1 Number Systems

1.1 Constuctions and Extensions

The natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . n, . . . have been with each one of us since childhood. Almost all the important
properties of this number set, which we shall call N, have been accepted by us intuitively from experience. These
properties may be listed now as follows. We add a few comments where necessary.
1. The set N is an endless set. That is, there is no last number. The sequence of natural numbers goes on and
on.
2. There is a built-in order in the set in the way we write it:

1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , a, . . . , b, . . .

If b appears later in the sequence than a then b is said to be greater than a. We write this: b > a; or, what
is the same thing, a < b, i.e., a is less than b.
3. Every number has a successor number and, except for 1, every number has a predecessor number.
4. Any two numbers in the set can be ‘added’ to produce another number in the set. Recall that after one
learns to count, the next thing that is learnt is to ‘add’.
5. Whether one adds a to b or b to a it is the same thing—in the sense the result is the same. In other words,
addition ‘+’ is a commutative process; i.e.,

a+b=b+a for all a, b ∈ N (1)

6. Repeated addition of the same number to itself is known as ‘multiplication’. Thus, for instance, 4 added to
itself 5 times is nothing but 4 × 5, that is, 20.
7. This multiplication is also commutative. That is,

a×b=b×a for all a, b ∈ N (2)

8. Both the operations, addition and multiplication, have another property, called ‘associativity’. This means:
a + b added to c and a added to b + c are both the same. Symbolically,

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) for all a, b, c ∈ N (3)

In the same way, we have, for multiplication,

(a × b) × c = a × (b × c) for all a, b, c ∈ N (4)

9. Further, there is a ‘compatibility’ between the two processes ‘addition’ and ‘multiplication’; namely,

a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c)

and
(a + b) × c = (a × c) + (b × c) for all a, b, c ∈ N (5)

This is known as the distribution of multiplication with respect to addition.

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These nine properties of the set N shall now be assumed without any further justification. Higher mathematics
may require the construction of natural numbers from scratch and the derivation of these properties thereof. We
do not have either the luxury of time or the necessity of logic to get into all that now, at this level.
One of the first things that we learn as we grow learning mathematics is that the system N of natural numbers
has several deficiencies. For instance, we can solve for x, the equation: 2 + x = 3 within the system N. The
answer is x = 1. Whereas, an equation like: 3 + x = 2 is not solvable in N. In other words, there is no value of
x in N satisfying 3 + x = 2. We know the answer is −1 but −1 is not a natural number. Thus the system N of
natural numbers does not have solutions of the equation a + x = b, i.e., this equation has no solution for x in N
unless a < b. Mathematics develops by concerning itself with such questions and resolving the issue. In the above
situation, the resolution comes like this. Mathematics invents new numbers, namely, 0, −1, −2, −3, . . . expressly to
satisfy the need to solve the equations a + x = b even when a ≥ b. For instance, if a = b, the equation is a + x = a.
We invent the new number “0” (zero) to be the solution of

a + x = a = x + a.

Once we include a new number 0 to the system N we want also to solve equations like

1 + x = 0; 2 + x = 0; 3 + x = 0; . . .

The solutions of these are called the negatives of 1, 2, 3, . . . and are written

−1, −2, −3, . . .

Thus the enlarged system now contains zero and all the negative integers and N. This new system is denoted by
Z and is called the set of all integers. Thus

Z = {0, 1, −1, 2, −2, 3, −3, . . .}

It can also be written as below, where we bring out the ‘order’ relation in Z. In other words, in the following style
of listing the elements of Z, if a precedes b then a < b, or what is the same thing, b > a.

Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}

There are several points we have to note about this enlargement of N to Z. In enlarging N to Z we have been able
to ‘protect’ or ‘preserve’ as many properties of N as possible. Precisely we mean the following:
1. Z is an infinite (= endless) sequence as N was (and is!).
2. The built-in order in N is still preserved. It has in fact been extended to Z. In other words ‘a ¿ b’ has a
meaning in Z for every a and b in Z and further, if a > b in N for two elements a, b ∈ N, it is so in Z, even
as elements of Z.
3. Every number in Z has a successor and a predecessor. Recall that in N the number 1 does not have a
predecessor. Also any number in N whether considered as a member in N or a member in Z has the same
successor. Similarly, any number ̸= 1 in N has the same predecessor in N or Z. We express this by saying
that the ‘successor-predecessor’ concept has been extended to Z without damage to the concept already
existing in N.
4. The operation of addition already available in N carries over to Z. If x = −a where a ∈ N, y = −b where b ∈ N,
we may define x + y = −(a + b) where + in the R.H.S. is the addition in N. Since (a + b) ∈ N, −(a + b) ∈ Z.
Thus we get the familiar equality.
(−a) + (−b) = −(a + b)
Again, if x = −a, a ∈ N, is ‘added’ to c ∈ N we will have x + c = (−a) + c. This is to be taken as

−(a − c) if a > c

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 and as
c − a if c > a or c = a.
Proceeding in this way and carefully going through every new situation we get a thorough definition of
addition in Z. We see that ‘addition’ is closed in Z — by which, we mean, two numbers in Z always lead to
a number in Z by the addition process. If two numbers are already in N their sum is what it is in the system
N. Thus the extension of N and the addition therein to Z has been achieved without ‘damaging’ the addition
in N. This process of enlarging a number system, preserving its algebraic structure is called an extension of
the system. Addition of zero to any number, again satisfies,

a + 0 = 0 + a for all a ∈ Z.

5. Addition in Z continues to be commutative. In other words,

a+b=b+a for all a, b ∈ Z (1’)

6. Multiplication in N can be extended to a multiplication in Z, without damaging the meaning of multiplication

in N — except that, we have to make proper rules for handling the negative sign, thus: If a, b ∈ N, then

a × b = ab (as in N)

(−a) × (−b) = ab
(−a) × b = −(ab)
a × (−b) = −(ab).
Multiplication by zero however has to be controlled by a new rule, viz.,

a × 0 = 0 = 0 × a for all a ∈ Z.

7. Multiplication in Z is commutative. In other words,

a×b=b×a for all a, b ∈ Z (2’)

8. The associative properties of both addition and multiplication continue to be valid in Z. In other words

a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c for all a, b, c ∈ Z (3’)

and
a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c for all a, b, c ∈ Z (4’)

9. The distributive property

a(b + c) = ab + ac
(a + b)c = ac + bc for all a, b, c ∈ Z (5’)
holds, as it holds in N.
10. Finally, we record, at one place, the special roles of the numbers 0 and 1 in Z as follows:
10.1. In Z, 0 is the unique number which has the property:

0+a=a=a+0 for all a ∈ Z (6’)

10.2. In Z, 1 is the unique number which has the property

a × 1 = a = 1 × a for all a ∈ Z

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Now let us look at the second stage of extensions which is from the set of integers to the set of rational numbers.
Thus we have the following so far
N→Z→Q

The set of rational numbers is defined as follows

np o
Q= : p, q ∈ Z, q ̸= 0 and gcd(p, q) = 1
q
We need Q to solve equations like ax = b, where a, b ∈ Z which cannot be solved in Z or N. Now let us look at
properties of Q
a c n
Defintion 1: Two rational numbers b and d are said to be equal if ad = bc We also write every n ∈ Z as 1 in
Q
Defintion 2: For ab , dc ∈ Q, where a, b, c, d ∈ Z and b, d > 0, we have
a c
≥ if and only if ad ≥ bc
b d

Now the question is ”Is Q enough or do we need an even larger set?”.

√ Observe that if we look
√ at the equation
2
√ a solution in Q. One might say that x = ± 2 but what exactly is 2?. The following
x = 2, this does not have
theorem proves that if 2 exists then it is not
Theorem 1: There is no rational number x such that x2 = 2
Proof: Suppose there is some rational number x = p/q such that x2 = 2. This implies that p2 = 2q 2 . The right
hand side is even which implies that p must be even as well. We know even numbers are of the form 2k where
k ∈ Z. Suppose p = 2p1 . Substuituting this in the previous equation and canelling out a factor of 2 we get that
2p21 = q 2 which in turn implies that q is also even. But this would imply that gcd p, q ≥ 2 which is a contradiction.
Thus there is no rational number x such that x2 = 2
√ √ √
Thus we require a completely new set of numbers which look like 2, 3, 5, · · · . We call these numbers irrational
numbers. The simplest way of defining irrational numbers is the set of numbers whose decimal expansion is neither
recurring nor terminating. Now combing the rationals and irrationals we get the set of real numbers,R. But is
this enough?
Turns out no. We still cant solve equations like x2 + 1 = 0 in R. This gives rise to the set of Complex numbers C
where we work with square roots of negative numbers but that is different chapter in itself.
Now let us look at some solved examples

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1.2 Solved Examples
Example 1: Suppose a/b < c/d where a, b, c, d ∈ Z and b, d > 0 then we have
a a+c c
< <
b b+d d

Solution: Observe that a/b < c/d implies that ad < bc. Adding ab on both sides we get that

ab + ad < ab + bc
a a+c
This means that a(b + d) < b(c + a) which gives us b < b+d

Similarly if we add cd instead of ab, we get the upper bound.

√
Example 2: Let a, b be positive integers then show that 2 lies between a/b and (a + 2b)/(a + b)
√ √
Solution: There are two possibilities a/b > 2 or a/b < 2. In the first case, squaring both sides we get that
a2 > 2b2 . Now

a2 + 4b2 = a2 + 2b2 + 2b2 < 2(a2 + b2 )

(a + 2b)2 = a2 + 4b2 + 4ab < 2(a2 + b2 + 2ab) = 2(a + b)2
√
The second equation gives us (a + 2b)/(a + b) < 2. Thus we get the bounds

a + 2b √ a
< 2<
a+b b

Similarly we can prove it for the second case where the directions of all the inequalities changes.
Example 3: Find the rational number whose decimal expansion is 0.123454545 · · ·
Solution: Note: These numbers are also expressed as x = 0.12345 where the bar on the top denotes the recurring
part i.e. the part that gets repeated.
x = 0.12345
103 x = 123.45
105 x = 12345.45

Subtracting the second and the third equations, we get that

12222
(105 − 103 )x = 12222 =⇒ x =
99000

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1.3 Exercises
1. Given any real number x > 0 prove that there exists an irrational number α such that 0 < α < x.
√ √
2. Prove that 2 + 5 is irrational.
√ √
3. Find all positive integers n for which n − 1 + n + 1 is rational.
√ √
4. If a + b = c + d where a, b, c, d are rationals then a = c and b = d unless b, d are squares of rational
numbers.
√ p
5. If a + b 3 p + c 3 p2 = 0 where a, b, c, p are rational and p is not a perfect cube then a = b = c = 0
√ √ √
6. Prove that 2 + 3 + 5 is an irrational number.