INTERNET OF THINGS (21CS735) MODULE 2 NOTES

Module 2 - IoT Sensing and Actuation: Introduction, Sensors, Sensor Characteristics, Sensorial
Deviations, Sensing Types, Sensing Considerations, Actuators, Actuator Types, Actuator
Characteristics.

Sensing and Actuation in IoT

1. Introduction:
o Sensing is a crucial aspect of IoT applications, marking the first step in IoT
operations.
o Actuation forms the final step in IoT deployment, completing the process after
sensing.
o Sensing and actuation rely on the principle of transduction, which involves
converting energy from one form to another.
2. Transducers:
o Transducer: A device that facilitates energy conversion (e.g., electrical,
mechanical, chemical).
o Both sensors and actuators are types of transducers.
3. Example of Transduction:
o In a Public Announcement (PA) system:
▪ Microphone (sensor) converts sound waves to electrical signals.
▪ Amplifier processes and amplifies the signals.
▪ Loudspeaker (actuator) converts electrical signals back into sound waves.
4. Differences between Transducers, Sensors, and Actuators (Table 5.1 Summary):
o Transducers:
▪ Convert energy from one form to another.
▪ Can function as either a sensor or actuator.
▪ Example: Any sensor or actuator.
o Sensors:
▪ Convert various forms of energy (environmental stimuli) into electrical
signals (input transducers).
▪ Used for measuring environmental factors like humidity, temperature, flow
velocity, pressure, etc.

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▪ Examples: Humidity sensors, Temperature sensors, Accelerometers, Gas

sensors.
o Actuators:
▪ Convert electrical signals into mechanical energy or other forms (output
transducers).
▪ Used to produce mechanical or electrical outputs.
▪ Examples: Motors, Force heads, Pumps.

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Sensors :
1. Definition of Sensors:
o Sensors are devices that detect and respond to changes in their environment or
deployment zone.
o They convert external stimuli or physical phenomena (like heat, pressure, or light)
into electrical signals for further processing.
2. Sensor Properties:
o Sensitive to specific stimuli: Sensors only detect the property they are designed
for (e.g., temperature, pressure).
o Insensitive to unrelated stimuli: Sensors ignore other properties (e.g., a
temperature sensor won’t detect light or pressure).
o Non-intrusive: Sensors don’t affect the property they measure (e.g., measuring
temperature doesn’t alter the temperature).
3. Example:
o A temperature sensor detects environmental temperature by converting heat into
electrical signals. If there's a fire, the temperature sensor notices a rise in
temperature and communicates this data to a processor for action.

Steps Involved in Figure 5.1:

1. Environment (Event: Fire):
o The environment, in this case, is the surrounding where the sensor operates.
o An event (like a fire) causes the ambient temperature of the environment to rise.
2. Sensing (Temperature Sensor):
o The temperature sensor continuously monitors the environment for changes in
temperature.
o When the temperature rises due to the fire, the sensor detects this change and begins
converting it into electrical signals.

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3. Processing (Sensor Node):

o The sensor sends the electrical signals to a sensor node, which processes the
information.
o The sensor node interprets the data and determines that a significant event (fire) has
occurred.
4. Monitoring (Remote Monitor):
o After processing, the information is sent to a remote monitor.
o The monitor displays or alerts the necessary systems or personnel, enabling them
to take appropriate action (e.g., triggering fire alarms).

Classification of Sensors:
1) Power Requirements:
Sensors can be classified based on their power needs into two categories:
• Active Sensors:
o Do not need an external power source.
o Directly convert external stimuli from the environment into output signals.
o Example: A photodiode converts light into electrical signals.
• Passive Sensors:
o Require external power to operate.
o The output is modulated based on the sensed property combined with the sensor’s
inherent characteristics.
o Example: A thermistor detects changes in resistance when voltage or current is
applied across it.

2) Sensor Output:
Sensors generate different types of outputs, influencing how they integrate with digital or analog systems:
• Analog Sensors:
o Produce continuous output signals or voltages proportional to the measured
quantity.
o Suitable for measuring continuous physical quantities like temperature, pressure,
or speed.
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o Example: A thermocouple measures the continuous temperature in a water heater.

• Digital Sensors:
o Produce discrete output signals, often binary (logic 1 or 0).
o Output may be a single bit or multiple bits transmitted serially or in parallel.
o Example: A digital thermometer gives discrete temperature readings.

3) Property to be Measured:
Sensors also vary based on the type of environmental property they measure:
• Scalar Sensors:
o Measure scalar quantities where only magnitude is important.
o Output is a signal or voltage proportional to the magnitude.
o Example: A thermometer measures ambient temperature, unaffected by
orientation.
• Vector Sensors:
o Measure both magnitude and direction/orientation.
o Useful for physical quantities like velocity or orientation.
o Example: An electronic gyroscope measures orientation along three axes and is
commonly used in aircraft.

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n Figure 5.2, the functional blocks of a typical IoT sensor node are divided into several key components,
each playing a specific role. Here’s an explanation of each component and its role, along with examples:
1) Sensor:
• Purpose: The sensor detects and measures environmental conditions or physical
phenomena (temperature, pressure, force, etc.) and converts them into electrical signals.
• Examples:
o Temperature sensor (e.g., thermocouple or thermistor): Measures temperature
changes.
o Pressure sensor (e.g., barometer): Detects atmospheric or fluid pressure.
o Chemical sensor (e.g., gas sensors): Monitors gas concentrations like CO2.
2) Processor Unit:
• Purpose: The processor processes the signals from the sensor, runs embedded programs,
and manages communication between the sensor and other components or remote servers.
It often handles data filtering, conversion, and decision-making.
• Examples:

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o Microcontroller (e.g., Arduino, ESP32): Runs programs for local data processing
and communication control.
o Microprocessor (e.g., Raspberry Pi): Used in more advanced IoT systems for
heavier data processing and management tasks.
3) Actuator (Optional):
• Purpose: Actuators convert processed electrical signals into physical actions. In some IoT
systems, actuators respond to the sensor data by performing tasks such as opening a valve,
moving a mechanical part, or sounding an alarm.
• Examples:
o Electric motor: Converts electrical signals to mechanical motion (used in robots
or door openers).
o Hydraulic actuator: Used in systems requiring strong force, like controlling
industrial machinery.
o Pneumatic actuator: Used in air-powered systems to move parts.
4) Radio Unit:
• Purpose: The radio unit handles wireless communication between sensor nodes or between
nodes and a server. It transmits the processed sensor data wirelessly using different
communication protocols.
• Examples:
o WiFi: Used for high-speed communication over short distances, ideal for home
automation.
o Zigbee: Low-power wireless protocol suitable for industrial IoT and smart homes.
o LoRa (Long Range): Ideal for long-distance communication in rural or large-area
deployments.
o Bluetooth: Used for short-range wireless communication between devices.
o RFID/NFC: Suitable for short-range identification and data exchange (e.g.,
contactless payments).
o GSM/3G/5G: Cellular-based communication for remote IoT applications.
5) Power Unit:
• Purpose: The power unit provides the energy required for the sensor node to function. It
typically includes batteries, power management circuitry, and, in some cases, energy
harvesting systems like solar panels.
• Examples:
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o Batteries: Used to power the sensor node for mobile or remote applications (e.g.,
lithium-ion or alkaline batteries).
o AC-DC Converter: Converts AC mains power to DC power for the node’s
components when connected to the grid.
o Solar panel: Harvests energy from the sun to power the sensor node in remote or
outdoor environments.
6) ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter):
• Purpose: Many sensors produce analog signals. The ADC converts these analog signals
into digital signals, which are then processed by the microcontroller or processor.
• Examples:
o Thermocouples and pressure sensors: Both typically output analog signals that
need conversion to digital for processing.
o Light sensors: Produce analog voltages that represent the intensity of light, which
is converted to digital for further processing.
Communication Interfaces:
• Purpose: These interfaces connect the sensor node with external devices or networks,
enabling data transmission via wired or wireless connections. Different communication
standards are employed based on the use case and environment.
• Examples:
o WiFi/Bluetooth: For short-range and high-speed communication in smart home
devices or wearables.
o LoRa/Zigbee: For long-range, low-power communication, ideal for remote
monitoring or industrial IoT.
o RFID/NFC: Used for short-range identification and authentication in systems like
security access control or inventory tracking.

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Sensor Characteristics
Sensors are defined by their ability to detect certain physical phenomena and convert them into measurable
signals. These signals provide data about the environment or system they are measuring. The performance
of a sensor is determined by its core characteristics, such as resolution, accuracy, and precision. Here's
an explanation of each characteristic:

1) Sensor Resolution:
• Definition: Sensor resolution refers to the smallest detectable change in the quantity being
measured by the sensor. The higher the resolution, the finer the details that the sensor can
detect. For digital sensors, the resolution is the smallest difference in the digital output that
the sensor can represent.
• Importance: High resolution enables the sensor to detect even tiny changes in the
measured phenomenon, resulting in more detailed data.
Example:
Consider two temperature sensors:
o Sensor A can detect temperature changes in 0.5°C increments.
o Sensor B can detect changes as small as 0.25°C increments.
Sensor B has a higher resolution than Sensor A, as it can detect smaller temperature variations. This
means Sensor B will capture finer details in the temperature changes.

2) Sensor Accuracy:
• Definition: Accuracy is the ability of a sensor to measure the actual value of the quantity
being sensed as closely as possible to its true value. It reflects how close the sensor's
readings are to the actual measurement.
• Importance: High accuracy ensures that the sensor's output is as true to the real-world
value as possible, minimizing the error in measurement.
Example:
Suppose a weight sensor measures a 100 kg object:
o The sensor shows a reading of 99.98 kg.
This sensor has an accuracy of 99.98%, as the measured value (99.98 kg) is very close to the actual weight
(100 kg). The error in this case is only 0.02%, indicating high accuracy.

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3) Sensor Precision:
• Definition: Precision, also known as repeatability, refers to the sensor's ability to
consistently produce the same output for the same input under unchanged conditions.
Precision measures the consistency of the sensor's readings over time.
• Importance: A highly precise sensor will give nearly the same reading every time it
measures the same quantity, even if it is not perfectly accurate.
Example:
Consider the same weight sensor used earlier, but this time it reports three readings for a 100 kg object:
o Measurement 1: 98.28 kg
o Measurement 2: 100.34 kg
o Measurement 3: 101.11 kg
These readings show significant variation, indicating that the sensor has low precision. Even though the
sensor may be accurate (close to 100 kg), its lack of precision makes it unreliable when repeating
measurements.

Sensor Deviations and Errors

Sensorial deviations refer to errors or inaccuracies in sensor measurements, which can arise due to various
factors, including environmental conditions, sensor design, or signal processing. These deviations are
particularly critical in sensitive applications like healthcare and industrial monitoring but might be
negligible in non-critical IoT scenarios.
Let's explore each type of deviation and error with explanations and examples:

1) Full-Scale Range and Truncation

• Explanation: The full-scale range of a sensor refers to the range between its minimum and
maximum measurable values. If a sensor measures beyond this range, the output is
truncated (limited) to the maximum or minimum value.
Example:
A temperature sensor can measure between -40°C and 100°C. If the sensor is exposed to 120°C, it will
still output 100°C due to truncation.

2) Sensitivity Error
• Explanation: Sensitivity error occurs when the actual sensitivity of the sensor differs from
the specified sensitivity. This often happens due to fabrication defects or calibration issues.

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Example:
A pressure sensor is supposed to detect 1 unit of pressure per 10 Pa (Pascal). However, due to a sensitivity
error, it may detect 1 unit for only 9 Pa, causing inaccuracies in measurements.

3) Offset Error (Bias)

• Explanation: An offset error occurs when the sensor consistently adds or subtracts a
constant value from the actual measurement. The sensor output is either always higher or
lower than the true value by a fixed amount.
Example:
A temperature sensor always reads +11°C more than the actual temperature. So, for a true temperature of
0°C, it reports 11°C. This represents an offset error of +11°C.

4) Non-Linearity Error
• Explanation: Non-linearity occurs when the sensor’s output does not follow a straight line
in relation to the input. This deviation from the expected linear behavior results in varying
degrees of inaccuracy, especially at extreme values.
Example:
A pressure sensor is expected to output a straight linear curve as pressure increases, but instead, its output
varies irregularly, showing incorrect readings at different pressure levels.

5) Drift
• Explanation: Drift refers to the gradual deviation of a sensor’s readings over time, often
caused by physical changes in the sensor components or materials. Drift usually occurs
slowly, over months or years.
Example:
A humidity sensor installed in an industrial setting slowly starts reporting 5% lower humidity values after
six months due to wear on its sensing elements. This is long-term drift.

6) Noise
• Explanation: Noise is the random variation in a sensor’s output that occurs over time due
to electrical interference, temperature fluctuations, or other environmental factors.
Example:
A digital thermometer fluctuates between 24.8°C and 25.2°C when measuring a constant temperature of
25°C due to electrical noise or interference.

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7) Hysteresis Error
• Explanation: Hysteresis error occurs when the current sensor output depends on previous
input values rather than just the current input. This is common in analog sensors and
magnetic materials.
Example:
A magnetic sensor measures 10 units for a specific input. When the input value decreases, the sensor
continues to report 10 units instead of reducing in response to the lower input, showing hysteresis error.

8) Quantization Error
• Explanation: Quantization error occurs in digital sensors when an analog signal is
approximated during conversion to a digital value. The difference between the true signal
and its digital approximation creates this error.
Example:
A digital light sensor converts analog light intensity into discrete digital values. If the true light intensity
is 45.6 lumens, but the sensor can only output integer values, it may round this to 46 lumens, leading to
quantization error.

9) Aliasing Error
• Explanation: Aliasing occurs when the sampling rate of a sensor is too low compared to
the frequency of the signal being measured. It causes different signals to overlap and appear
as one, distorting the data.
Example:
A sensor is measuring vibrations of a motor running at 500 Hz, but the sampling rate is only 250 Hz. The
sensor will report incorrect data, as it is unable to distinguish between different vibrations, causing aliasing
errors.

10) Environmental Sensitivity

• Explanation: Many sensors, especially semiconductor-based sensors, are sensitive to
external environmental conditions, such as temperature, humidity, or electromagnetic
interference. This can cause deviations in their output.
Example:
A semiconductor gas sensor's readings vary significantly when the ambient temperature changes from
20°C to 30°C, even though the gas concentration remains constant.

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Sensing Types:
In IoT, sensing can be categorized into four types based on the nature of the environment and the sensors
used:
1. Scalar Sensing:
o Scalar sensing involves measuring values that don’t have a direction—just a
magnitude that changes with time.
o Example: Monitoring temperature, humidity, or light intensity. For instance, a
temperature sensor in a fire alarm measures ambient temperature over time to detect
a rise, indicating a fire.
2. Multimedia Sensing:
o Multimedia sensing involves sensing properties that vary with both time and space.
These are typically vector quantities with both magnitude and direction.
o Example: A camera in a surveillance system senses video, which involves spatial
and temporal changes. Similarly, a microphone captures sound, which also changes
with time and direction.
3. Hybrid Sensing:
o Hybrid sensing combines scalar and multimedia sensing, using different types of
sensors to gather more comprehensive data.
o Example: In agriculture, scalar sensors like soil moisture and temperature sensors
can be paired with multimedia sensors like cameras to monitor plant health more
holistically by observing moisture levels and leaf color simultaneously.
4. Virtual Sensing:
o Virtual sensing leverages data from existing physical sensors to infer data for
locations where there are no sensors, often through extrapolation.
o Example: In agriculture, if Farmer A has sensors for soil moisture and temperature,
neighboring Farmer B might use the extrapolated data from A’s sensors to infer the
conditions on their own land without deploying additional sensors.

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Sensing Considerations:
In IoT sensor deployments, selecting the right sensors is crucial for achieving efficiency, reliability, and
practicality. The key factors to consider are sensing range, accuracy and precision, energy consumption,
and device size. Here's an explanation of each with examples:
1. Sensing Range
• Definition: The sensing range of a sensor refers to the distance or area within which it can
detect changes or events.
• Considerations: Sensors with different ranges are chosen based on the environment and
the application. Some sensors have a limited range (a few meters), while others can cover
a larger area (hundreds of meters).
• Examples:
o A proximity sensor used in automatic doors may have a short range (1-2 meters),
suitable for detecting people as they approach.
o A camera-based sensor used for surveillance may have a long-range (up to
hundreds of meters), suitable for monitoring larger areas like parking lots.
• Coverage Models:
o Fixed k-coverage: Sensors are deployed in fixed positions to cover a specific area,
sometimes resulting in overlapping data.
o Dynamic k-coverage: Sensors can move to adapt to changing needs, like in search-
and-rescue drones that reposition based on detected events. However, mobile
sensors are costlier and harder to deploy in rough terrains.
2. Accuracy and Precision
• Definition: Accuracy is how close the sensor’s measurement is to the actual value, while
precision is the consistency of the measurements.
• Considerations: The required accuracy and precision depend on the application.
Consumer-grade sensors may have lower accuracy but are cheaper, while industrial-grade
sensors provide higher accuracy but at a higher cost.
• Examples:
o A standard temperature sensor used in home thermostats may have an accuracy
of ±1°C, which is acceptable for regular use.
o In contrast, an industrial temperature sensor in a pharmaceutical factory may
need an accuracy of 0.01°C to maintain the strict conditions required for
manufacturing sensitive drugs.

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• Trade-off: Lower-cost sensors with moderate accuracy are suitable for consumer
applications, while high-accuracy sensors are essential in industries where precision is
critical.
3. Energy Consumption
• Definition: Energy efficiency determines how long the sensor can operate before needing
battery replacement or recharge, directly affecting the cost and feasibility of deployment.
• Considerations: In remote or hard-to-access locations, sensors must consume minimal
energy to avoid frequent maintenance or battery changes.
• Examples:
o Environmental monitoring sensors on glaciers may need to operate for years
without human intervention. If these sensors consume too much energy, their
deployment becomes impractical since accessing them for battery replacement is
not feasible.
o Wearable fitness trackers are designed to run for days or weeks on a single charge
due to their low-power sensors that monitor heart rate or steps.
• Solution: Energy-efficient sensors with low power consumption are preferable in scenarios
where sensor maintenance is challenging or impossible.
4. Device Size
• Definition: The size of the sensor affects its practicality, especially in applications where
small, unobtrusive devices are required.
• Considerations: Smaller sensors are more desirable because they cause less interference
in daily activities and consume less energy.
• Examples:
o Wearable sensors like fitness trackers are small and lightweight, allowing users to
wear them without discomfort. The compact size contributes to their popularity and
widespread use in health monitoring.
o In contrast, a large human activity detector attached to clothing would hinder
normal movements and be less appealing to users, reducing the demand for such
solutions.
• Impact: Miniaturization and efficient design are key for modern IoT devices to blend
seamlessly into daily life, making them convenient for users while reducing energy
consumption.

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Actuators :
An actuator is a device that converts control signals (electrical, mechanical, or software-based) into
physical action, typically in the form of motion. It is essential in systems where control over an
environment or a machine is required, like adjusting the position of valves, motors, or any mechanical
system.
Here are key aspects of actuators:
• Control System Interaction: Actuators are connected to a control system that sends
instructions, which can come from various sources like software, humans, or electronic
systems. The actuator responds by producing mechanical movement.
• Analog or Digital Signals: The control signal sent to the actuator can be either analog
(continuous) or digital (discrete).
• Physical Motion: The response from an actuator is usually some form of mechanical
motion such as rotation, linear motion, or gripping.
• Examples: Actuators are used in various applications, including robotics, industrial
machines, vehicles, and home automation systems.

• Processor Role: It translates user commands into actionable machine instructions.

• Actuator’s Role: Converts those instructions into mechanical action (moving objects).
• Real-World Application: This setup is common in factory automation, where robotic
arms are used to perform repetitive tasks.
This model is a simple yet effective illustration of how actuators are crucial for transforming control
inputs into meaningful physical tasks.

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Actuator Types
Actuators are devices used to convert energy (in various forms) into mechanical motion. They play a vital
role in IoT systems to perform tasks like opening valves, moving objects, or switching systems on and off.
These actuators can be classified into the following seven types:

1. Hydraulic Actuators
• Working Principle: Hydraulic actuators use the compression and decompression of
liquids (hydraulic power) to create mechanical motion.
• Motion Type: The motion created can be linear, rotary, or oscillatory.
• Key Feature: Due to the incompressibility of liquids, hydraulic actuators are capable of
exerting significant force. They are known for their high force output.
• Limitation: The limited acceleration of hydraulic systems restricts their usage in high-
speed applications.
• Example: These actuators are used in heavy-duty machinery like hydraulic lifts, where
large loads are moved using hydraulic cylinders.

2. Pneumatic Actuators
• Working Principle: Pneumatic actuators rely on the compression and decompression of
gases to generate motion.
• Motion Type: The generated motion can be either linear or rotary.
• Compliant Systems: They are classified as compliant systems, meaning they can respond
quickly to small changes in pressure.
• Quick Response: Pneumatic actuators are known for their quick response to start/stop
commands. Small pressure changes can generate large forces.
• Example: Pneumatic brakes in vehicles respond to pressure changes and create enough
force to stop or slow down a moving vehicle.

3. Electric Actuators
• Working Principle: These actuators use electric motors to convert electrical energy into
mechanical motion.
• Key Feature: They are considered one of the cheapest, cleanest, and fastest actuator
types.

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• Application: Electric actuators are often used in solenoid valves to control the flow of
water, air, or other substances based on electrical signals.
• Example: The stepper motor is a commonly used electric actuator in IoT-based control
systems. It generates mechanical motion in small, precise steps, making it ideal for tasks
requiring high precision.

4. Thermal or Magnetic Actuators

• Working Principle: These actuators convert thermal or magnetic energy into motion.
• Power Density: They have a very high power density, meaning they can deliver a lot of
power from a compact size.
• Compact and Economical: These actuators are lightweight and cost-effective, making
them suitable for many IoT applications.
• Example: Shape Memory Materials (SMMs), such as Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs)
and Magnetic Shape Memory Alloys (MSMAs), which change their shape when exposed
to heat or magnetic fields. They do not need electricity and can work in various
environments, including those with liquid or gases.

5. Mechanical Actuators
• Working Principle: The rotary motion of the actuator is converted into linear motion
using mechanical components like gears, pulleys, or chains.
• Key Feature: These actuators can work in conjunction with hydraulic, pneumatic, or
electric actuators or even standalone.
• Example: A common example is the rack and pinion mechanism, where a rotating gear
(pinion) moves a linear rack, converting rotary motion into linear motion.
• Application: Mechanical actuators are used in hydroelectric generators, where the
motion of a water-driven turbine is converted into electricity.

6. Soft Actuators
• Working Principle: These actuators use elastomeric polymers, which are flexible
materials embedded in soft structures like cloth or paper.
• Microscopic Changes to Macroscopic Motion: Small molecular-level changes result in
visible, tangible motion. They are commonly used for precise and gentle movements.

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• Application in Robotics: Soft actuators are widely used in robot-assisted surgeries or for
handling delicate objects, like in agricultural fruit harvesting.
• Example: Soft actuators are designed to manipulate soft materials and are used in modern
robotics where precise and flexible control is required.

7. Shape Memory Polymers (SMP)

• Working Principle: Shape Memory Polymers (SMPs) change their shape in response to
an external stimulus (e.g., heat, light, or magnetic fields) and revert to their original shape
when the stimulus is removed.
• Key Features: SMPs are biocompatible, have high strain recovery, and are
biodegradable.
• Light-Activated Polymers (LAPs): A subcategory of SMPs, LAPs change their shape in
response to specific light frequencies or intensity. They can be remotely controlled without
physical contact.
• Example: In robotics, SMPs are used for developing muscles in artificial limbs. When
exposed to certain stimuli like light or heat, the polymers can mimic the contraction and
expansion of muscles.

Example: Hydraulic Actuators in a Lifting System

1. Fluid Compression: The hydraulic system pumps liquid into a cylinder, applying pressure.
2. Linear Motion: This pressure moves a piston, generating linear motion.
3. Lifting Load: The linear motion lifts a heavy object, such as in a hydraulic lift used in
construction or automobile repair.
4. Control: The system can control the speed and force of the lift by adjusting the flow of
liquid.

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Actuator Characteristics
In the Internet of Things (IoT), actuators play a crucial role by performing physical tasks after the sensing
and processing of information from the environment. The selection of actuators is vital to ensure proper
operation and long-term performance. Actuators are used to move or change the orientation of physical
objects, change the state of objects, and more. Below are the key characteristics that define actuators:
1. Weight
• Explanation: The physical weight of an actuator directly influences its application.
Heavier actuators are generally suited for industrial applications or settings where mobility
is not required, as they provide higher force and durability. Lightweight actuators, on the
other hand, are often used in portable systems such as drones or in IoT devices used in
vehicles or homes.
• Example:
o Heavier actuators: Hydraulic lifts used in factory settings to lift heavy loads.
o Lightweight actuators: Small servo motors in drones for steering or adjusting the
camera.
o Special case: Aircraft landing gears and engine motors are heavy but are used in
mobile systems because of their specialized role.
2. Power Rating
• Explanation: The power rating of an actuator indicates the amount of electrical power it
can safely handle, both in terms of minimum and maximum operating power. It is often
expressed as a power-to-weight ratio. An actuator with a higher power rating can handle
more demanding applications, whereas one with a lower rating is better suited for smaller,
portable systems.
• Example:
o Small actuator: A servo motor with a power rating of 5 VDC and 500 mA,
typically used in hobby projects like small robots.
o Larger actuator: A servo motor in industrial systems with a rating of 460 VAC and
25 A, requiring a separate power source, used for large machinery in factories.
o High-power actuator: Large actuators for electric vehicles (EVs), such as those
powering doors, seats, or steering systems.
3. Torque to Weight Ratio
• Explanation: This ratio determines how much force (torque) an actuator can generate
relative to its weight. Higher torque-to-weight ratios indicate that an actuator can exert
more force without being too heavy, which is critical for applications where both power
and lightweight design are necessary.

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• Example:
o High ratio: A brushless DC motor used in drones has a high torque-to-weight ratio,
allowing it to efficiently lift and control the drone’s movement without adding
much weight.
o Low ratio: A heavy-duty industrial hydraulic actuator used in construction
equipment may generate significant force, but it may not be as efficient as lighter
actuators in terms of power-to-weight ratio.
4. Stiffness and Compliance
• Explanation:
o Stiffness refers to an actuator's resistance to deformation when a force is applied.
Stiff actuators offer more control and precision because they resist movement under
load.
o Compliance is the opposite—how easily an actuator can deform when a force is
applied. Compliant systems are often more flexible and can absorb shocks or
accommodate changes in load.
• Example:
o Stiff actuators: Hydraulic actuators, which provide precise control and are often
used in industrial machines or robots where accuracy is essential (e.g., robotic
arms).
o Compliant actuators: Pneumatic actuators are more flexible and can adapt to
changes in pressure, which makes them ideal for applications where quick
responses and less precision are needed, such as in valve controls for water pipes
or brakes in vehicles.
o Stiffness in action: A hydraulic actuator in a heavy-duty machine is much stiffer
and more accurate than a pneumatic actuator that might be used in a car braking
system, where compliance is beneficial for smooth deceleration.

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QUESTION BANK WITH ANSWERS-

(i) Differentiate between Sensors and Actuators
Sensors and actuators play different roles in an IoT system. A sensor is a device that detects and measures
physical quantities such as temperature, pressure, light, or sound and converts them into signals, typically
electrical, that can be read and processed by a computer. For instance, a temperature sensor might convert
the heat in the environment into a proportional voltage output. Sensors are used to gather data from the
surrounding environment, making them essential in IoT systems where real-time monitoring is required.
In contrast, an actuator performs actions in response to the processed data from sensors. It converts
electrical signals into physical actions. Actuators control mechanisms such as motors, valves, or lights.
For example, when a temperature sensor in a smart thermostat detects that a room is too warm, it can
trigger an actuator to turn on the air conditioning. In short, while sensors gather data, actuators perform
physical tasks based on that data.
(ii) Differentiate between Sensors and Transducers
A sensor is a specific type of transducer that detects physical phenomena (such as temperature, pressure,
or humidity) and converts it into a readable signal. For example, a light sensor converts light intensity into
an electrical signal, which can be measured and analyzed. All sensors are transducers, but not all
transducers are sensors.
A transducer, in general, refers to any device that converts one form of energy into another. Transducers
can be used for measuring, control systems, and signal processing. For example, a loudspeaker is a
transducer that converts electrical signals into sound. The key difference lies in their application: sensors
focus on measuring and monitoring, while transducers cover a broader range of energy conversion tasks.
(iii) How is Sensor Resolution Different from Its Accuracy?
Resolution refers to the smallest change in a physical stimulus that a sensor can detect. It indicates how
finely a sensor can measure a variable. For example, a thermometer that can detect temperature changes
of 0.1°C has a higher resolution than one that detects only 1°C. High-resolution sensors are vital in
applications where precise measurements are necessary, such as scientific experiments or high-precision
manufacturing.
Accuracy, on the other hand, refers to how close a sensor's measurement is to the true value of the
parameter it is measuring. For example, if the true temperature is 37.0°C and a thermometer reads 37.5°C,
it is less accurate. Accuracy is critical in ensuring that the data collected by sensors is reliable and reflects
reality as closely as possible.
(iv) Differentiate between Scalar and Vector Sensors
Scalar sensors measure only the magnitude of a physical quantity without considering direction. Scalar
quantities include parameters like temperature, pressure, and humidity, where only the size of the

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measured quantity is relevant. For example, a thermometer measures temperature, a scalar quantity that
does not have direction.
On the other hand, vector sensors measure both the magnitude and direction of a quantity. These sensors
are commonly used to measure forces, velocities, or accelerations, which are vector quantities. For
instance, an accelerometer is a vector sensor because it measures acceleration in multiple directions, such
as forward-backward, up-down, or left-right.
(v) Differentiate between Analog and Digital Sensors
An analog sensor generates a continuous signal or voltage that is proportional to the measured quantity.
The signal can take any value within a certain range. For example, an analog temperature sensor might
produce a voltage that changes smoothly as the temperature rises or falls. Analog sensors are useful in
applications where precise, real-time measurement is needed, and the data does not need to be converted
into digital form immediately.
A digital sensor, on the other hand, produces discrete signals, typically binary, representing measured
quantities as a series of 0s and 1s. These sensors convert the measured data into a digital format that can
be processed directly by digital systems like microcontrollers or computers. For example, a digital
thermometer might display temperature readings in exact numbers, such as 25°C or 30°C.
(vi) What is an Offset Error?
Offset error is a type of systematic error that occurs when a sensor or measurement device consistently
displays a value that is either too high or too low, regardless of the actual input. This deviation occurs even
when the input signal should be zero. For example, a weighing scale might show a weight of 2 kg even
when there is nothing placed on it. This type of error can be corrected by recalibrating the device or
subtracting the offset from the measured values. Offset errors are common in devices that have not been
properly calibrated or have experienced wear and tear over time.
(vii) What is a Hysteresis Error?
Hysteresis error occurs when the output of a sensor or actuator depends not only on the current value of
the input but also on the previous history of the input. This results in a difference in the output when the
input is increased versus when it is decreased. For instance, a thermostat might show slightly different
temperatures when heating up versus cooling down, even if the ambient temperature is the same. This
type of error is caused by the mechanical or material properties of the sensor or actuator and is particularly
significant in systems involving elastic materials or mechanical stress.
(viii) What is a Quantization Error?
Quantization error arises when an analog signal is converted into a digital signal by dividing the range
of possible values into a set of discrete levels. The difference between the true signal and the nearest
representable level introduces quantization error. For example, in an 8-bit Analog-to-Digital Converter
(ADC), the continuous range of input voltages is split into 256 discrete values, and any voltage that falls
between these levels must be rounded off to the nearest value. This rounding introduces a small error,
which is the quantization error. The finer the resolution of the ADC, the lower the quantization error.

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(ix) What is Aliasing Error?

Aliasing error occurs when a signal is sampled at a rate that is too low to accurately capture its details,
causing higher frequency components to appear as lower frequencies in the sampled data. This happens
when the sampling rate is below the Nyquist frequency, which states that the sampling rate must be at
least twice the highest frequency present in the signal. Aliasing can cause distortion in the reconstructed
signal, leading to inaccurate results. For instance, in audio processing, aliasing can cause high-pitched
sounds to appear as lower-pitched ones, leading to poor sound quality.
(x) Differentiate between Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators with Examples
Hydraulic actuators use pressurized liquid (usually oil) to generate motion or force. They are known for
their ability to produce high force and are often used in heavy-duty industrial applications such as
construction equipment and aircraft systems. Hydraulic systems are generally more powerful but slower
compared to pneumatic systems. For example, hydraulic lifts are commonly used to move heavy loads in
construction and manufacturing.
Pneumatic actuators, on the other hand, use compressed air to produce motion. They are faster and more
responsive than hydraulic actuators but provide less force. Pneumatic systems are commonly used in
applications where speed and lightweight design are essential, such as automated assembly lines,
packaging systems, and pneumatic braking systems in vehicles. Pneumatic actuators are generally more
energy-efficient but are limited by the pressure of the air.
(xi) What are Shape Memory Alloys (SMA)?
Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) are materials that can return to their original shape after being deformed
when exposed to a specific temperature. This property allows them to be used in various applications
where a material needs to change shape or position based on temperature changes. One common example
is Nitinol, a nickel-titanium alloy used in medical devices such as stents. When inserted into the body, the
stent expands to its original shape due to the body’s heat, allowing it to restore proper blood flow.
(xii) What are Soft Actuators?
Soft actuators are actuators made from flexible and soft materials designed to mimic the motion of
biological systems. These actuators are ideal for tasks that require gentle, adaptive motion, such as
handling delicate objects or interacting with humans. Soft actuators are used in robotic systems, especially
in medical applications, where they can perform tasks that require a high degree of flexibility and
compliance. For example, soft robotic grippers are used to handle fruits and vegetables without damaging
them.
(xiii) What are the Main Features of Shape Memory Polymers?
Shape Memory Polymers (SMP) are materials that can change shape when exposed to external stimuli
such as heat, light, or electricity and return to their original shape when the stimulus is removed. These
polymers are used in applications where flexibility and shape adaptability are required. SMPs are used in
various industries, including medical devices, textiles, and aerospace. For example, SMPs are used in
deployable structures in spacecraft, where the material can change shape once in orbit.

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(xiv) What are Light-Activated Polymers?

Light-Activated Polymers are polymers that change their properties, shape, or stiffness when exposed to
certain wavelengths of light. These materials are being explored for use in applications such as artificial
muscles, robotics, and self-healing materials. For instance, in optical devices, light-activated polymers can
be used in lenses that change focus when exposed to light, allowing for adaptive optics in cameras or
glasses.

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