INTERNET OF THINGS (21CS735) MODULE 1 NOTES

Module 1 - Emergence of IoT: Introduction, Evolution of IoT, Enabling IoT and the Complex
Interdependence of Technologies, IoT Networking Components, Addressing Strategies in IoT.
Definition of IoT:
The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects or "things" embedded with electronics, software,
sensors, and network connectivity, which enables these objects to collect and exchange data.
The vision of IoT:
to make the Physical Object intelligent, Smart & Behave alive.
Basic Elements of IoT:
1. Things or Devices: These are the physical devices equipped with sensors, software, and other technologies that
allow them to collect and transmit data. They can be as simple as a temperature sensor or as complex as
autonomous vehicles. These devices play a crucial role in gathering data from the physical environment.
2. Thing Low-Power Embedded Systems: These devices often operate on low-power embedded systems, meaning
they are designed to function with minimal energy consumption. Examples include microcontrollers or
microprocessors that efficiently manage the data processing needs of IoT devices.
3. Sensors: Sensors are essential in IoT as they collect data from the environment, such as temperature, humidity,
motion, or light levels. They provide the raw data necessary for IoT systems to function.
4. Gateway: A gateway bridges the communication between IoT devices and the cloud. It consolidates data from
multiple sensors and devices, performs basic preprocessing (such as filtering or aggregation), and forwards it to
cloud servers over the internet.
5. Cloud Computing: Cloud platforms provide the storage and processing power needed to manage the vast amount
of data generated by IoT devices. They allow for real-time data analysis, application hosting, and data storage,
making information accessible globally.
6. Network Connection: IoT devices need reliable network connections to communicate with each other and with
cloud services. This can include various technologies like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, cellular networks (4G/5G),
or Low Power Wide Area Networks (LPWAN) like LoRaWAN.
7. Analytics: Data generated by IoT devices must be analyzed to provide meaningful insights. Analytics help in
interpreting data trends, optimizing performance, and supporting decision-making. Advanced analytics like
machine learning can predict outcomes and provide automated responses.
8. User Interface (UI): The user interface allows users to interact with the IoT system, monitor performance, and
control devices. It can be a mobile app, web dashboard, or any visual interface where users can view insights and
manage devices.
9. Gateway Analytics: Gateway analytics refers to the processing of data at the edge, before sending it to the cloud.
This reduces the bandwidth required for data transfer and ensures faster response times, especially for time-
sensitive applications.

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Overview of IoT:
• The modern-day advent of network-connected devices has given rise to the popular paradigm of the IoT.
• The present-day Internet allows massively heterogeneous traffic through it, consists of images, videos, music,
speech, text, numbers, binary codes, machine status, banking messages, data from sensors and actuators,
healthcare data, data from vehicles, home automation system status and controls messages, military
communications, and many more.
• According to statistics, the total number of connected devices globally is estimated to be around 25 billion.
• At present networking trends, and connected devices have rapidly increased in numbers resulting in the number
of devices exceeding the number of humans on earth by multiple times.
• the number of sensor/actuator-based systems is rapidly increasing.
• The need for location-independent access to monitored and controlled systems keep on rising.
This rise in number leads to a further rise in the number of Internet-connected devices.

Features of IoT:
1. Connectivity:
 IoT devices require seamless communication, often over wireless networks (Wi-Fi, cellular, LPWAN).
 A variety of network protocols (IP, non-IP) ensure data transmission between devices and the cloud.
 Reliable connectivity is essential to maintain real-time data flow between IoT components.
2. Massively Scalable and Efficient:
 IoT systems must support millions of devices, each generating data concurrently.
 Scalability ensures that as the number of devices grows, performance remains efficient without overwhelming
the system.
 Efficient resource management, such as power and bandwidth, is crucial to handle a large-scale IoT ecosystem.
3. Intelligence and Identity:
 Each IoT device has a unique identity, allowing the system to differentiate and track devices.
 Intelligence is embedded in devices to process data locally and make decisions independently.
 Data-driven actions, such as automation and predictive maintenance, enhance system intelligence.
4. Dynamic and Self-Adapting:
 IoT systems can adjust their behavior based on environmental changes or new data.
 They continuously adapt to evolving conditions, optimizing performance in real time.

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 Self-adaptation reduces human intervention by automatically configuring settings or operations.

5. No Ambiguity in Naming and Addressing:
 Each IoT device must have a globally unique identifier to avoid confusion in communication.
 This ensures accurate routing of data between devices and systems.
 Naming conventions and addressing schemes like IP or MAC addresses play a crucial role in maintaining clarity.
6. Safety & Self-Configuring:
 Security protocols must ensure data integrity, prevent unauthorized access, and protect user privacy.
 Self-configuring systems allow devices to automatically set up, connect, and update without manual intervention.
 Safety mechanisms prevent operational failures, ensuring the system runs reliably under various conditions.
7. The Massive Number of Constrained Devices, Sleeping Nodes, Mobile Devices, and Non-IP Devices:
 IoT networks handle constrained devices with limited processing power and battery life.
 Sleeping nodes, such as sensors, conserve power by waking only when necessary to transmit data.
 Many IoT devices do not use traditional IP addresses, relying instead on lightweight, energy-efficient protocols.
8. Intermittent and Often Unstable Connectivity:
 IoT devices, especially in remote or mobile settings, experience fluctuating network connectivity.
 Systems are designed to tolerate network drops and resume operations when connectivity is restored.
 Intermittent connectivity requires robust error handling and data synchronization techniques to prevent loss.
 IoT is an anytime, anywhere, and anything (as shown in Figure) network of Internet-connected physical devices
or systems capable of sensing an environment and affecting the sensed environment intelligently.
 This is generally achieved using low-power and low-form-factor embedded processors onboard the “things”
connected to the Internet.

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Evolution of IoT:
• The technologies that laid the foundation of connected systems by achieving easy integration to daily lives, popular
public acceptance, and massive benefits by using connected solutions can be considered as the founding solutions
for the development of IoT.
• Figure 4.6 shows the sequence of technological advancements for shaping the IoT as it is today.

1) ATM: ATMs or automated teller machines are cash distribution machines, which are linked to a user’s bank account.
ATMs dispense cash upon verification of the identity of a user and their account through a specially coded card.
The central concept behind ATMs was the availability of financial transactions even when banks were closed
beyond their regular work hours. These ATMs were ubiquitous money dispensers. The first ATM became
operational and connected online for the first time in 1974.
2) • Web: World Wide Web is a global information sharing and communication platform.
TheWebbecameoperationalforthefirsttimein1991. Since then, it has been massively responsible for the many
revolutions in the field of computing and communication.
3) • Smart Meters: The earliest smart meter was a power meter, which became operational in early 2000. These power
meters were capable of communicating remotely with the power grid. They enabled remote monitoring of
subscribers’ power usage and eased the process of billing and power allocation from grids.
4) • Digital Locks: Digital locks can be considered as one of the earlier attempts at connected home-automation
systems. Present-day digital locks are so robust that smartphones can be used to control them. Operations such as
locking and unlocking doors, changing key codes, including new members in the access lists, can be easily
performed, and that too remotely using smartphones.
5) • Connected Healthcare: Here, healthcare devices connect to hospitals, doctors, and relatives to alert them of
medical emergencies and take preventive measures. The devices may be simple wearable appliances, monitoring
just the heart rate and pulse of the wearer, as well as regular medical devices and monitors in hospitals. The
connected nature of these systems makes the availability of medical records and test results much faster, cheaper,
and convenient for both patients as well as hospital authorities.
6) • Connected Vehicles: Connected vehicles may communicate to the Internet or with other vehicles, or even with
sensors and actuators contained within it. These vehicles self-diagnose themselves and alert owners about system
failures.
7) • Smart Cities: This is a city-wide implementation of smart sensing, monitoring, and actuation systems. The city-
wide infrastructure communicating amongst themselves enables unified and synchronized operations and
information dissemination. Some of the facilities which may benefit are parking, transportation, and others.

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8) • SmartDust: These are microscopic computers. Smaller than a grain of sand each, they can be used in numerous
beneficial ways, where regular computers cannot operate. For example, smart dust can be sprayed to measure
chemicals in the soil or even to diagnose problems in the human body.
9) • Smart Factories: These factories can monitor plant processes, assembly lines, distribution lines, and manage
factory floors all on their own. The reduction in mishaps due to human errors in judgment or unoptimized processes
is drastically reduced.
10) • UAVs: UAVs or unmanned aerial vehicles have emerged as robust public domain solutions tasked with
applications ranging from agriculture, surveys, surveillance, deliveries, stock maintenance, asset management, and
other tasks.

Technological interdependencies of IoT with other domains and networking paradigms

1) M2M: The M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm signifies a system of connected machines and devices,
which can talk amongst themselves without human intervention. The communication between the machines can
be for updates on machine status (stocks, health, power status, and others), collaborative task completion, overall
knowledge of the systems and the environment, and others.
2) CPS: The CPSorthecyber physical system paradigm insinuates a closed control loop—from sensing, processing,
and finally to actuation—using a feedback mechanism. CPS helps in maintaining the state of an environment
through the feedback control loop, which ensures that until the desired state is attained, the system keeps on
actuating and sensing. Humans have a simple supervisory role in CPS-based systems; most of the ground-level
operations are automated.
3) IoE: The IoE paradigm is mainly concerned with minimizing and even reversing the ill-effects of the permeation
of Internet-based technologies on the environment [3]. The major focus areas of this paradigm include smart and
sustainable farming, sustainable and energy-efficient habitats, enhancing the energy efficiency of systems and
processes, and others. In brief, we can safely assume that any aspect of IoT that concerns and affects the
environment, falls under the purview of IoE.
4) Industry 4.0: Industry 4.0 is commonly referred to as the fourth industrial revolution pertaining to digitization in
the manufacturing industry. The previous revolutions chronologically dealt with mechanization, mass production,
and the industrial revolution, respectively. This paradigm strongly puts forward the concept of smart factories,
where machines talk to one another without much human involvement based on a framework of CPS and IoT.
The digitization and connectedness in Industry 4.0 translate to better resource and workforce management,
optimization of production time and resources, and better upkeep and lifetimes of industrial systems.

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5) IoP: IoP is a new technological movement on the Internet which aims to decentralize online social interactions,
payments, transactions, and other tasks while maintaining confidentiality and privacy of its user’s data. A famous
site for IoP states that as the introduction of the Bitcoin has severely limited the power of banks and governments,
the acceptance of IoP will limit the power of corporations, governments, and their spy agencies.

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Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

There are four planes in the IoT paradigm, each representing a key aspect of how IoT systems operate,
using Figure 4.3 as a reference:
1. Services Plane:
 Provides IoT services that end-users interact with, such as smart home applications, healthcare systems,
or industrial monitoring.
 Includes features like data analytics, automation, and user control, making the IoT system functional for
specific applications.
 Enables seamless interaction between devices and users, supporting remote monitoring, control, and
data-driven decision-making.
2. Local Connectivity Plane:
 Ensures communication between IoT devices and gateways within a local environment (e.g., a home,
factory, or building).
 Uses short-range communication technologies such as Bluetooth, Zigbee, Wi-Fi, or Ethernet to connect
devices.
 Responsible for data collection from sensors and devices before transmitting the data to higher-level
systems or the cloud.

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3. Global Connectivity Plane:

 Facilitates the transmission of data over long distances, connecting local IoT networks to cloud servers
or centralized systems.
 Uses technologies such as cellular networks (4G/5G), LoRaWAN, Sigfox, or the internet to enable
communication across wide areas.
 Supports global services by allowing IoT devices to interact with cloud platforms, providing real-time
access to data and remote control.

4. Processing Plane:
 Handles the data processing required for IoT systems to operate efficiently, either at the edge (close to
the device) or in the cloud.
 Involves tasks like data filtering, aggregation, and analytics to derive meaningful insights from the raw
data collected by IoT devices.
 Edge computing and cloud computing are crucial components of this plane, ensuring that data is
processed efficiently and decisions can be made in real time.
Each plane in the IoT paradigm is interconnected and relies on the others to function effectively, creating
a system where data flows smoothly from devices (local plane), across networks (global plane), and into
processing systems, ultimately delivering valuable services to users.

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IoT Networking Components

1. IoT Node:
 Definition: Networking devices within an IoT LAN that consist of a sensor, processor, and radio.
 Communication: Connects to other nodes or through a common gateway.
 Example: Smart thermostats in a home that monitor temperature, process data, and transmit to other smart
devices.
 Functionality: Collects and processes environmental data locally before transmitting.
2. IoT Router:
 Definition: Routes data packets between various entities in the IoT network.
 Traffic Management: Ensures data packets flow correctly within the network.
 Example: Industrial IoT routers used in factories to manage communication between machines and cloud
servers.
 Key Role: Provides reliable packet routing between connected IoT devices.
3. IoT LAN (Local Area Network):
 Definition: Provides local connectivity within a building or organization using short-range communication
technologies.

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 Connectivity: May or may not connect to the internet; facilitates communication among local devices.
 Example: Smart home networks with devices like security cameras, lights, and sensors connected via Wi-
Fi or Bluetooth.
 Key Use: Local device control without requiring wide-area network connectivity.
4. IoT WAN (Wide Area Network):
 Definition: Connects IoT LANs over large geographical distances, such as across cities or regions.
 Coverage: Ranges from a few kilometers to hundreds of kilometers.
 Example: LoRaWAN networks used for smart city infrastructure like streetlight control and water
management systems.
 Key Use: Connects remote IoT devices and networks over large areas.
5. IoT Gateway:
 Definition: A router connecting IoT LANs to WANs or the internet, forwarding packets between them.
 Versatility: Can manage multiple LANs and WANs.
 Example: Smart home hubs that connect devices like smart locks, cameras, and lights to the cloud.
 Key Function: Facilitates communication between local IoT devices and the cloud.
6. IoT Proxy:
 Definition: Operates on the application layer, providing security and other application-layer services
between IoT nodes.
 Security: Ensures secure data transmission and access between nodes and external systems.
 Example: Web proxies for smart devices that filter and encrypt data before sending it to cloud services.
 Key Use: Protects IoT systems by managing traffic and enforcing security policies at the application level.

Addressing Strategies in IoT

Addressing strategies in the Internet of Things (IoT) are vital for ensuring that the many connected devices
can communicate effectively across both local and global networks. In the context of IoT, addressing is
primarily focused on IPv6, due to its ability to handle a massive number of devices. Let’s break down the
addressing strategies and their importance in IoT.

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The first three blocks are designated as the global prefix, which is globally unique.
The next block is designated as the subnet prefix, which identifies the subnet of an interface/gateway
through which LANs may be connected to the Internet.
The last four blocks (64 bits) of hexadecimal addresses are collectively known as the interface identifier
(IID).
IIDs may be generated based on MAC (media access control) identifiers of devices/nodes or using pseudo-
random number generator algorithms.

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Key Addressing Types in IoT:

Global Unicast Address (GUA):
Purpose: These addresses are assigned to individual IoT entities or interfaces that communicate over the
Internet. In IoT deployments, global unicast addresses are typically assigned to key components like
gateways, proxies, or WANs, allowing them to send and receive traffic to/from the internet.
Example: A smart city IoT gateway collecting sensor data from different regions and sending it to a
central server via the Internet.
Multicast Address:
Purpose: These addresses allow a single device or node to transmit messages to multiple destinations at
the same time.Useful in IoT networks for scenarios where a single node needs to communicate data to
many other devices, such as broadcasting an alert from one sensor to multiple devices.
Example: A fire alarm system transmitting signals to all connected IoT devices within a building.
Link Local Address (LL):
Purpose: These addresses are only valid within a specific network segment like a LAN (Local Area
Network). They allow communication within a local network but cannot be routed outside that LAN.
Example: Smart home devices communicating with each other within a household LAN.
Unique Local Address (ULA):
Purpose: These addresses are similar to Link Local addresses but are designed for private networks that
do not connect to the Internet. ULAs are used within private IoT networks where devices need to
communicate but without Internet routing.
Example: A private industrial IoT network managing machines inside a factory.
Loopback Address:
Purpose: These addresses, also known as localhost addresses, are used for diagnostics, system
checks,and testing. Developers and network administrators use these addresses to test software or
network setups.
Example: Testing whether an IoT system is working correctly before deploying it on the network.

Unspecified Address:
Purpose: The unspecified address is an all-zero address (::/128), representing no specific
destination.Used in situations where a destination is not yet defined, such as when a node is requesting
an IP address via DHCP.

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Solicited-node Multicast Address:

Purpose: This is a multicast address used to resolve the Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP) in IPv6
networks. It is used in situations where nodes need to communicate their presence or check if other
nodes are reachable on the same link.

Address Management Classes

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The addressing strategies in IoT can be broadly divided into seven classes, depending on where the IoT solution
is deployed. Unlike traditional IPv4 devices, IoT devices mostly use IPv6 for address allocation and
management. Here’s a simpler explanation of the seven classes:
1.Class 1: In this class, IoT nodes are not connected to the Internet or any other interfaces. They only
communicate within a local network (LAN). The devices use Link Local (LL) addresses, which are
limited to the LAN and may be repeated outside the network. Communication between nodes can be
direct or through other nodes (mesh configuration).
2.Class 2: This class is similar to Class 1 but extends the communication between multiple LANs or
WANs using gateways. The devices use LL addresses within their LANs, and gateways (with unique
addresses) connect the LANs. Unique Local Addresses (ULA) or sometimes Global Unicast Addresses
(GUA) are used for communication.
3.Class 3: Here, the IoT LAN is connected to a proxy. The proxy manages address allocation and security
and uses ULA addresses. The proxy acts as a middleman for communication, as shown in the network
configuration.
4.Class 4: In this class, the IoT proxy acts as a gateway to the Internet, providing GUA to the IoT nodes.
Each device has a globally unique address, allowing it to connect to the Internet. Devices can still
communicate locally within the LAN without going through the Internet.
5.Class 5: This class is similar to Class 4 but follows a star topology, where the gateway is the central
hub. All communication between IoT nodes goes through the gateway. The gateway enables global
communication via the Internet.
6.Class 6: This configuration is like Class 5, but each IoT node has a unique global address (GUA),
allowing point-to-point communication. It’s used selectively for special purposes and connects directly
to an Internet gateway.
7.Class 7: This class supports multiple gateways, with nodes reachable through any of them. It’s typically
used in larger organizational IoT deployments and incorporates the concept of multihoming, allowing
redundancy and multiple access points for communication.

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Addressing during Node Mobility

In IoT, addressing strategies are crucial when nodes are mobile, as these systems often use low-power devices
that may face address clashes. Here are three key strategies to ensure address portability during node mobility:
1. Global Prefix Changes:
When a node moves from one LAN to another, it may need to adopt a new prefix. For example, a
node in a LAN with prefix A moves to another LAN with prefix B. The node's new prefix will
change to match the new LAN. However, there is a risk of address clashes if the node's device
identifier is already in use in the new LAN. To avoid this, static IP addresses can be assigned to
IoT nodes, which is often more reliable than dynamic methods like DHCPv6 or SLAAC.
2. Prefix Changes within WANs:
In scenarios where the Wide Area Network (WAN) changes its global prefix, the nodes within
the network must adapt. Gateways and proxies manage the network within the WAN using
Unique Local Addresses (ULAs) to handle prefix changes without disrupting communication.
This approach ensures flexibility in handling dynamic prefix changes.
3. Remote Anchoring:
This strategy involves using a remote anchoring point to ensure that a node's global address
remains unchanged despite mobility or prefix changes in its network. Though more costly to
implement, this method provides stability by maintaining the node's global address via tunneling,
ensuring the node continues to function seamlessly even if it moves between networks.

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QUESTION BANK-
i) What is IoT?
(ii) What is smart dust?
(iii) Differentiate between IoT and M2M.
(iv) Differentiate between IoT and WoT.
(v) What is Web of Things (WoT)?
(vi) What are the various IoT connectivity terminologies?
(vii) Differentiate between an IoT proxy and an IoT gateway.
(viii) What is gateway prefix allotment?
(ix) How are locally unique (LU) addresses different from globally unique (GU) addresses?
(x) How is mobility handled in IoT networks?
(xi) What is the function of a remote anchor point in IoT networks.
(xii) What is tunneling?
(xiii) What is multihoming in IoT networks?

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