the MBTI is a widely used personality assessment tool.
 Theoretical Foundation: The MBTI draws heavily from the theory of personality developed by Carl
Jung, a prominent psychologist. Jung's concepts of psychological types, such as introversion and
extroversion, form the basis of the MBTI's personality dimensions.
 16 Personality Types: The MBTI categorizes individuals into 16 distinct personality types based on
combinations of four dichotomies:
 1. Extraversion (E) or Introversion (I)
 2. Sensing (S) or Intuition (N)
 3. Thinking (T) or Feeling (F)
 4. Judging (J) or Perceiving (P)
ADVANTAGES
 Improve self-awareness
 Career guidance
 Team building
 Conflict resolution
 Stress management
 Quick and easy assessment
DISADVANTAGES
 MBTI doesn’t measure IQ, Psychological disturbances, Emotions, Stress, etc
 Limited number of types
 Over emphasis on Type

Unit 2
Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI)

In 1977- Theodore Millon; Age 18 years and older; Eighth grade reading level
Standardized, self-report questionnaire that assesses a wide range of information related to a client’s
personality, emotional adjustment, and attitude toward taking tests.

The Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI) is a self-report personality test that is used to
assess personality disorders and other mental health conditions. It is a 175-item true/false
 questionnaire that is designed for adults 18 years of age and older. The MCMI is scored by a
computer program that generates a profile of scores for each of the scales. The scores are interpreted
by a trained professional, such as a psychologist or psychiatrist.The MCMI is a widely used and
well-validated personality test. It is considered to be a reliable and accurate measure of personality
disorders and other mental health conditions. However, it is important to note that the MCMI is not a
diagnostic tool. It should only be used as part of a comprehensive assessment by a qualified mental
health professional.

The MCMI is divided into two main sections:

Personality Disorders Scales: These scales measure 15 different personality disorders, including
borderline personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder, and antisocial personality disorder.

Clinical Syndrome Scales: These scales measure 11 different clinical syndromes, including anxiety
disorders, mood disorders, and substance abuse disorders.

The MCMI also includes three Validity Scales:

Debasement: This scale measures the tendency to present oneself in a negative light.
Defensiveness: This scale measures the tendency to deny or minimize problems.
Subtle-Obvious: This scale measures the tendency to respond in a subtle or obvious way to the test
items.

MCMI Vs MMPI

Cover a wide range of adult pathology that assess both personality pattern & clinical
symptomatology.
MMPI- Axis I disorders
MCMI- Axis II disorders
MCMI- Shorter and takes relatively less time to complete. Do not provide diagnosis- but information
relevant to diagnosis

MCMI THEORY

Based on Millon’s theory of personality.

• Retiring/Schizoid
• Eccentric/Schizotypal
• Shy/Avoidant
• Cooperative/Dependent
• Sociable/Histrionic
• Confident/Narcissistic
• Suspicious/Paranoid
• Nonconforming/Antisocial
• Assertive/Sadistic
• Pessimistic/Melancholic
• Aggrieved/Masochistic
• Skeptical/Negativistic
• Capricious/Borderline
• Conscientious/Compulsive
• Exuberant/Turbulent
 MCMI IV
Published in 2015, 195 statement- true/ false, Modifier indices- similar to validity scales

MCMI-Advantages

• Theoretically based
• Corresponds with DSM
• Brief measure
• Strong norms
• Psychometrically sound
• It is a reliable and valid measure of personality disorders and other mental health conditions.
• It is a comprehensive assessment tool that can be used to assess a variety of psychological problems.
• It is easy to administer and score.
• It can be used with a variety of populations, including adults, adolescents, and children.

MCMI-Disadvantages

• Item overlap
• Not all DSM diagnoses are well presented
• More reflective of theory than DSM
• May indicate pathology when there is none
• It is a self-report test, which means that it is subject to the biases of the individual taking the test.
• It can be difficult to interpret the results of the test without the assistance of a qualified mental health
professional.
• It is not a diagnostic tool and should not be used to diagnose mental health conditions.

Overall, the Millon scale is a valuable tool for assessing personality disorders and other mental
health conditions. However, it is important to be aware of its limitations and to use it in conjunction
with other assessment tools and clinical judgment.

NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R)

The authors of the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R), Paul Costa and Robert McCrae, sought
to create a personality measure that assesses “normal” personality characteristics. The developers of this test
used both factor analysis and theory in item development and scale construction. NEO-PI-R attempts to
provide a multipurpose inventory for predicting interests, health and illness behavior, psychological well-
being, and characteristic coping styles.
Based on their review of extensive factor analytic studies and personality theory, the authors of the NEO-PI-
R identified three broad domains: neuroticism (N), extroversion (E), and openness (O), thus the name NEO.
Each domain has six specific facets:
Neuroticism (N) is defined primarily by anxiety and depression. The six facets of this domain are anxiety,
hostility, depression, self-consciousness, impulsiveness, and vulnerability (describing people who do not
feel safe).
Extraversion (E)refers to the degree of sociability or withdrawal a person tends to exhibit. Its six facets are
warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement seeking, and
positive emotions.
Openness (O) refers to the breadth of experience to which a person is amenable. Its six facets are fantasy,
aesthetics, feelings (openness to feelings of self and others), actions (willingness to try new activities), ideas
(intellectual curiosity), and values.
Guided by personality theory and factor analytic findings, the authors of the NEO-PI-R took a
rational approach in constructing items. For each of the 18 facets, 14 items were written. It is a 240-item,
pencil-and-paper, self-report questionnaire. The items are short statements with multiple-choice responses
ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.” NEO. Factor analytic studies support the grouping of
three major areas and associated facets. Reliabilities for the three domains are in the high .80’s to the
low .90’s for both internal consistency and test–retest reliability. 2002).

Recall that through factor analysis, researchers have repeatedly attempted to find the minimum number of
independent personality dimensions to describe the human personality. Research with the NEO has
supported the notion of the following five dimensions:
1. Extroversion is the degree to which a person is sociable, leader-like, and
assertive as opposed to withdrawn, quiet, and reserved.
2. Neuroticism is the degree to which a person is anxious and insecure as opposed
to be calm and self-confident.
3. Conscientiousness is the degree to which a person is persevering, responsible,
and organized as opposed to lazy, irresponsible, and impulsive.
4. Agreeableness is the degree to which a person is warm and cooperative as
opposed to unpleasant and disagreeable.
5. Openness to experience is the degree to which a person is imaginative and
curious as opposed to concrete-minded and narrow in thinking.

Conscientiousness is constructed of two major facets: achievement and dependability.

Conscientiousness has been found to be valid as a positive predictor of performance in all occupations
studied and to be positively correlated with effective styles of coping with stressful situations.
Other NEO factors have been evaluated by Barrick et al. (2001), who found that an absence of the
factor neuroticism could be predictive of performance, though to a lesser degree than was conscientiousness,
and with a less consistent relationship to specific performance criteria. Neuroticism was also negatively
correlated with effective styles of coping with stressful situations. In addition, high neuroticism predicted
lower scores on the Satisfaction with Life Scale.
The trait openness correlated significantly with crystallized intelligence, and the traits of openness,
agreeableness, and extraversion were found to be beneficial in predicting success in specific job settings. In
addition, Judge and Bono (2000) found that extraversion and agreeableness were effective in predicting
transformational leadership.

Brief history

The original NEO PersonalityInventory was published in 1985, with the current edition, NEO-PI-R,

arriving in 1992. A short form of this test (with 60 items), the NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI), is

also available but produces a less detailed profile. 1992). A more recent revision, the NEO-PI-3, features

rewording of a small number of items that were frequently misunderstood by adolescents and adults with

low reading levels. The NEO-PI-3 has not replaced the NEO-PI-R in terms of popular usage, but it provides

an alternative for clients as young as 12, or older clients whose reading skills may be relatively weak.

Sl. No.
INVENTORIES YEAR CHANGES

1. NEO (original version) 1978 Included only three factors

2. NEO (revised version) 1985 Included all five factors
3. NEO FFI (short 1989 Reduced the no. of items
version)
4. NEO-PI-R 1992 New items replaced old statements.

5. NEO FFI (revised 2004 60 items

 version)
6. NEO-PI-3 2010 For children and adults
7. NEO-FFI-3 2010 For children and adults

Limitations

● The NEO-PI-R has been criticized for its lack of validity scales.
● Clinicians have also commented on the test’s limited clinical utility, especially regarding diagnosis.
● Although the NEO-PI-R can indicate that an individual is extremely high or low in any of the five
fundamental personality traits, such extreme scores do not readily translate into specific, diagnosable
mental disorders.

Semi-projective Techniques.

Semi-projective tests are usually more free-flowing, partly structured, quick, and easy to administer and can
be used to assess a wide range of psychological constructs.Three main semi-projective techniques are the
sentence completion test, Rosenweig picture frustration, and drawing a person Tests

They are useful in assessing a persons unconscious feelings, thoughts, and desires, and it helps psychologists
and clinicians better understand a person and help predict their behavior and personality.
Advantages
• Balanced Approach: Semi-projective tests strike a balance between the open-ended, projective
nature of purely projective tests and the structured, objective nature of standardized objective tests.
• Rich Qualitative Data: Just like projective tests, semi-projective tests provide rich, qualitative data
that can be helpful for gaining insights into an individual's inner world, emotions, and motivations.
• Tailored Assessment: Semi-projective tests can be adapted and modified for specific diagnostic
purposes, populations, or research objectives.
Limitations
• Interpretation Challenges: The interpretation of semi-projective test responses still requires
expertise, and there is potential for subjectivity and bias in interpretation, especially in the open-
ended portions.
• Limited Standardization: Semi-projective tests are typically less standardized than purely objective
tests, making it difficult to compare results across individuals or groups, and this can affect their
reliability and validity.
• Risk of Misinterpretation: There is a risk of misinterpreting responses or overanalyzing the data,
especially in the open-ended portions, which can lead to incorrect conclusions and recommendations.
• Potential for Reduced Reliability: Semi-projective tests may have lower inter-rater reliability
compared to fully structured, objective tests, as interpretation may vary among different evaluators.

Sentence completion test

• The sentence completion test consists of a series of partial or incomplete sentences and examinees
are required to complete them.
• Examinees are free to take a decision in completion of meaning and no time limitation is imposed for
their decision.
• Herman Von Ebbinghaus is generally credited with developing the first sentence completion test in
1897.
Example: SACKS SENTENCE COMPLETION TEST
• Developed by Dr. Joseph M. Sacks and Dr Sydney Lewy in 1950
• The Sacks Sentence Completion Test (SSCT) is a 60-item test that asks respondents to complete
questions with the first thing that comes to mind.
• Four areas: Family, Sex, Interpersonal, Relationships and Self concept.
Draw-A-Man Test
• Developed originally by Florence Goodenough in 1926, this test was first known as the Goodenough
Draw-A-Man test.
• The test is administered by a trained psychologist who asks the test subject to draw a person. The test
administrator then scores the drawing based on a variety of criteria, such as the presence or absence
of specific body parts, the proportion of the body parts, and the amount of detail.
• The DAP can be administered to people of all ages, but it is most commonly used with children.
• The test has also been used to identify the presence of unilateral spatial neglect (USN) in adult
patients post-stroke.
• The instructions for administering the Draw A Person (DAP) test are quite
straightforward. Immediately after the first drawing is completed, the examinee is handed a second
sheet of paper and instructed to draw a picture of a person of the sex opposite that of the person just
drawn.
• Attention has been given to such factors as the length of time required to complete the picture, pencil
pressure used, symmetry, line quality, shading, the presence of erasures, facial expressions, posture,
clothing, and overall appearance.
• The overall general impression may reveal expansiveness, hostility, aggressiveness and
submissiveness.
• The structural analysis concerned with factors like size of figures, pressure on lines, sequence of
parts drawn.
• The person who draws a tiny figure at the bottom of the paper might have a poor self-concept or
might be insecure or depressed.
 • The individual who draws a picture that cannot be contained on one sheet of paper and goes off the
page is considered to be impulsive.
• The facial expression: A happy facial expression may indicate positive emotions, while a sad or
angry facial expression may indicate negative emotions.
• The omission of body parts: The omission of certain body parts may indicate feelings of insecurity or
inadequacy.

CLINICAL APPLICATION OF SEMI PROJECTIVE TESTS:

• Semi-projective tests can be used to assess a variety of personality traits, such as
anxiety, depression, aggression, and self-esteem.
• It can be used to assess a person's thoughts and feelings about different aspects of their life, such as
their relationships, their job, and their future. This information can be used to develop treatment
goals and interventions

PROJECTIVE METHODS
• Are a class of psychological assessment techniques used to gain insight into a person's thoughts,
feelings, and perceptions by asking them to respond to ambiguous stimuli.
• These methods are often employed in clinical psychology, counseling, and personality assessment to
explore a person's unconscious thoughts and emotions.
• Projective methods are based on the idea that when faced with ambiguous stimuli, individuals may
project their own thoughts, feelings, and experiences onto the stimulus, revealing underlying aspects
of their personality.
• Clients are given freedom to make sense of these stimuli in any way they choose—they are not
restricted to multiple-choice or true/false options and psychologists will form hypotheses about the
clients’ personalities based on their responses.

Types:
● Association: Rorshach, word association.
● Construction: TAT, Draw a person test, House person test.
● Completion: Washington university sentence completion test, Sacks rozenweig picture frustration
study.
 RORSHACH
It is a projective test consisting of a set of 10 bilaterally symmetrical inkblots. Subjects are
asked to tell the examiner what the inkblots remind them of.
TEST:
● Consist of 10 bilaterally symmetrical inkblots printed in separate cards.
● 5 inkblots are achromatic.
● 2 inkblots are black, white, red.
● 3 inkblots are multi coloured.
Goal of the technique is to assess the structure of personality, with particular emphasis on how
individuals construct their experience (cognitive structuring) and the meanings assigned to their
perceptual experiences.
The interpretations on Rorschach data can provide information on variables such as motivations,
response tendencies, cognitive operations, affectivity, and personal and interpersonal perceptions.
And this remains one of the most extensively used and thoroughly researched techniques.The central
assumption of the Rorschach is that stimuli from the environment are organized by a person’s specific
needs, motives, and conflicts, and by certain perceptual “sets.”
The central thesis on which Rorschach interpretation is based is this: The process by which persons
organize their responses to the Rorschach is representative of how they confront other ambiguous
situations requiring organization and judgment.
Once the responses have been made and recorded, they are scored according to three general
categories: (a) the location, or the area of the inkblot on which they focused; (b) determinants, or
specific properties of the blot they used in making their responses (color, shape, and so on); and (c) the
content, or general class of objects to which the response belongs (human, architecture, anatomy,
etc.). The interpretation is based on the relative number of responses that fall into each categories. Some
systems also score for the extent to which subjects organize their responses (organizational activity), the
types of verbalizations, and the meaningful associations related to the inkblots.
The initial norms were developed to help differentiate among various clinical and normal populations:
schizophrenics, persons with intellectual disabilities (mentally retarded), normal, artists, scholars, and
other specific subgroups with known characteristics.
JHON ERNEST EXNER
To correct the difficulties with both the research and clinical use of the Rorschach, Exner and his
colleagues began the collection of a broad normative database and the development of an
integrated system of scoring and interpretation.They established clear guidelines for seating, verbal
instructions, recording, and inquiry by the examiner regarding the examinee’s responses.
The best features for scoring and interpretation, based on both empirical validation and commonality,
were adapted from each of the five different system.A scoring category was included in the new
system only after it had achieved a minimum .85 level for interscorer reliability.The final product was
first published in 1974 as The Rorschach: A Comprehensive System.
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
● overall excellent interscorer reliabilities with median correlations ranging from .82 to .97,
depending on the data set used. Exner (2003) has recently reported new interscorer reliabilities. And
if scorers are appropriately trained, the system has excellent interscorer reliabilities.
● The overall validity of the Rorschach has been found to be moderate to low (.30).
ADMINISTRATION:
Step 1: Introducing the Respondent to the Technique
The important goals of examiner to achieve is to allow the examinee to feel relatively comfortable with
the testing procedure
Step 2: Giving the Testing Instructions
The main objective is to give the subject maximum freedom to respond to the stimuli in his or her own
manner.
Step 3: The Response (Association) Phase
The examiner should time the interval that begins when subjects first see the card and ends when they
make their initial response, as well as the total time they spend with each card , recommended to note the
time by watch not by stopwatch. All responses must be recorded verbatim. A set of abbreviations used
throughout all the Rorschach systems consists of the symbols (V, >,,<) in which the peak indicates
the angle of the card.
Step 4: Inquiry:
Should begin after all 10 cards have been administered. Its purpose is to collect the additional
information required for an accurate scoring of the responses. It is to clarify the responses that have
already given, not to obtain new responses.
Unit 4: Thematic Apperception Test,

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a type of projective test, also popularly known as the "picture
interpretation technique". It involves describing ambiguous scenes to learn more about a person's emotions,
motivations, and personality. It was developed by American psychologists Henry A. Murray and Christina
D. Morgan at Harvard University in 1938.

It consists of 20 cards with ambiguous pictures on them. The examinee is instructed to make up a story that
includes what is occurring in the picture: the thoughts and feelings of the characters, they are encouraged to
describe the thoughts and emotions of the characters in the scenes, the events that led up to the situation, and
the outcome of the story. While the TAT is often regarded as a tool for assessing overall personality, it is
particularly valuable for gauging interpersonal relationship tendencies.

The examiner can interpret the responses either quantitatively (using rating scales to measure intensity,
duration, and frequency of needs) or qualitatively (evaluating the story themes using clinical judgment).
Henry Murray introduced a scoring system for the TAT, focusing on the "needs" of the main characters and
the environmental "press." Other formal scoring systems have been proposed, but the majority of
psychologists today analyze TAT responses impressionistically. Consequently, TAT interpretation tends to
be more subjective and less standardized, with one psychologist potentially interpreting a client's story
differently from another. This lack of empirical scoring and interpretation has made the TAT less favored
among clinical psychologists who prioritize assessment methods with robust psychometric support. The
test's validity and reliability are not as well-established as those of other personality assessments, primarily
due to inconsistencies in scoring, interpretation, and administration across psychologists.
The results are typically used to supplement other psychological tests because the TAT produces not only
highly rich, varied, and complex types of information but also personal data that theoretically bypass a
subject’s conscious resistances.

Theoretical Perspectives
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was originally developed based on the personality theories of Henry
Murray. Central to his theories was an emphasis on how individuals interact with their environments, how
external forces impact people, and how their unique sets of needs, attitudes, and values shape their responses
to the world around them. Murray placed a strong focus on the concept of needs, which he believed could be
influenced by both internal processes and external environmental factors. He compiled a list of 28 needs to
encompass the range of potential needs expressed in an individual's life, which could also be reflected in
TAT stories. To complement the presence of needs, Murray also created a list of environmental forces,
which he referred to as "press." There were 24 identified types of press, and their relative strengths could be
assessed using the TAT. As a result, Murray's theory is often referred to as needs-press theory.

Henry Murray introduced the concept of "thema" to represent behavior units resulting from the interplay of
needs and environmental factors. These thema are small units of behavior that can combine to form more
complex patterns known as serial thema. An individual's "unity thema" is the pattern of related needs and
environmental influences that give meaning to the most significant part of their behavior. For instance,
someone's core trait could be rebelliousness or martyrdom, which may even override their primary
biological needs, as observed in the case of a martyr willing to die for their beliefs. This unity thema is
rooted in early childhood experiences and continues to manifest in various forms throughout a person's life,
often operating at an unconscious level. According to Murray, it's a combination of interrelated, cooperating,
or conflicting dominant needs shaped by early childhood experiences. The Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT) was developed to assess both the smaller thema units and the larger, core aspects of an individual's
unity themas.

While Murray's personality theories were the primary influence on the initial development and use of the
TAT, psychoanalytic, object relations, and narrative understanding theories have also played a significant
role in shaping how the TAT is conceptualized, scored, and interpreted.

Characteristics of Stimuli

• The TAT stimuli comprise 19 black-and-white illustrations of people or scenes and one blank card.

• The stimuli are more highly structured than inkblots and respondents are required to give more
meaningfully organized verbal responses.

• The stimuli used in the TAT are less abstract.

• TAT stimuli typically involve either a picture of some people interacting or a paragraph that describes
the beginning of a story.

1. Ambiguity: TAT images are intentionally vague or ambiguous, allowing individuals to project their own
interpretations and emotions onto the pictures.

2. Pictorial: TAT stimuli are usually pictures or drawings rather than written or verbal prompts. These
images can depict various scenes, people, or situations.
3. Varied Themes: TAT images cover a wide range of themes, such as interpersonal relationships,
achievement, conflict, and personal experiences.

4. Human Figures: Many TAT images include human figures, which can help elicit responses related to
social and emotional dynamics.

5. Open to Interpretation: The absence of clear instructions encourages respondents to create stories or
narratives based on their perceptions of the images.

Overall, the ambiguity and open-ended nature of TAT stimuli allow for a deeper exploration of a person's
inner thoughts, making it a useful tool for assessing personality, motivations, and underlying psychological
issues.

Difference from other projective tests

● Rorschach uses inkblot images vs. being a detailed scene. The Rorschach also asks the person to only
explain the image, not to give an entire story.
● TAT cards present more structured stimuli and require more organized and complex verbal
responses.

Indian Adaption
● An Indian adaptation was developed in 1960 by Mrs.Uma Choudhary.
● It consists of 14 cards including two gender specific cards and one blank card.
● The stimuli depict Indian characters wearing Indian apparel but the situations are similar to the
original cards.

Clinical Applications
● They are used to understand disorders related to poor object relations, such as narcissistic,
borderline, and antisocial personalities.
● Researchers have utilized TAT to gain insights into these disorders and their underlying
psychological functioning.

Tell-Me-a-Story (TEMAS) Apperception Test

The Tell-Me-a-Story (TEMAS) apperception test, designed for children and adolescents, is part of a newer
generation of TAT-style tests that place greater emphasis on empirical scoring via normative data as well as
cultural sensitivity. The TEMAS was developed specifically for Hispanic youth and was later expanded for
use with African American and white youth—with images that feature culturally diverse people in scenes
more typical of urban settings, rather than the somewhat rural emphasis of the TAT.
 Unit 5 Projective Drawings
A projective test is a type of personality test in which you offer responses to ambiguous scenes, words, or
images. A person's responses to a projective test are thought to reflect hidden conflicts or emotions, with the
hope that these issues can then be addressed through psychotherapy or other appropriate treatments.People
are shown an ambiguous image and then asked to give the first response that comes to mind. The key to
projective tests is the ambiguity of the stimuli.This type of test emerged from the psychoanalytic school of
thought, which suggested that people have unconscious thoughts or urges. Projective tests are intended to
uncover feelings, desires, and conflicts that are hidden from conscious awareness.
Problems with Straight Forward Questions
When posed with direct questions on a specific topic, individuals often need to consciously craft their
responses. This process can inadvertently introduce biases and inaccuracies, whether or not they intend to
deceive the questioner. For instance, people might provide answers that align with societal norms or what is
considered desirable, even if these responses don't entirely reflect their true thoughts or actions. The idea
behind using ambiguous questions is that it makes it harder for individuals to guess what the questioner
expects from them, reducing the tendency to present a more favorable image of themselves (often referred to
as "faking good"). In such cases, respondents might provide more authentic and less socially influenced
answers
The general steps to conduct projective drawings:
1. Preparation:
○ Gather the necessary materials, including inkblots or other ambiguous stimuli (e.g., pictures,
drawings, or thematic apperception cards).
○ Ensure a quiet and comfortable environment for the participant.
2. Informed Consent:
○ Explain the purpose of the test to the participant and obtain their informed consent to
participate.
3. Introduction:
○ Instruct the participant to respond to the stimuli with drawings.
○ Emphasize that there are no right or wrong answers, and they should be as creative as
possible.
4. Presentation of Stimuli:
○ Present the stimuli one at a time or in a predetermined order.
○ Give the participant sufficient time to look at the stimulus and create a drawing.
5. Drawing Phase:
○ Encourage the participant to create a drawing based on what they see or feel in the stimulus.
○ They may use any drawing materials they prefer, such as paper and colored pencils.
6. Discussion:
 ○ After each drawing, ask the participant to describe what they have drawn and explain their
thoughts, emotions, or associations related to it.
○ Encourage them to elaborate on the details, colors, and overall content of the drawing.
7. Record Responses:
○ Take notes or record the participant's responses, including their verbal descriptions and non-
verbal behaviors during the test.
8. Repeat for Multiple Stimuli:
○ Continue presenting stimuli and having the participant draw and discuss each one.
9. Analysis:
○ After the session, analyze the drawings and verbal responses for patterns, themes, and
underlying psychological aspects.
10. Interpretation:
● Use the information gathered to make inferences about the participant's personality, emotions, and
thought processes.
● Interpret the drawings in the context of the individual's history and current circumstances.
11. Report:
● Compile the findings into a report, which may be used for clinical assessment or research purposes.
◦Can find hidden factors that affect behavior and decision-making by revealing unconscious processes.
◦Allow people to study and understand their feelings and attitudes, even if they are unaware of them.
● Overcoming social desirability bias
Uses
1. Personality Assessment: Projective drawings are a valuable method for gaining insights into an
individual's personality traits, emotions, and cognitive processes, potentially unveiling hidden
aspects of their self-perception.
2. Exploring Feelings and Emotions: These assessments can assist individuals in expressing and
delving into their emotions, including those they may not consciously recognize. They offer a non-
verbal means of conveying feelings.
3. Therapeutic Tool: Projective drawings can serve as a therapeutic instrument in the field of art
therapy. Engaging in artistic expression can have therapeutic benefits and facilitate self-expression
and self-discovery.
4. Assessment of Children: They are commonly employed with children or individuals who struggle to
articulate their thoughts verbally. Projective drawings offer a glimpse into a child's world.
5. Research: In a research setting, projective drawings are utilized to study various psychological
phenomena and to gain a deeper understanding of human cognition and emotion.
Limitations
Projective drawings are open to subjective interpretation by the examiner, introducing the potential for
biases in assessment. Their reliability and validity have been called into question due to variability based on
examiner training and the individual's mood during testing. These drawings lack standardization, making it
difficult to compare results across different people or settings, unlike structured psychological tests. Some
individuals may resist or be uncomfortable with the process, leading to inaccurate results, and
misinterpretation can occur if the examiner lacks proper training. Projective drawings are time-consuming in
both administration and interpretation, making them less practical for large-scale assessments. Ethical
concerns arise as they can probe an individual's unconscious thoughts and emotions without their full
understanding or consent. Additionally, these drawings may not be suitable for people from diverse cultural
backgrounds, and their appropriateness may vary with age.
Examples
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Individuals are tasked with observing a set of unclear situations and subsequently narrating a story that
explains the scenario. This narrative should encompass the actions taking place, the emotions of the
characters involved, and the eventual outcome. The evaluation of the test is based on the main character's
desires, motivations, and apprehensions, as well as the ultimate resolution of the story.
The Rorschach Inkblot Test

One of the earliest projective assessments, remains highly recognizable and extensively employed. Created
by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach in 1921, the assessment comprises ten distinct cards featuring
enigmatic inkblots. Individuals view one card at a time and are instructed to elucidate their interpretation of
the image. The examiner transcribes their responses word for word and also observes their non-verbal cues,
vocal inflections, and other reactions.