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HMT-Lab Reports

2021-ME-177

12/31/1899 2/24/2023

Taymure Qazi
Sir syed saqib
Experiment No.01
Statement:
To investigate Fourier’s Law for linear conduction of heat along a simple bar

Theory:
Conduction of heat:
Conduction is primary mode of heat transfer. It is a microscopic phenomenon without the motion of
the body or the medium itself. Heat is transfer by the interactions of particles and molecules. In case
of metals free electrons transfer the heat while in non-metal lattice wave is used to transfer heat by
conduction. The random motion of molecules in liquid and gas also causes to transfer heat by
conduction.

Figure 1:conduction in solid liquid and gas

Conduction is the only way of heat transfer in which heat is transfer in physical contact. For example,
placing a piece of iron on hot plane or heat source. Conduction heat transfer takes place at molecular
level with zero bulk velocity of the medium. Heat is absorbed by molecules of one surface and start
random motion. Theses molecules then jumped into another surface where energy transfers. It is a
continues process as heat added to a surface or a medium.

Figure 2:heat conduction

Factors effecting conduction:

It depends on four factors:

 Temperature gradient
 Body cross section area
 Path length in which heat is conducted
Temperature gradient
A physical quantity which shows temperature changes at specific rate and direction at specified
location. Temperature flows from high to lower concentration area as a result difference in heat
energy. This flow takes place until equilibrium conditions is established.
Body cross section area:
In case of large surface area exposed to ambient air large amount of heat will lose as a convection.
Also, large amount of heat energy is needed to hot such surface.
Path length of conduction:
Larger the length of heat body, large amount of heat will be lost.
Material properties:
Different materials have different heat conductance coefficient “k” value. Metals have greater “k”
value as compared to wood or non-metals etc therefore, considered as good heat conductor. The value
of “k” is compared with silver which have 100%. All other materials have lesser “k” values.

Figure 3:heat conducted in a body.

Linear conduction of heat:

Conduction of heat through a body which is unofrm in composition and cross sectional area of
conduction is called linear conduction of heat.

Fourier’s law of conduction:

It is stated that flow of heat conducted per unit through a body is proportional to temperature
difference per unit of the body.

Figure 4:Fourier’s law schematic

presentation.
Mathematical relation:
qx ⅆT
=−k … … … … … (1)
A ⅆx
ⅆT
q x =−k A ….………..(2)
ⅆx
Where A is cross sectional area of the cylindrical body, T is the temperature difference at two ends of
the body K is thermal conductivity of the body and material property.
q x isheat transfer∈ x direction with∈the body dx is the length of path of heat conduction . The term
(dx/KA) is the conductive resistance.

Figure 5: pictorial presentation of Fourier’s law

It is amperical relationship of heat conduction and gradient of temperature. The negative sign shows
the thermodynamic pricipal of heat transform from higher to lower concentration. This law is
provided thermal conductivity of many materials and also provide solution for many conduction
process. It is equally applicable in three dimensional cylindrical and spherical coordinates as well. It
also uses in combinations of different plates or walls either in series or parallel.

Simple bar:
A straight cylindrical rod having uniform composotion and constant cross section area.

Figure 6: simple bar used in heat conduction unit.

Methodology
Apparatus:
Straight cylindrical bar of solid brass having inside heat conducting metallic discs along with heat
sensor.
Figure 7: simple bar used in heat conduction unit.

Procedure:
 The experimental setup consisted of a circular cross-sectional brass bar with
interchangeable middle parts, each with a different metallic composition.
 Two or more thermocouples were attached at specific positions along the bar to
measure temperature variations.
 The bar was assembled with the selected middle part and placed on the experiment
base unit for stability.
 Initial temperatures at the thermocouple locations were recorded, and the cooling
chamber or cold water source was prepared.
 The heat source was powered on to provide a constant heat input to one end of the
bar, and the data acquisition system was activated to continuously record temperature
data.
 Simultaneously, the cooling process was initiated by circulating cold water through
the cooling chamber.
 Temperature readings from the thermocouples were continuously monitored and
recorded at regular time intervals as heat conduction occurred along the bar, and the
cooling process affected the other end.
 The collected temperature data was analyzed to determine temperature changes with
time along the bar and calculate the thermal conductivity (k) for each interchangeable
middle part using appropriate methods, such as the cut bar method or the absolute
method.
 The entire setup, including the bar, was insulated to minimize heat loss by radiation
and convection.
 Finally, the experimental thermal conductivity values obtained for each metallic
composition were compared with theoretical values to validate the results and ensure
alignment with expected outcomes.

Literature Review
Analytical
We also need to understand the derivation of Fourier’s law:

Assumptions
 Steady-state heat conduction (no change in temperature with time).
 One-dimensional heat conduction along the x-axis.
 Uniform material properties within the solid.
Derivation:
Consider a solid material of length Δx along the x-axis, with temperatures T1 and T2 at its ends, as
shown below:
T1 T2
|-------------------------------|
x=0 x = Δx
In steady-state heat conduction, there is no change in temperature with time. Therefore, the
temperature at any point within the material does not vary with time, i.e.,
∂T
=0
∂t
Consider a small differential section dx within the solid at an arbitrary position x. Heat flows from left
to right, and the rate of heat flow (dq) across this section is proportional to the temperature gradient
(∂T/∂x) and the cross-sectional area (A):
∂T
dq = -k * A ¿ ∗dx
∂t
Here,

 dq is the rate of heat transfer (in watts, J/s).

 k is the thermal conductivity of the material (in W/m·K).
 A is the cross-sectional area (in square meters, m²).
 ∂T/∂x is the temperature gradient along the x-axis (in K/m).
 dx is the infinitesimal length (in meters, m).
To find the total heat transfer (Q) across the entire length Δx, integrate the above expression over the
length of the solid from x = 0 to x = Δx:
Δx
Q=∫ dq
0

Δx
k∗A∗∂ T
Q=∫ ∗dx
0 ∂x
Apply the fundamental theorem of calculus to evaluate the integral:

Δx
k∗A∗∂ T
Q=∫ ∗dx
0 ∂x

Since T1 and T2 are the temperatures at the ends of the material, the temperature difference ΔT is
given by:
ΔT = T2 - T1
Now, rewrite the temperature gradient (∂T/∂x) in terms of ΔT and Δx:

∂T
∂x
=
ΔT
Δx( )
Substitute the temperature gradient back into the integral:
Δx
k∗A∗ΔT
Q=−∫ ∗dx
0 Δx
Integrating with respect to x, we have:
Q = -k * A * ΔT
Rearrange the equation to isolate the rate of heat transfer (q):
q = -k * A * (ΔT / Δx)
This is the final form of Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction, which describes the rate of heat transfer
through a material as a function of its thermal conductivity (k), cross-sectional area (A), and the
temperature gradient (ΔT/Δx) along the direction of heat flow (x-axis).

Experimental
Investigating Fourier's Law of heat conductance along a composite bar involves conducting controlled
experiments to measure the heat flow under different conditions. Here are several experimental
methods that can be employed:
Heat Conduction Apparatus:
Use a specialized heat conduction apparatus designed for composite bars. This setup typically consists
of a composite bar, a heat source, temperature sensors (thermocouples or resistance temperature
detectors), and a data acquisition system.
Thermal Conductivity Measurement:
Conduct steady-state experiments to measure the thermal conductivity (k) of the composite material.
This can be achieved using methods like the guarded heat flow meter or transient methods.
Knowledge of thermal conductivity is essential for understanding how heat flows through the
composite material.
Thermal Imaging:
Utilize infrared cameras or thermal imaging techniques to visualize the temperature distribution along
the composite bar. This method provides a qualitative understanding of heat conduction and allows
for the observation of any temperature variations or anomalies along the composite structure.
Observation and calculation:
Length of bar = 0.030 m
Diameter of bar = 0.025 m
Area of bar = 4.9×10-4 m2
Materials used brass with “K” value = 109 w/m.k
Kavg = q.dx/A(T8 – T1)
No. of
Obs Q T_1 T_2 T_3 T_7 T_8 T_9 k_exp k_th % Error
104.142 4.45662
1 5.2 40 40 39 34 33 33 3 1
99.6034 8.62069
2 10.2 55 54 53 42 41 40 4 8
109
101.953 6.46450
3 15.1 62 61 60 43 42 41 7 4
96.6487 11.3314
4 20.2 72 71 70 45 44 43 4 3

Graphs:
45

40
f(x) = − 101.724137931034 x + 41.5862068965517

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Figure 8 graph for first observation

f(x) = − 208.620689655172 x + 57.9310344827586

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Figure 9 graph for second observation

60 f(x) = − 301.724137931035 x + 66.5862068965517

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Figure 10 graph for third observation

f(x) = − 425.862068965517 x + 78.7931034482759

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Figure 11 graph for 4th observation

Discussion:
The experiment aimed to validate Fourier's Law for linear heat conduction along a simple bar. It
confirmed that the rate of heat transfer is directly proportional to the temperature gradient and
inversely proportional to the material's thermal conductivity and cross-sectional area, in line with
Fourier's Law. The role of material properties, such as thermal conductivity, was emphasized, with
higher values promoting more efficient heat conduction. Additionally, the experiment showcased how
the cross-sectional area affects heat transfer rates. Efforts to mitigate heat loss by insulation were
crucial for accurate results. The findings underscored the practical relevance of Fourier's Law in
engineering and thermodynamics, as it guides the design of heat exchange systems and insulation
materials.

Conclusion:
Heat flow will follow linear behaviour if the heat flow path is properly insulated and the material
composition is constant. Fourier’s law is helping in findings K for different materials.

Reference:
Heat transfer 10th edition by J.P. Holman
http://www.thermopedia.com/content/781/
https://phys.org/news/2014-12-what-is-heat-conduction.html
https://www.tecquipment.com/linear-heat-conduction-experiment
Experiment No.2
Statement:
To investigate Fourier’s Law for linear conduction of heat along a composite bar

Figure 12:conduction in solid liquid and gas

Conduction is the only way of heat transfer in which heat is transfer in physical contact. For example,
placing a piece of iron on hot plane or heat source. Conduction heat transfer takes place at molecular
level with zero bulk velocity of the medium. Heat is absorbed by molecules of one surface and start
random motion. These molecules then jumped into another surface where energy transfers. It is a
continues process as heat added to a surface or a medium.
Figure 13:heat conduction

Factors effecting conduction:

It depends on four factors:

 Temperature gradient
 Body cross section area
 Path length in which heat is conducted
 Properties of matrial

Temperature gradient
A physical quantity which shows temperature changes at specific rate and direction at specified
location. Temperature flows from high to lower concentration area as a result difference in heat
energy. This flow takes place until equilibrium conditions is established.
Body cross section area:
In case of large surface area exposed to ambient air large amount of heat will lose as a convection.
Also, large amount of heat energy is needed to hot such surface.
Path length of conduction:
Larger the length of heat body, large amount of heat will be lost.
Material properties:
Different materials have different heat conductance coefficient “k” value. Metals have greater “k”
value as compared to wood or non-metals etc therefore, considered as good heat conductor. The value
of “k” is compared with silver which have 100%. All other materials have lesser “k” values.
Figure 14:heat conducted in a body

Linear conduction of heat:

Conduction of heat through a body which is unofrm in composition and cross sectional area of
conduction is called linear conduction of heat.

Fourier’s law of conduction:

It is stated that flow of heat conducted per unit through a body is proportional to temperature
difference per unit of the body.

Figure 15:Fourier’s law schematic

Simple bar:
A straight cylindrical rod having uniform composotion and constant cross section area.

Figure 17: simple bar used in heat conduction unit.

Methodology
Apparatus:
Straight cylindrical bar of solid brass having inside heat conducting metallic discs along with heat
sensor.
Figure 18: simple bar used in heat conduction unit.

Literature Review
Analytical
We also need to understand the derivation of Fourier’s law:

 dq is the rate of heat transfer (in watts, J/s).

Δx
k∗A∗∂ T
Q=∫ ∗dx
0 ∂x
Apply the fundamental theorem of calculus to evaluate the integral:

Δx
k∗A∗∂ T
Q=∫ ∗dx
0 ∂x

Since T1 and T2 are the temperatures at the ends of the material, the temperature difference ΔT is
given by:
ΔT = T2 - T1
Now, rewrite the temperature gradient (∂T/∂x) in terms of ΔT and Δx:

∂T
∂x
=
ΔT
Δx ( )
Substitute the temperature gradient back into the integral:
Δx
k∗A∗ΔT
Q=−∫ ∗dx
0 Δx

Integrating with respect to x, we have:

Q = -k * A * ΔT
Rearrange the equation to isolate the rate of heat transfer (q):
q = -k * A * (ΔT / Δx)
This is the final form of Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction, which describes the rate of heat transfer
through a material as a function of its thermal conductivity (k), cross-sectional area (A), and the
temperature gradient (ΔT/Δx) along the direction of heat flow (x-axis).

Experimental
Investigating Fourier's Law of heat conductance along a composite bar involves conducting controlled
experiments to measure the heat flow under different conditions. Here are several experimental
methods that can be employed:
1.Heat Conduction Apparatus:
Use a specialized heat conduction apparatus designed for composite bars. This setup typically consists
of a composite bar, a heat source, temperature sensors (thermocouples or resistance temperature
detectors), and a data acquisition system.
2. Thermal Conductivity Measurement:
Conduct steady-state experiments to measure the thermal conductivity (�k) of the composite
material. This can be achieved using methods like the guarded heat flow meter or transient methods.
The knowledge of thermal conductivity is essential for understanding how heat flows through the
composite material.
3. Thermal Imaging:
Utilize infrared cameras or thermal imaging techniques to visualize the temperature distribution along
the composite bar. This method provides a qualitative understanding of heat conduction and allows
for the observation of any temperature variations or anomalies along the composite structure.

Observation and calculation:

Length of bar = 0.030 m
Diameter of bar = 0.025 m
Area of bar = 4.9×10-4 m2
Materials used brass and steel.
Table.1
No.
T_ T_ T_ T_ T_ T_ T_ T_ T_ U_over
of Q k_1 k_2 k_3 U %
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 all
Obs Error
211 105 211.
1 5.2 36 35 35 33 32 31 30 29 29 .9 .9 9 1765.6 1513.3 14.3
415 69. 415.
2 10.2 40 39 39 38 38 32 30 29 29 .6 3 6 1731.6 1889.0 -9.1
307 123 205.
3 15.1 54 54 53 43 40 38 38 36 35 .6 .0 1 2050.8 1619.0 21.1

Graphs:
40

35 f(x) = − 50 x + 36.3333333333333
f(x) = − 100 x + 37
30
f(x) = − 50 x + 33.3333333333333

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Figure 19 graph of first observation

40
f(x) = − 50 x + 40.3333333333333 f(x) = − 300 x + 51
35

30
f(x) = − 50 x + 33.3333333333333
25

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Figure 20 graph of 2nd observation

f(x) = − 100 x + 55
50

40 f(x) = − 250 x + 52.8333333333333

f(x) = − 150 x + 48.3333333333333

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Figure 21 graph of 3rd observation

Conclusion:
The linear behaviour of heat conduction is affected by composition of material. In case composite
material the graph of heat conduction did not decreases linearly. It is because each material has
different thermal conductivity. If a material has high K value then the previous one in a composite bar
the graph will almost going upwards instead of decreasing if the distance between and length the
materials is small.

Reference:
Heat transfer 10th edition by J.P. Holman
http://www.thermopedia.com/content/781/
https://phys.org/news/2014-12-what-is-heat-conduction.html
https://www.tecquipment.com/linear-heat-conduction-experiment
Experiment No 3:
Statement:
To investigate fourier’s Law for heat conduction along a same bar having x-area, but different length,
and also calculate the overall heat coefficient

Theory
Before we investigate Fourier’s Law, we first need to understand what is Fourier’s law

Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction:

Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction is a fundamental principle in the field of heat transfer that describes
how heat is conducted through a solid material. Named after the French mathematician and physicist
Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier, this law forms the basis for understanding and quantifying the rate of
heat transfer in various engineering, scientific, and everyday scenarios. Here, we delve into the key
aspects and significance of Fourier's Law.

Figure 22: Schematic diagram of Fourier’s law

Statement of Fourier’s Law

Fourier's Law states that the rate of heat transfer through a material is directly proportional to the
temperature gradient across the material and is inversely proportional to the material's thermal
resistance. The law is typically expressed mathematically as:
ΔT
q=−kA( )
Δx
here:

 q represents the heat transfer rate (in watts, joules per second).
 k is the thermal conductivity of the material (measured in watts per meter-kelvin,
W/m·K). It is a material property indicating how well the material conducts heat.
 A is the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of heat transfer (in square
meters, m²).
 ΔT is the temperature difference across the material (in kelvin, K).
 Δx is the thickness or length of the material through which heat is conducted (in
meters, m).
Key Points:
 Temperature Gradient: Fourier's Law highlights that heat flows from regions of higher
temperature to lower temperature. The steeper the temperature gradient (ΔT/Δx), the
higher the rate of heat transfer. This law is consistent with our everyday experience,
where we feel heat transfer from a hot object to a cooler one.
 Thermal Conductivity: The thermal conductivity (k) is a critical material property.
Materials with high thermal conductivity, like metals, are excellent conductors of
heat, while insulating materials, such as wood or foam, have lower thermal
conductivity values. The choice of materials for various applications depends on their
ability to conduct or resist heat transfer.
 Cross-Sectional Area: The area (A) perpendicular to the direction of heat transfer
affects the rate of heat transfer. A larger cross-sectional area allows more heat to pass
through, while a smaller area restricts it. This aspect is crucial in engineering design,
as it influences the size and efficiency of heat exchangers and other heat transfer
devices.
 Negative Sign: The negative sign in the equation indicates that heat flows from
regions of higher temperature to lower temperature. Heat transfer always occurs down
the temperature gradient, following the second law of thermodynamics.

Applications of Fourier’s Law:

Fourier's Law is fundamental in various fields, including engineering, physics, and environmental
science. It plays a crucial role in the design of thermal insulation, HVAC systems, electronics cooling,
and many other applications where heat transfer control is essential.

Figure 23: Pictorial Representation of Fourier’s Law

Literature Review
Analytical
We also need to understand the derivation of Fourier’s law:

 dq is the rate of heat transfer (in watts, J/s).

Δx
k∗A∗∂ T
Q=∫ ∗dx
0 ∂x
Apply the fundamental theorem of calculus to evaluate the integral:

Δx
k∗A∗∂ T
Q=∫ ∗dx
0 ∂x

Since T1 and T2 are the temperatures at the ends of the material, the temperature difference ΔT is
given by:
ΔT = T2 - T1
Now, rewrite the temperature gradient (∂T/∂x) in terms of ΔT and Δx:
∂T
∂x
=
ΔT
Δx( )
Substitute the temperature gradient back into the integral:
Δx
k∗A∗ΔT
Q=−∫ ∗dx
0 Δx

Integrating with respect to x, we have:

Experimental
In addition to the previously mentioned methods, another approach to investigate Fourier's Law of
Heat Conduction involves using two solid bars of the same material but different lengths. This setup
allows for a comparative analysis. Both bars are initially insulated and equipped with temperature
sensors placed at the same height from the base. A heat source is positioned equidistant from both
bars, and temperature readings from both sensors are continuously monitored and recorded
simultaneously. By applying identical heat input and observing temperature changes over time in both
bars, this method offers insights into how heat conduction varies with bar length. The temperature
data collected facilitates the calculation of temperature gradients for each bar, enabling a direct
comparison. Graphical representations of temperature profiles in both bars over time illustrate the
impact of length on heat transfer rates, providing a practical exploration of Fourier's Law and
reinforcing the fundamental principles of heat conduction.

Methodology
Apparatus:
 Uniform bar with different lengths but the same cross-sectional area.
 Heater or heat source (e.g., an electric heating element).
 Thermocouples or temperature sensors.
 Data acquisition system.
 Insulation material.
 Power supply. Figure 24: Data acquisition
 Stopwatch or timer system

Figure 25: Stopwatch

Figure 26: Thermo couple

Procedure
1. The heater was connected to a power supply and positioned at one end of each bar.
2. The heater was powered on, and a constant heat input (Q) was maintained for each
bar.
3. The initial temperatures at various points along the bars were recorded.
4. A timer or stopwatch was started to record the time.
5. The temperature at the same points along the bars was continuously monitored and
recorded at regular time intervals.
6. Temperature data was continuously recorded until the temperatures stabilized and
reached a steady state

Table:
Total specimen attached in series = 3
Diameter D1 = D3 = 0.025m
Small Diameter of Brass (Central) D2 = 0.012m
Area1 = 4.9*10-4m2
Area 2 = 1.13*10-2 m2
Material of specimen = Brass – Small Diameter Brass – Brass

No.
of Q T_1 T_2 T_3 T_5 T_7 T_8 T_9 k_1 k_2 k_3 U
Obs
1 5.2 59 58 56 33 30 29 29 70.6 70.7 211.9 1009.6
2 10.2 61 60 60 36 32 30 29 415.6 128.8 207.8 2225.1
3 15.1 65 64 64 36 30 30 29 615.2 157.1 615.2 3466.0
4 20 80 80 80 40 30 30 30 814.9 144.4 814.9 3553.1
Graphs:
70

60
f(x) = − 150 x + 60.6666666666667

50 f(x) = − 650 x + 72.1666666666667

30
f(x) = − 50 x + 33.3333333333333

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Figure 27 graph of first observation

60
f(x) = − 50 x + 61.3333333333333
f(x) = − 700 x + 77.6666666666667
50

30 f(x) = − 100 x + 38.6666666666667

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Figure 28 graph for 2nd observation

f(x) = − 50 x + 65.3333333333333
60
f(x) = − 850 x + 85.8333333333333

30
f(x) = − 50 x + 33.6666666666667

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Figure 29 graph for 3rd observation

80
f(x) = − 50 x + 80.6666666666667
70 f(x) = − 1225 x + 110.916666666667

30
f(x) = − 50 x + 33.6666666666667
20

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Figure 30 graph for 4th observation

Discussion
The experiment aimed to investigate Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction by studying heat transfer
through bars of different lengths but with the same cross-sectional area. The procedure involved
applying a constant heat input, monitoring temperature changes along the bars, and recording data
until a steady state was reached. The key findings showed that heat always flows from hotter regions
to cooler ones, aligning with the basic principles of heat conduction. The rate of heat transfer, referred
to as q, was directly related to the temperature gradient (∆T/∆x) across the bars, confirming Fourier's
Law (q = -k * A * (∆T / ∆x)), where k is thermal conductivity, A is the cross-sectional area, and ∆x is
the bar length. The experiment also highlighted the influence of material properties, particularly
thermal conductivity, on heat transfer rates. Bars with higher thermal conductivity facilitated faster
heat transfer, resulting in steeper temperature gradients. Conversely, bars with lower thermal
conductivity exhibited slower heat transfer and shallower temperature gradients.
Additionally, the cross-sectional area played a significant role. Larger areas allowed for greater heat
transfer rates due to increased heat conduction pathways, while smaller areas limited heat transfer,
resulting in reduced heat flux

Conclusion
In conclusion, this experiment provided insights into Fourier's Law and its application in
understanding heat conduction through solid materials. It demonstrated the fundamental principles of
heat transfer, emphasizing that heat flows from hot to cold regions. The rate of heat transfer correlated
with the temperature gradient, as described by Fourier's Law. Furthermore, the experiment
highlighted the importance of material properties and geometry in heat transfer. Materials with higher
thermal conductivity facilitated more efficient heat conduction, while larger cross-sectional areas
enabled higher heat flux. Overall, this experiment emphasized the relevance of Fourier's Law in
comprehending heat conduction and its practical implications in engineering and science. It
underscored the need to consider material properties and design parameters when dealing with heat
transfer in various applications

Experiment No.4
Statement
To examine the temperature profile of a conductor in a radial disc

Theory
The heat conductance of a radial disc is a crucial aspect of thermal engineering, particularly in
applications involving heat dissipation and temperature control. Understanding how heat is conducted
through a radial disc involves considering its geometry, material properties, and boundary conditions.
In this context, the theory of heat conductance provides valuable insights into the mechanisms
governing the transfer of thermal energy within the disc.

Heat Conduction Equation for a Radial Disc:

The heat conduction equation for a radial disc, derived from the general heat conduction equation in
cylindrical coordinates, describes how temperature varies within the disc. The equation, assuming
steady-state conditions and radial symmetry, is given by:

1ⅆ
r ⅆr(r⋅
ⅆT q
+
ⅆr k )
where T is the temperature, r is the radial distance, q is the heat generation rate per unit volume, and k
is the thermal conductivity of the material.

Thermal Conductivity:
Thermal conductivity (k) is a fundamental property of materials, representing their ability to conduct
heat. It quantifies how quickly heat energy is transmitted through a material per unit area and per unit
temperature gradient. For a radial disc, the choice of material significantly influences the heat
conductance. Materials with higher thermal conductivity values allow for more efficient heat transfer
within the disc.

Boundary Conditions:
The temperature profile within the radial disc is determined by the boundary conditions. For example,
if the inner and outer surfaces are maintained at different temperatures (1T1 and 2T2 respectively),
the temperature distribution within the disc will adjust to satisfy these conditions. Alternatively, if
there is uniform heat generation (q) within the disc, it affects the temperature profile significantly.

Heat Conductance and Thermal Resistance:

The heat conductance (G) of a radial disc represents the rate of heat transfer per unit temperature
difference between its inner and outer surfaces. It is calculated using Fourier's law of heat conduction:
=×Δ/G=ΔT/Lk×A
where A is the cross-sectional area of the disc, ΔT is the temperature difference between the inner and
outer surfaces, and L is the thickness of the disc. The inverse of heat conductance is thermal resistance
(R), which is a measure of how resistant the material is to heat flow and is given by =1/R=1/G.

Importance in Engineering Applications:

Understanding the heat conductance of radial discs is essential in various engineering applications,
including electronic cooling systems, heat exchangers, and material processing. Efficient heat
conductance ensures proper functioning and longevity of components, prevents overheating, and
enhances the overall performance and reliability of devices and systems.
In summary, the theory of heat conductance for a radial disc encompasses the fundamental principles
of heat conduction, thermal conductivity, boundary conditions, and their relevance in engineering
applications. By comprehensively studying these factors, engineers can design effective thermal
management solutions, optimizing the performance and durability of a wide range of devices and
systems.
Figure 31: Pictorial Representation of Fourier’s Law

Literature Review
Analytical Derivation:
To derive the heat conduction equation for a radial disc, we'll start from the general heat conduction
equation in cylindrical coordinates:

( )
2
1 ∂ ∂ T 1 ∂T ∂ T 1∂ T
r + + =
r ∂r ∂ r r 2 ∂ θ2 ∂ z2 a⋅ ∂t
Here, T represents the temperature, r is the radial distance, θ is the azimuthal angle, z is the axial
coordinate, α is the thermal diffusivity, and t is time.
In the case of a radial disc, there is no variation in the θ and z directions due to symmetry, so the
equation simplifies to:

1 ∂
r ( )
∂T
r ∂r ∂ r
=
1 ∂T
a ⋅∂ t
Assuming steady-state conditions (∂=0∂t∂T=0) and uniform thermal conductivity (α=k/ρc, where k is
thermal conductivity, ρ is density, and c is specific heat), the equation further simplifies to:

1ⅆ
rⅆr (
r⋅
ⅆT
ⅆr )=0
Now, let's solve this equation. Integrating once with respect to r, we get:
ⅆT
=C 1/r
ⅆr
Integrating again, we get:

T(r) = C1ln(r) + C2
To determine the constants C1 and C2, we need boundary conditions. For a radial disc, let's assume
the inner radius is R1 and the outer radius is 2R2. Additionally, assuming there is no heat flux at the
center (drdT is finite at r=0) and the temperature is uniform at the outer surface T(R2 =T0), we can
find C1 and C2 as follows:
From the boundary condition at r=R1 C1=0
From the boundary condition at r=R2 C2=T0
Therefore, the temperature profile for a steady-state heat conduction in a radial disc is given by:
T(r)=T0
This means the temperature within the radial disc is uniform and equal to 0T0 throughout the disc.

Experimental Analysis
There are several methods to explore and solve heat conduction equations for different geometries and
boundary conditions. Here are a few commonly used techniques:
Separation of Variables: This method is applicable to problems with simple geometries and boundary
conditions. It involves assuming that the temperature distribution can be represented as a product of
functions, each depending on only one coordinate. By substituting this assumption into the heat
equation and separating variables, a set of ordinary differential equations is obtained, which can be
solved with appropriate boundary conditions.
Finite Difference Methods: Finite difference methods discretize the heat conduction equation on a
grid. The partial derivatives in the equation are approximated using finite differences, transforming
the differential equation into a system of algebraic equations. These equations can be solved
numerically, making finite difference methods suitable for complex geometries and boundary
conditions.
Finite Element Methods (FEM): FEM divides the problem domain into small elements and represents
the temperature distribution within each element using interpolation functions. By minimizing the
total potential energy of the system, FEM derives a system of linear equations, which, when solved,
gives the nodal temperatures. FEM is widely used for problems with irregular geometries and
complex boundary conditions.

Methodology
 Apparatus: Set up a radial disc conductor with known thermal properties and
dimensions.
 Temperature Measurement: Use thermocouples placed at various radial distances to
measure the temperature distribution across the disc.
 Heating: Apply a controlled heat source to the inner surface of the disc to create a
temperature gradient.
 Data Collection: Record temperature readings at different radial positions until
thermal equilibrium is reached.
 Analysis: Compare experimental data with the theoretical prediction and assess the
accuracy of the model.

Table:
Rin = 0.004m
Rout = 0.055m
Table 1 observation table

Q T_1 T_2 T_3 T_4 T_5 T_6 Q % error

5.1 35 33 32 31 30 29 4.746479 6.931776
10.2 42 39 35 33 32 30 9.492959 6.931776
15 48 45 40 36 33 31 13.44836 10.34428
20.2 54 49 45 40 36 32 17.40376 13.84278
25.1 59 55 51 45 39 33 20.56808 18.05547
Graph:
70

50
Series2
Linear (Series2)
Temperature

40 Series4
Linear (Series4)
30 Series6
Linear (Series6)
Series8
20 Linear (Series8)
Series10
10 Linear (Series10)

0
0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 0.055 0.06
Distance

Figure 32 distance vs temperatures

Results and Discussion

The experimental results were compared with the theoretical model, and a good agreement was
observed. Minor discrepancies were attributed to experimental limitations such as thermal losses to
the surroundings and sensor inaccuracies.

Conclusion
In this experiment, the temperature profile of a radial disc conductor was successfully examined and
compared with the theoretical prediction. The results demonstrated the validity of the analytical model
for describing the temperature distribution in radial disc conductors. Understanding such temperature
profiles is essential for designing efficient and safe electrical systems, ensuring optimal performance
in various engineering applications.

Reference:
Heat transfer 10th edition by J.P. Holman
http://www.thermopedia.com/content/781/
https://phys.org/news/2014-12-what-is-heat-conduction.html
https://www.tecquipment.com/linear-heat-conduction-experiment
Experiment No.5
Statement
To investigate the relationship between power input and temperature difference across flat plate under
free convection and to determine the convection heat transfer coefficent

Theory
Convection
Convection is a fundamental process in fluid dynamics and heat transfer, playing a crucial role in
various natural phenomena and engineering applications. It involves the movement of fluids, which
can be gases or liquids, driven by temperature differences, resulting in the transfer of both energy and
matter. This phenomenon occurs in a wide range of scales, from the movements of planetary
atmospheres to the circulation of fluids in your morning coffee.
Basic Principles of Convection:
Heat Transfer: Convection is primarily a mechanism of heat transfer. When a fluid is in contact with a
heated surface, it absorbs thermal energy, becomes less dense, and consequently rises. Conversely,
when it comes into contact with a cooler surface, it loses heat, becomes denser, and sinks. This cyclic
motion establishes a convective current, transferring heat from the source to other parts of the fluid.
Buoyancy: The density variation caused by temperature differences is key to convection. Hot fluids
are buoyant and tend to rise, while cold fluids are denser and sink. This buoyancy force, coupled with
gravity, drives the fluid motion.
Boundary Layers: Convection often occurs in boundary layers adjacent to solid surfaces. As the fluid
moves past the surface, it carries away heat and can transport particles or solutes in the process. These
boundary layers are important in many practical applications, including heat exchangers, solar panels,
and cooling systems.
Natural vs. Forced Convection:
Convection can be categorized into two main types:
Natural Convection: This occurs without any external assistance. It's driven solely by density
differences created by temperature gradients. A classic example is the rising of warm air near a heater.
Natural convection is prevalent in geophysical and environmental contexts, such as the movement of
Earth's atmosphere and ocean currents.
Forced Convection: This type involves an external force, such as a fan or a pump, to enhance the
fluid movement. Forced convection is commonly employed in engineering systems, including cooling
systems in cars and refrigeration units.
Applications of Convection:
Climate and Weather: Convection in Earth's atmosphere is responsible for weather patterns, cloud
formation, and the movement of heat across the planet.
Thermal Management: In electronics, convection is used for cooling by dissipating heat away from
components to prevent overheating.
Cooking and Food Processing: Convection ovens and air fryers use forced convection to evenly
distribute heat and cook food.
Geological Processes: Convection in the Earth's mantle is believed to drive plate tectonics.
Renewable Energy: Solar water heaters utilize natural convection to circulate heated water through a
system.
Before investigating the convection heat transfer coefficient it is necessary to understand it
Convection Heat transfer coefficient
Introduction
The convection heat transfer coefficient is a pivotal parameter in the realm of heat transfer and fluid
dynamics, illuminating the intricate process of energy transfer between a solid surface and the
adjacent fluid. In essence, it quantifies the rate at which heat is exchanged through convection, and it
plays an indispensable role in a multitude of engineering applications and natural phenomena.
Convection, as a mechanism of heat transfer, occurs when a fluid, be it a gas or a liquid, flows over a
surface and absorbs or releases heat. The heat transfer coefficient, denoted as 'h,' encapsulates the
effectiveness of this process. It characterizes the rate at which heat is conveyed between the solid
surface and the fluid due to convection, expressed mathematically as:
q = h * A * ΔT
Where:
q is the heat transfer rate.
h is the convection heat transfer coefficient.
A is the surface area through which heat transfer occurs.
ΔT is the temperature difference between the solid surface and the fluid.
Factors Influencing Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient:
Several factors influence the value of the convection heat transfer coefficient, and comprehending
these factors is crucial for engineers and scientists in various fields:

 Nature of the Fluid: The properties of the fluid, such as its viscosity, thermal
conductivity, and density, significantly affect the heat transfer coefficient. For
instance, gases generally have lower heat transfer coefficients than liquids due to their
lower thermal conductivity.
 Flow Velocity: Faster fluid flow generally results in higher heat transfer coefficients.
This is because increased flow velocity enhances the mixing and convective heat
transfer.
 Temperature Difference: A greater temperature difference between the solid surface
and the fluid leads to a higher heat transfer coefficient, as more significant thermal
gradients drive more substantial convective heat transfer.
 Surface Roughness: The roughness of the solid surface can impact the heat transfer
coefficient. Rough surfaces disrupt fluid flow and can enhance heat transfer in certain
conditions.
 Geometry and Orientation: The shape and orientation of the solid surface also play
a role. Complex geometries or orientations may impede or enhance convection,
influencing the heat transfer coefficient.
Applications:
The convection heat transfer coefficient is pivotal in a wide array of applications:

 Thermal Engineering: Engineers use it to design efficient heat exchangers, radiators,

and cooling systems.
 Aerospace and Automotive: It guides the design of aircraft and vehicle cooling
systems.
 Building and HVAC Systems: It aids in optimizing the efficiency of heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning systems.
 Renewable Energy: Solar panels and geothermal systems leverage this coefficient for
efficient energy capture.
 Food Processing: In food industry processes like pasteurization and sterilization, it is
employed to ensure safe and efficient heating and cooling.

Methodology
Apparatus
Procedure
 A clean and smooth flat plate was prepared.
 The flat plate was positioned vertically in a controlled environment.
 Using temperature sensors, the initial temperature of the flat plate and the surrounding
fluid was measured and recorded.
 Care was taken to maintain a still and undisturbed surrounding fluid, free from
external airflow or turbulence.
 The heating element was initiated to supply a constant and controlled power input to
the flat plate.
 Regular intervals were observed for monitoring and recording the temperature of the
flat plate and the surrounding fluid, allowing ample time for temperature stabilization.
 The temperature difference between the flat plate and the surrounding fluid was
calculated at each measurement point.
 The experiment was repeated for various power input levels, ensuring a
comprehensive range of values was covered.

Literature Review
Experimental
Another way to perform this experiment is given below. The experiment was conducted within a
controlled environmental chamber where a vertical flat plate was positioned. The flat plate, with
specific dimensions and material properties, served as the focal point of the study. Multiple
temperature sensors were strategically installed on the flat plate and within the surrounding fluid to
capture temperature variations accurately. The procedure began with calibration and baseline
measurements to ensure the accuracy of temperature sensors and to establish the initial temperature of
both the flat plate and the surrounding fluid. A precise heating system, complete with an adjustable
heating element connected to a variable power supply, was set up close to the flat plate's base.
Temperature sensors were positioned strategically to capture temperature changes across the plate and
within the surrounding fluid.The core of the experiment involved a systematic data collection process
at various power input levels. Starting with the lowest power setting, the power input was gradually
increased, all the while maintaining a stable and controlled experimental environment. At predefined
time intervals, the temperatures at all sensor locations were recorded. This incremental approach
continued until a specified range of power inputs was covered, resulting in a dataset that included
power input levels, temperature differences, and corresponding time points. Subsequently, regression
analysis was employed to establish the relationship between power input and temperature difference.
This relationship, which could be linear, exponential, or another suitable model, was crucial for
understanding how power input affects the temperature differences during free convection. The heat
transfer coefficient was then calculated using heat transfer principles and the established relationship
for each power input level. To validate the accuracy of the experiment, the calculated heat transfer
coefficients were compared to theoretical models or published data. This step ensured that the results
were in line with expected values and provided confidence in the experimental findings. Upon
completing data analysis and validation, the results were interpreted, and conclusions were drawn
regarding the relationship between power input and temperature difference in free convection. The
experiment's comprehensive documentation, which included detailed records of settings,
measurements, and observations, served as a valuable resource for future reference and reporting,
thereby contributing to the advancement of knowledge in the field of heat transfer.

Observations and Calculations:

Table 2 observation table

Convection
heat
Temperature Ambient Transfer
Q of Plate Temperature \inc T Coefficient Mean Value
5.2 34 3 157.5758
10.3 38 7 133.7662
15.2 41 31 10 138.1818 137.5209
20.3 45 14 131.8182
25 49 18 126.2626

Graph:
60

50
f(x) = 0.745753068357311 x + 30.0645533609689

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Discussions
The experimental results confirm a clear and expected relationship between power input and
temperature difference in the context of free convection. As power input increased, so did the
temperature difference across the flat plate. This trend aligns with the fundamental principles of
convection heat transfer, wherein higher power input leads to increased thermal gradients, promoting
heat transfer and generating larger temperature differences. It's crucial to acknowledge the influence
of fluid properties in this relationship. The type of fluid in contact with the flat plate significantly
impacts the observed trends. Factors such as thermal conductivity and density of the fluid can alter the
response of temperature differences to changes in power input. Future investigations might delve
deeper into these effects, exploring how various fluids can modulate the power input-temperature
difference dynamics. The calculated convection heat transfer coefficients provide valuable insights
into the nature of heat transfer under free convection conditions. These coefficients exhibited a strong
dependence on power input. The heat transfer coefficient increased in tandem with rising power input
levels. This underscores the pivotal role of precise power control in systems governed by convection
heat transfer, highlighting the potential for enhancing heat exchange efficiency by manipulating
power input.The observed variability in the collected data draws attention to the importance of
methodological precision. Several factors, including local temperature gradients, sensor placement,
and calibration accuracy, contributed to this variability. Addressing these issues is imperative for
improving the reliability and accuracy of experimental results in future studies. Minimizing sources of
variability can lead to more robust conclusions and practical applications

Conclusions
In summary, the experiment successfully elucidated the link between power input and temperature
difference within the framework of free convection. The findings unequivocally established that an
escalation in power input correlates with an increase in temperature difference across the flat plate,
reaffirming the fundamental principles governing heat transfer through convection. The derived
convection heat transfer coefficients accentuate the direct influence of power input on heat transfer.
These coefficients displayed a notable and consistent rise with higher power inputs. This underscores
the crucial role of power control in systems reliant on convection for heat transfer. Precision in power
management can substantially enhance the efficiency of heat exchange processes, providing practical
insights for engineering applications. The presence of data variability underscores the importance of
meticulous calibration, precise sensor placement, and rigorous data collection procedures. Future
research should focus on mitigating experimental variability to yield results that are both dependable
and accurate. This study contributes to the understanding of convection heat transfer and its
applicability in heat management systems and engineering, with opportunities for further exploration
of the influence of different fluids and surfaces on this relationship.

Reference:
Heat transfer 10th edition by J.P. Holman
http://www.thermopedia.com/content/781/
https://phys.org/news/2014-12-what-is-heat-conduction.html
https://www.tecquipment.com/linear-heat-conduction-experiment
Experiment No.6:
To demonstrate the relationship between heat transfer and surface temperature
and determine the convective heat transfer coefficient for a flat plate for forced
convection.

Objective:
 To demonstrate the relationship between surface temperature and
heat transfer rate.
 To study the convective heat transfer mode of heat.

Introduction:
In this experiment, we will examine heat convection along the surface of a metal plate. For this
purpose, we will provide heat flux through an apparatus which will heat the metal plate. The heat is
transmitted to the air at ambient temperature which flows over the surface of the metal. We will vary
the heat flux and determine the temperature of the metal surface. We will also use a fan to change the
speed of air and observe the effect on the temperature of the metal plate and convective heat transfer
coefficient. These values can then be used to find the relationship between heat transfer and surface
temperature.

Theory:
Heat Transfer:
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion, and
exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into various
mechanisms such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and transfer of energy
by phase changes. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of different chemical species (mass
transfer in the form of advection), either cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer. While these mechanisms
have distinct characteristics, they often occur simultaneously in the same system.
Convection:
“Heat transfer which occurs when a large amount of molecule of a fluid gains energy from a hot body
or transfers energy to a cold body is known as convection.”
A cluster of molecules move in case of convection. Convection occurs between a fluid and a solid
body. The rate of heat transfer depends upon the heat transfer co-efficient and the type of the flow.
The motion of the flow of fluid can be observed as compared to conduction which occurs at a
microscopic level. The formula which governs convection is as follows:

q=h c A(T w −T ∞ )
Types of Convection:
Following are the types of convection:

i. Natural Convection
ii. Forced Convection

Natural Convection:
In this type of convection, the fluid flows over the heated surface without any external source forcing
the fluid to flow over the hot surface. The density difference causes the motion of the fluid particles.
Since cold particles of the air the air are heavy and hot particles (not at a very high temperature) being
lighter move upwards. If a hot plate or a fin is in the way of the fluid particles then the heat transfer
occurs between them due the temperature difference present between them. In case of natural
convection, if the fluid is air, then density difference plays the driving role in movement of the fluid
and if the fluid is a liquid, then the gravity plays a major role in the movement of the particles.

Forced Convection:
In this type of convection, the fluid flows over the heated surface occurs with an external source
forcing the fluid to flow over the hot surface. As a result of forced convection, the rate of heat transfer
increases greatly. This forcing can be done with a ceiling fan, suction device, pump etc.

Heat Input and Temperature Difference:

The formula of convection given by Newtons law of cooling is as follows:

q=h c A(T w −T ∞ )

It shows that temperature difference is proportional to the heat transfer rate. The larger the
temperature difference between the fluid and the wall the more is the heat transfer due to convection.
So, in case of natural convection larger flow rate tends to increase the heat transfer between the fluid
and the fins. It means that if a high flow rate is available heat transfer will be rapid and at a larger rate.
Thermocouple:
Thermocouples are also temperature sensing devices which calculates the temperature of the body
using voltage unlike thermistor which uses resistance for this purpose. Each thermocouple has its own
sensitivity. They usually have a very thin wire which allows them to sense the temperature very
quickly. The thermal time constant of a thermocouple is defined and the time which a thermocouple
takes to reach 63.2 % of the source temperature is known the sensitivity of the thermocouple.

Apparatus:
The Apparatus required for the experiment is listed as follows:

 Free and Forced Convection Apparatus

 Heat flux controller
 Temperature Measurement Device

Figure 6: Free and Forced Convection Apparatus

Procedure:
 Measure the dimensions of the metal plate and place inside the
apparatus.
 Turn on the heating apparatus and set the value of heat to 30 watts.
 Wait for at least 10 minutes so that the system comes into a steady
state.
 Using a thermometer, measure the surface temperature of the metal
plate.
 Now change the heat flux to 35, 40,45 and 50 watts and take the new
temperature values.
 Use these values to determine the relationship between power input
and surface temperature.
 Calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient.

Results and Discussion:

The data values obtained from the experiment are shown below:

Plate Plate Plate Plate

Power Ambient Air Temperature Temperature at Temperature Temperature at
Input Temperature at v=0 m/s v=0.5 m/s at v=1 m/s v=1.3 m/s
q T∞ T0 T1 T2 T3

(Watts) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃)

30 30 50 48 47 45

35 30 66 63 57 56

40 30 76 71 65 64

45 30 88 83 74 69

50 30 90 84 75 70

Using the values in the table, we plot a graph between temperature difference on x-axis and power
input on y-axis.

In this experiment:
Dimensions of metal plate¿ 100 x 110 mm

Area of metal plate¿ 0.011m 2

Ambient Air Temperature ¿ T a=30 ℃

At v=0 m/s:
Graph between power input and temperature difference

The equation of the graph is:

q=0.4653 (T s−T ∞)+19.5255

dq 42.79−33.48
=
(T s−T ∞ ) 50−30

dq
=0.465
(T s−T ∞ )
Using the relation:
q
h=
A (T s−T ∞ )

2
h=42.32 W /m K
At v = 0.5 m/s:

Graph between power input and temperature difference

The equation of the graph is:

q=0.5118 (T s−T ∞ )+19.6306

dq 45.22−34.98
=
(T s−T ∞ ) 50−30

dq
=0.51
(T s−T ∞ )

2
h=46.36 W /m K
At v=1 m/s:

Graph between power input and temperature difference

The equation of the graph is:

q=0.6527 (T s−T ∞ )+18.0687

dq 50.70−37.65
=
(T s−T ∞ ) 50−30

dq
=0.654
(T s−T ∞ )

q
h=
A (T s−T ∞ )

2
h=59.45 W /m K
At v=1.3 m/s:

Graph between power input and temperature difference

The equation of the graph is:

q=0.7245 (T s−T ∞)+17.6863

dq 53.91−39.42
=
(T s−T ∞ ) 50−30

dq
=0.72
(T s−T ∞ )
Using the relation:

q=hA (T s−T ∞ )

q
h=
A (T s−T ∞ )

2
h=65.88 W /m K

We now conclude all the results in the table below:

Convective Heat Transfer
Air Speed
Coefficient
(v)
(h)

(m/s) (W /m2 K )

0 42.32

0.5 46.36

1 59.45

1.3 65.88

Comments:
In this experiment, we have investigated heat convection over the surface of the metal plate. We have
observed that the temperature of the plate rises with the increase in power input. As more heat is
transmitted to the plate, it increases its surface temperature. We have also observed that the value of
convective heat transfer coefficient increases as we increase the air velocity. This is due to the fact
that with the increase in air speed, more molecules pass over the plate surface and transmit more heat
with them. On the same value of input heat, the temperature difference between air and metal plate
decreases, so h increases as a result.

Experiment No.7:
To demonstrate the relationship between heat transfer and surface temperature
for free and forced convection and determine the convective heat transfer
coefficient for a finned plate.
Objective:
 To demonstrate the relationship between surface temperature and
heat transfer rate.
 To study the convective heat transfer mode of heat over a finned surface.

Introduction:
In this experiment, we will examine heat convection along the surface of a finned metal plate. For this
purpose, we will provide heat flux through an apparatus which will heat the metal plate. The heat is
transmitted to the air at ambient temperature which flows over the surface of the metal. We will vary
the heat flux and determine the temperature of the metal surface. We will also use a fan to change the
speed of air and observe the effect on the temperature of the metal plate and convective heat transfer
coefficient. These values can then be used to find the relationship between heat transfer and surface
temperature.

q=h c A(T w −T ∞ )

Types of Convection:
Following are the types of convection:

iii. Natural Convection

iv. Forced Convection

Heat Input and Temperature Difference:

The formula of convection given by Newtons law of cooling is as follows:

q=h c A(T w −T ∞ )

Thermocouple:
Thermocouples are also temperature sensing devices which calculates the temperature of the body
using voltage unlike thermistor which uses resistance for this purpose. Each thermocouple has its own
sensitivity. They usually have a very thin wire which allows them to sense the temperature very
quickly. The thermal time constant of a thermocouple is defined and the time which a thermocouple
takes to reach 63.2 % of the source temperature is known the sensitivity of the thermocouple.

Apparatus:
The Apparatus required for the experiment is listed as follows:

 Free and Forced Convection Apparatus

 Heat flux controller
 Temperature Measurement Device

Figure 6: Free and Forced Convection Apparatus

Procedure:
 Measure the dimensions of the metal plate and place inside the
apparatus.
 Turn on the heating apparatus and set the value of heat to 30 watts.
 Wait for at least 10 minutes so that the system comes into a steady
state.
 Using a thermometer, measure the surface temperature of the metal
plate.
 Now change the heat flux to 35, 40,45 watts and take the new
temperature values.
 Use these values to determine the relationship between power input
and surface temperature.
 Calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient.

Results and Discussion:

The data values obtained from the experiment are shown below:

Plate Plate Plate Plate

Power Ambient Air Temperature Temperature at Temperature Temperature at
Input Temperature at v=0 m/s v=0.5 m/s at v=1 m/s v=1.3 m/s
q T∞ T0 T1 T2 T3

(Watts) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃)

30 30 43 41 39 38

35 30 50 47 44 43
40 30 55 50 46 45

45 30 60 56 52 51

Using the values in the table, we plot a graph between temperature difference on x-axis and power
input on y-axis.

In this experiment:

Area of metal plate¿ 0.127 m2

Ambient Air Temperature ¿ T a=30 ℃

At v=0 m/s:

Graph between power input and temperature difference

The equation of the graph is:

q=0.8861 ( T s−T ∞ ) +18.0063

dq 35.73−31.30
=
(T s−T ∞ ) 20−15

dq
=0.886
(T s−T ∞ )
Using the relation:
q
h=
A (T s−T ∞ )

2
h=6.98 W /m K

At v = 0.5 m/s:

Graph between power input and temperature difference

The equation of the graph is:

q=1.0256 ( T s−T ∞ ) +18.5256

dq 39.04−33.91
=
(T s−T ∞ ) 20−15

dq
=1.026
(T s−T ∞ )

2
h=8.08 W /m K
At v=1 m/s:

Graph between power input and temperature difference

The equation of the graph is:

q=1.1816 ( T s−T ∞ ) +19.4813

dq 43.11−37.20
=
(T s−T ∞ ) 20−15

dq
=1.18
(T s−T ∞ )

q
h=
A (T s−T ∞ )

2
h=9.29 W /m K
At v=1.3 m/s:

Graph between power input and temperature difference

The equation of the graph is:

q=1.1816 ( T s−T ∞ ) + 20.6628

dq 44.29−38.39
=
(T s−T ∞ ) 20−15

dq
=1.182
(T s−T ∞ )
Using the relation:

q=hA (T s−T ∞ )

q
h=
A (T s−T ∞ )

2
h=9.31 W /m K
We now conclude all the results in the table below:

Convective Heat Transfer

Air Speed
Coefficient
(v)
(h)

(m/s) (W /m2 K )

0 6.98

0.5 8.08

1 9.29

1.3 9.31

Comments:
 In this experiment, we have investigated heat convection over the
surface of a finned metal plate. We have observed that the
temperature of the plate rises with the increase in power input. As
more heat is transmitted to the plate, it increases its surface
temperature.

 We have also observed that the value of convective heat transfer

coefficient increases as we increase the air velocity. This is due to the
fact that with the increase in air speed, more molecules pass over the
plate surface and transmit more heat with them so h increases as a
result.

 Also, we have observed that the value of convective heat transfer for
air in contact with finned metal plate is smaller as compared to flat
metal plate. This is due to the fact that under the same conditions, the
surface area of the metal plate has greatly increased. As a result, the
value of h decreases.
Experiment No.8:
To demonstrate the relationship between heat transfer and surface temperature
for free and forced convection and determine the convective heat transfer
coefficient for a pinned plate.

Objective:
 To demonstrate the relationship between surface temperature and
heat transfer rate.
 To study the convective heat transfer mode of heat over a finned surface.

Introduction:
In this experiment, we will examine heat convection along the surface of a pinned metal plate. For this
purpose, we will provide heat flux through an apparatus which will heat the metal plate. The heat is
transmitted to the air at ambient temperature which flows over the surface of the metal. We will vary
the heat flux and determine the temperature of the metal surface. We will also use a fan to change the
speed of air and observe the effect on the temperature of the metal plate and convective heat transfer
coefficient. These values can then be used to find the relationship between heat transfer and surface
temperature.

q=h c A(T w −T ∞ )

Types of Convection:
Following are the types of convection:

v. Natural Convection
vi. Forced Convection

Heat Input and Temperature Difference:

The formula of convection given by Newtons law of cooling is as follows:

q=h c A(T w −T ∞ )

1. Apparatus:
The Apparatus required for the experiment is listed as follows:

 Free and Forced Convection Apparatus

 Heat flux controller
 Temperature Measurement Device

Figure 6: Free and Forced Convection Apparatus

Procedure:
 Measure the dimensions of the metal plate and place inside the
apparatus.
 Turn on the heating apparatus and set the value of heat to 30 watts.
 Wait for at least 10 minutes so that the system comes into a steady
state.
 Using a thermometer, measure the surface temperature of the metal
plate.
 Now change the heat flux to 35, 40,45 watts and take the new
temperature values.
 Use these values to determine the relationship between power input
and surface temperature.
 Calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient.

Results and Discussion:

The data values obtained from the experiment are shown below:

Plate Plate Plate Plate

Power Ambient Air Temperature Temperature at Temperature Temperature at
Input Temperature at v=0 m/s v=0.5 m/s at v=1 m/s v=1.3 m/s
q T∞ T0 T1 T2 T3
(Watts) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃)

30 30 47 36 33 31

35 30 51 47 44 43

40 30 55 53 50 49

45 30 62 61 57 56

Using the values in the table, we plot a graph between temperature difference on x-axis and power
input on y-axis.

In this experiment:

Area of metal plate¿ 0.054 m2

Ambient Air Temperature ¿ T a=30 ℃

At v=0 m/s:

Graph between power input and temperature difference

The equation of the graph is:

q=0.9980 ( T s−T ∞ ) + 13.7984

dq 35.75−33.76
=
(T s−T ∞ ) 22−20

dq
=0.995
(T s−T ∞ )
Using the relation:
q
h=
A (T s−T ∞ )

2
h=18.43 W /m K

At v = 0.5 m/s:

Graph between power input and temperature difference

The equation of the graph is:

q=0.6086 ( T s −T ∞ ) +25.7851

dq 37.96−34.91
=
(T s−T ∞ ) 20−15
2
h=11.30W /m K

At v=1 m/s:

Graph between power input and temperature difference

The equation of the graph is:

q=0.6290 ( T s−T ∞ ) + 27.4355

dq 40.02−36.87
=
(T s−T ∞ ) 20−15

dq
=0.63
(T s−T ∞ )

q
h=
A (T s−T ∞ )

2
h=11.67W /m K
At v=1.3 m/s:

Graph between power input and temperature difference

The equation of the graph is:

q=0.6013 ( T s−T ∞ ) + 28.6303

dq 40.66−37.65
=
(T s−T ∞ ) 20−15

dq
=0.602
(T s−T ∞ )
Using the relation:

q=hA (T s−T ∞ )

q
h=
A (T s−T ∞ )

2
h=11.15W /m K

We now conclude all the results in the table below:

Convective Heat Transfer
Air Speed
Coefficient
(v)
(h)

(m/s) (W /m2 K )

0 18.43

0.5 11.30

1 11.67

1.3 11.15

Comparison between Flat, Finned and Pinned Plate:

We now combine the graphs of flat, finned and pinned metal plates and compare the results. The
graphs and the final results are as follows:

Graph for flat, finned and pinned plate (v=0)

Graph for flat, finned and pinned plate (v=0.5)

Graph for flat, finned and pinned plate (v=1)

Graph for flat, finned and pinned plate (v=1.3)

For Flat Plate For Pinned Plate For Finned Plate

Convective Heat Convective Heat Convective Heat Transfer

Air Speed
Transfer Coefficient Transfer Coefficient Coefficient
(v)
(h) (h) (h)

(m/s) (W /m2 K ) (W /m2 K ) (W /m2 K )

0 42.32 18.43 6.98

0.5 46.36 11.30 8.08

1 59.45 11.67 9.29

1.3 65.88 11.15 9.31

Comments:
 Plate temperature increases with power input due to heat transfer.
 Convective heat transfer coefficient increases with air velocity due to more heat
transfer by air molecules. Finned plate has the lowest coefficient due to its largest
surface area.
Experiment No.9:
To perform an energy balance and calculate the overall efficiency of a concentric
tube heat exchanger in parallel flow conditions at different fluid flow rates.

Objective:
 To understand the working of concentric tube heat exchangers.
 To study the effect of flow rate on the efficiency of heat exchanger.

Introduction:
In this experiment, we will examine the working of a concentric tube heat exchanger. We will change
the flow rate of cold fluid through the heat exchanger and allow it to come in steady state. Then we
will measure the temperature of fluid at different points during its flow through the heat exchanger.
The temperatures can then be used to apply energy balance and determine the overall efficiency of the
heat exchanger. We will change the flow rate of cold water and see the effect of mass flow rate on the
efficiency of the heat exchanger.

q=h c A(T w −T ∞ )
Heat Exchanger:
Put simply, a heat exchanger is a device which transfers heat from one medium to another. A
hydraulic oil cooler for example will remove heat from hot oil by using cold water or air.
Alternatively, a swimming pool heat exchanger uses hot water from a boiler or solar heated water
circuit to heat the pool water. Heat is transferred by conduction through the exchanger materials
which separate the mediums being used. A shell and tube heat exchanger passes fluids through and
over tubes, where as an air-cooled heat exchanger passes cool air through a core of fins to cool a
liquid.

Working Principle:
A heat exchanger works on the simple principle of second law of
thermodynamics; the heat flow from a body to another in respect of their
temperature difference. The heat under natural state will move from a hot
body to a cooler one. In shell and tube type heat exchanger the cooling
medium; whether water, steam, ethanol or polypropylene glycol is passed
through the tubes within the shell structure.

On other hand the medium to be cooled around these tubes is within shell
structure. In most scenarios the cooling medium say sea water enters
from the bottom or rear header based on design and leaves from top or
front header passing through aluminum brass tubes. Similarly, the cooling
medium say lube oil enters through the inlet nozzle to leave via exit
passing through baffles within shell structure. These baffles help improve
the efficiency by creating turbulence in the flow avoiding creation of hot
and cold pockets within the medium.

It also can have either concurrent, counter concurrent or cross flow

arrangement based on design and requirement. The temperature of the
output fluid medium is controlled using a bypass valve i.e., increasing or
decreasing flow of the cooling medium. Similarly, to protect the fluid
medium from intermixing due to leakage, the pressure of cooling medium
is kept lower than that of the fluid medium to be cooled. This allows the
fluid such as lube oil from being contaminated even in event of any
leakage.

Types of Heat Exchangers:

On the basis of flow, heat exchangers are of the following types as

explained below:

 Parallel Flow:
This is the type in which two fluids enter from the same end and exit from the same end means the
direction of flow is same for both the fluids i.e. .travel parallel to one another when either enter or
leaves the tube. With parallel flow the temperature difference between the two fluids is large at the
entrance end, but it becomes small at the exit end as the two fluid temperatures approach each other.
The overall measure of heat transfer driving force, the log mean temperature difference is greater for
counter flow, so the heat exchanger surface area requirement will be larger than for a counter flow
heat exchanger with the same inlet and outlet temperatures for the hot and the cold fluid.

Fig. 1: Parallel Flow HE

 Counter Flow:
In this exchanger fluids flowing in the tube are in opposite direction. Counter Current heat exchanger
is quite a bit more efficient than the parallel one as avg. Temperature difference along any unit length
is higher. For efficiency, fins or corrugations are introduced which increases the surface area and may
channel fluid flow resistance or turbulence. As for efficiency we increase the surface area, while
minimizing the resistance to flow through exchanger.

Fig. 2: Counter Flow HE

 Cross Flow:
A crossflow heat exchanger is designed so that the two fluids flow perpendicular to one another. This
is typically utilized when one fluid is a liquid and the other is a gas, as in a car radiator in which hot
water flowing left and right is cooled by air moving up or down, Bright Hub Engineering explained.
Crossflow exchangers are also common in steam condensers, in which a liquid transform into a gas by
the end of the process.

Fig. 3: Cross Flow HE

Apparatus:
The Apparatus required for the experiment is listed as follows:

 Concentric tube heat exchanger apparatus

 Temperature measurement device
Figure 4: Concentric tube heat exchanger apparatus

Procedure:
 Turn on the flow rates of cold and hot fluids and start the apparatus.
 Allow the apparatus to come in steady state for a few minutes.
 Now measure the flow rate of hot and cold water through the flow-
meter.
 Keep the flow rate of one of the fluids fix and vary the flow rate of
other fluid.
 Keeping the flow rate of hot fluid at 1.5 L/min, vary cold water flow rate
to 1, 1.5 and 2 L/min.
 Measure the temperature of the fluid at different points using
thermometers on the apparatus.
 Use these values to determine the overall efficiency of the heat
exchanger.

Results and Discussion:

The data values obtained from the experiment are shown below:

Hot Fluid Cold Fluid

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
Flow Rate Flow Rate

(L/min) (L/min) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃)

1.5 1 56 48 26 38 50 33

1.5 1.5 53 45 25 35 47.5 30

1.5 2 56 48 25 34 50 30
Using the values in the table, we plot a graph between fluid temperature on y-axis and distance
covered by fluids on x-axis. We calculate the value of emitted heat for hot water first. The flow rate of
hot water remains the same during the experiment.

At the flow rate of 1.5 L/min for hot water:

T 1 +T 2
T avg=
2

T avg=52 ℃

At this temperature:
3
ρ=987.13 kg /m

kJ
C p=4.18
kg . K

∙ ∙
Qe =m C p (T 1−T 2)

∙ ∙
m =V ρ
∙ ∙
Qe =V ρ C p (T 1−T 2)

Putting values:

∙ −5
Qe =2.5∗10 ∗987.13∗4180∗(56−48)

∙
Qe =0.825 kW
At 1 L/min flow rate of cold water:

Graph 1: Graph between fluid temperature and covered distance (at 1 L/min)

Similarly for cold water flow rate of 1 L/min:

T avg=32 ℃

At this temperature:
3
ρ=995.05 kg /m

kJ
C p=4.18
kg . K

∙ ∙
Qa =m C p (T 1−T 2 )

∙ ∙
m =V ρ

∙ ∙
Qa =V ρ C p (T 1−T 2 )

∙ −5
Qa =1.67∗10 ∗995.13∗4180∗(38−26)
∙
Qa =0.834 kW

∙
Qa
ηth = ∙
∗100
Qe

0.834
ηth = ∗100
0.825

ηth =100 %

At 1.5 L/min flow rate of cold water:

Graph 2: Graph between fluid temperature and covered distance (at 1.5 L/min)

Similarly for cold water flow rate of 1.5L/min:

T avg=30 ℃

At this temperature:
3
ρ=995.67 kg /m

kJ
C p=4.18
kg . K

∙ ∙
Qa =V ρ C p (T 1−T 2 )

∙ −5
Qa =2.5∗10 ∗995.67∗4180∗(35−25)
∙
Qa =1.04 kW

∙
Qa
ηth = ∙
∗100
Qe

1.04
ηth = ∗100
0.825

ηth =126 %

At 2 L/min flow rate of cold water:

Graph 3: Graph between fluid temperature and covered distance (at 2 L/min)

Similarly for cold water flow rate of 2 L/min:

T avg=29.5 ℃
At this temperature:
3
ρ=995.82 kg/m

kJ
C p=4.18
kg . K

∙ ∙
Qa =V ρ C p (T 1−T 2 )

∙ −5
Qa =3.33∗10 ∗995.82∗4180∗(34−25)

∙
Qa =1.248 kW

∙
Qa
ηth = ∙
∗100
Qe

1.248
ηth = ∗100
0.825

ηth =151 %

We now conclude all the results in the table below:

Cold water flow rate Overall heat exchanger

efficiency
(V ∙)
(η )

(L/min) (% )
1 100

1.5 126

2 151

Comments:
 In this experiment, we have investigated the overall efficiency of a
concentric tube heat exchanger. We have observed that the efficiency
of heat exchanger increases with the flow rate of cold water. Keeping
the hot water flow rate constant, since more mass of cold-water flows
through the tubes at higher flow rate, hence more heat energy is
convected by this cold water. So, efficiency of heat exchanger
increases.

 We have also observed that the efficiency of heat exchanger comes

out to be more than 100%. The error in efficiency may be due to fault
in thermometers/flow meters or due to any human error.

 Another reason for more than 100 % efficiency could be that heat is
gained by cold water from the surrounding environment as well. As the
surrounding air temperature is higher than cold water temperature, it
also gains some heat from the surrounding. As a result, more heat is
absorbed by cold water as compared to the heat rejected by hot water.
Hence, we may get efficiency of more than 100 % for heat exchanger
which is actually not its accurate overall efficiency.

EXPERIMENT 10
OBJECTIVE:
“To perform Energy Balance and calculate the Overall Efficiency of a Concentric Tube Heat
Exchanger in Cross- Flow conditions at different Flow Rates”

INTRODUCTION:
Heat exchanger is a mechanical device that is used in large or small industries for heat transfer
purpose. There are different type of heat exchangers depending upon the fluid flow inside it or on the
basis of geometry. Heat exchangers are commonly used in pairs that are at different temperatures
while keeping them from mixing with each other. Heat exchangers are commonly used in practice in a
wide range of applications, from heating and air-conditioning systems in a household, to chemical
processing and power production in large plants. In a car radiator, for example, heat is transferred
from the hot water flowing through the radiator tubes to the air flowing through the closely spaced
thin plates outside attached to the tubes.
In this experiment, we will be performing energy balance along with the calculation of overall
efficiency of a concentric heat exchanger in Parallel flow conditions at different flow rates.

Fig. 1: Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger Apparatus

THEORY:
Types of Heat Exchangers: -
CONCENTRIC TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS:
Concentric tube heat exchangers use a tube within a tube structure. There are two pipes where one is
built inside the other. One fluid flow through the inner pipe while the second fluid flows around the
first fluid in the outer pipe. This type of heat exchanger is known for being the most basic and
affordable of all. Its size makes it ideal for tight spaces, allowing for some extra flexibility in the
layout of the manufacturing process. Concentric tube heat exchangers are also known as Double tube
heat exchangers.

SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS:

Shell and Tube heat exchangers are the most versatile. A shell and tube heat exchanger is designed
with a number of tubes placed inside a cylindrical shell. The popular design of this type of heat
exchanger allows for a wide range of pressures and temperatures. If you need to cool or heat a large
number of fluids or gases, the application of the shell and tube heat exchanger is an option to
consider. While smaller in size compared to some of the other types, a shell and tube heat exchanger
can be easily broken-down, making cleaning and repairs easy.

PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS:

They are a special type of heat exchangers which are used to obtain very large heat transfer per unit
surface area and hence are termed as compact heat exchangers. In this type of heat exchanger, there
are many closely spaced plates which have very large surface area and small volume for the heat
exchange. For this type of heat exchanger, one of the fluids should be gas. These heat exchangers
have surface area to volume ratio of about 700 m -1. These type of heat exchangers have low overall
heat transfer coefficient which helps to achieve the compactness. These heat exchangers have
applications in HVAC and refrigeration.
Flow Configurations in Heat Exchangers: -
PARALLEL FLOW:
Parallel flow heat exchangers, also referred to as concurrent flow heat exchangers, are heat
exchanging devices in which the fluids move parallel to and in the same direction as each other.
Although this configuration typically results in lower efficiencies than a counter flow arrangement, it
also allows for the greatest thermal uniformity across the walls of the heat exchanger.

COUNTER FLOW:
Counter flow heat exchangers, also known as countercurrent flow heat exchangers, are designed such
that the fluids move antiparallel to each other within the heat exchanger. The most commonly
employed of the flow configurations, a counter flow arrangement typically exhibits the highest
efficiencies as it allows for the greatest amount of heat transference between fluids and, consequently,
the greatest change in temperature.

CROSS FLOW:
In crossflow heat exchangers, fluids flow perpendicularly to one another. The efficiencies of heat
exchangers which employ this flow configuration fall between that of countercurrent and concurrent
heat exchangers.

APPARATUS:
 Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger
PROCEDURE:
 Make sure that water supply is properly attached.
 By adjusting the knobs on pipes, select the counter flow type configuration.
 Note down the readings of mass flow rate of cold and hot water.
 After some time, note the values of temperatures of hot and cold fluid at 3 points (inlet,
mid and outlet).
 Change the mass flow rate of cold fluid and the mass flow rate of hot fluid will remain
constant.
 Repeat the above procedure for every mass flow rate.
 Calculate the heat lost by hot fluid, heat gained by cold fluid and efficiency for all mass
flow rates.

OBSERVATIONS:

Volu Volu Hot Fluid Hot Fluid Cold Cold Hot Fluid Cold
me me Temperat Temperat Fluid Fluid Temperat Fluid
Flow Flow ure at ure at Temperat Temperat ure at Temperat
Rate Rate Inlet Outlet ure at ure at Midpoint ure at
for for
Hot Cold Inlet Outlet Midpoint
Fluid Fluid
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
(L/ (L/
(℃ )
min) min)
1.5 1 40 37 28 24 36 25

1.5 1.5 45 39 29 24 40 25
1.5 2.0 47 40 30 26 41 26
1.5 2.5 49 40 31 27 43 28
Table 1: Observed Data for Experiment 9

Specific Specific Heat

Mass Flow Mass Flow Heat Loss
Density at Heat Density at Heat Gained
Rate of Rate of by Hot Efficiency
T5 Capacity T6 Capacity by Cold
Hot Fluid Cold Fluid Fluid
at T5 at T6 Fluid
Q̇a
ρ @T 5 C p@ T 5 ρ @T 6 C p@ T 6 ṁhf ṁcf Q̇e Q̇a ¿ ×100
Q̇e
(KJ/Kg (KJ/Kg
(Kg/m3) (Kg/m3) (Kg/s) (Kg/s) (W) (W)
℃¿ ℃¿
993.72 4178 997.05 4180 0.02484 0.01661 311.38 277.85 89.23
992.25 4179 997.05 4180 0.02481 0.02492 621.99 520.96 83.76
991.86 4179 996.79 4179 0.02480 0.03322 725.37 555.41 76.57
991.47 4179 996.25 4179 0.02479 0.04151 932.26 693.89 74.43
Table 2: Calculated Data for Experiment 9

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
For Volume Flow Rate of Cold Fluid at 1 L/min:
Volume flow rate of Hot fluid = 1.5 L/min

Volume flow rate of Cold fluid = 1.0 L/min

Density of Hot Fluid at Mid-Point = 993.72 Kg/m3

Density of Cold Fluid at Mid-Point = 997.05 Kg/m3

Specific Heat Capacity of Hot Fluid at Mid-Point = 4178 KJ/Kg. ℃

Specific Heat Capacity of Cold Fluid at Mid-Point = 4180 KJ/Kg. ℃

Mass Flow Rate of Hot Fluid = 0.02484 Kg/s

Mass Flow Rate of Cold Fluid = 0.01661 Kg/s

Heat Loss by Hot Fluid=Q̇e = ṁhf × c p ×(T 1−T 2 )

Q̇e =0.02484 × 4178 × ( 40−37 )

Q̇e =311.38 W

Heat Loss by Cold Fluid=Q̇a =ṁcf ×c p ×(T 4−T 3)

Q̇a=0.01661× 4180 × ( 28−24 )

Q̇a=277.85W

Q̇a
Efficiency= ×100
Q̇e

277.85
Efficiency= × 100
311.38
Efficiency=89.23 %

GRAPHS:

45
Counter Flow (1.0 L/min CF)
40
Temperature (C)

20
0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5
Length (m)

Graph 1: Graph for Counter Flow at 1.0 L/min Cold Water Flow

Counter Flow (1.5 L/min CF)

40
Temperature (C)

20
0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5
Length (m)

Graph 2: Graph for Counter Flow at 1.5 L/min Cold Water Flow
50
Counter Flow (2.0 L/min CF)
Temperature (C) 45

20
0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5
Length (m)

Graph 3: Graph for Counter Flow at 2.0 L/min Cold Water Flow

Counter Flow (2.5 L/min CF)

45
Temperature (C)

20
0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5
Length (m)

Graph 4: Graph for Counter Flow at 2.5 L/min Cold Water Flow

RESULTS & DISCUSSION:

There is a linear relationship between the mass flow rate of the fluid and the overall heat transfer
coefficient value owing to the fact that the heat transfer which occurs through heat exchanger is given
by the simplest mathematical equation:

It means that as the flow rate of the hot fluid is increasing the heat capacity rate of the hot fluid is also
increasing, which increases the heat accumulated in the hot fluid and thus more heat is collected by
the cold fluid from this hot fluid. This increases the amount of heat transfer and consequently the
overall heat transfer coefficient value also increases.
For the case of efficiency, the trend is linear but the slope is negative, meaning that the increased flow
rates decrease the efficiency of the heat exchanger. Note that the configuration which is being
analyzed here is the counter flow heat exchanger and for that case the temperature difference remains
almost the same throughout. Both the fluids are water with the same specific heat capacity, so when
the flow rate of hot fluid is increased, it means that the time available for the cold fluid to interact and
capture heat from the hot fluid is shortened and this results in a drop in the efficiency of the heat
exchanger.

EXPERIMENT NO. 11
OBJECTIVE:
“Visual demonstration of convective, nucleate, and film boiling”
APPARATUS:

 Thermometer
 Condenser
 Pressure Gauge
 Heater
 Volume flow meter

THEORY:
Convective Boiling:
In thermodynamics, the requirement for boiling of pure substances to occur is that T wall = Tsat. But in
real experiments, boiling does not occur until the liquid is heated a few degrees above the saturation
temperature. To sustain vapor formation, the surface temperature must be somewhat above the
saturation temperature. In this boiling mode, vapor will be observed over the water surface, but
usually, no bubbles will be observed.

Nucleate Boiling:
In nucleate boiling, steam bubbles form at the heat transfer surface and then break away and are
carried into the mainstream of the fluid. Nucleate boiling significantly improves the ability of a
surface to transfer thermal energy to the bulk fluid. The nucleate boiling heat flux cannot be increased
indefinitely. At some value, we call it the “critical heat flux”, the steam produced can form an
insulating layer over the surface, which in turn deteriorates the heat transfer coefficient.

Film Boiling:
In film boiling, heat flux causes a film of vapor to cover the surface fully. This significantly reduces
the convection coefficient. Film boiling occurs when the pressure of a system drops or the flow
decreases. In this case, the bubbles cannot escape as quickly from the heat transfer surface. Likewise,
if the temperature of the heat transfer surface is increased, more bubbles are created. As the
temperature increases, more bubbles are formed than can be efficiently carried away. The bubbles
grow and group together, covering small areas of the heat transfer surface with a film of steam.
Figure 33: The Different Modes of Boiling at Increasing Temperature Changes

COMMENTS:

 For water, the fill convection boiling can be seen up to 105°C. The nucleate boiling
phenomenon exists between 105°C to 130°C. Transition boiling point starts at this
point and goes on to about 220°C. After this temperature, film boiling starts, which is
the heat transfer to liquid via dominant radiation.
 As seen in the figure, the maximum heat flux (or the critical heat flux) is where
nucleate boiling ends and transition boiling begins (130°C for water).
 Heat flux decreases in the transition boiling phase.
 Our experiment was done using R141b as the fluid, instead of water.

EXPERIMENT NO. 12
OBJECTIVE:
“Determination of heat flux and heat transfer coefficient at constant pressure”
APPARATUS:

 Thermometer
 Condenser
 Pressure Gauge
 Heater
 Volume flow meter

Theory
Convective Boiling:
In thermodynamics, the requirement for boiling of pure substances to occur is that T wall = Tsat. But in
real experiments, boiling does not occur until the liquid is heated a few degrees above the saturation
temperature. To sustain vapor formation, the surface temperature must be somewhat above the
saturation temperature. In this boiling mode, vapor will be observed over the water surface, but
usually, no bubbles will be observed.

Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Surfaces:

According to these straight definitions, we can see that these two terms are opposites. Something
defined as hydrophilic is attracted to water, while something that is hydrophobic resists water. This
means when hydrophobic items come in contact with liquids, water is encouraged to bead up and roll
off the surface- almost pushing it away like a magnet pushes away metal objects.

Condensation:
The main difference between dropwise condensation vs film condensation is that in dropwise
condensation, the vapors are condensed in the form of droplets on the surface of the condenser. while
in film wise condensation the vapors are condensed in the form of thin film which wets the surface
resulting in a lowering of the rate of heat transfer.
Dropwise Condensation:
Dropwise condensation is the type of condensation process in which the vapors are condensed in the
form of droplets on the surface. The droplets are of different sizes and these droplets glide down from
the surface and doesn’t form any insulating layer on the surface of the condenser. As in dropwise
condensation, the condensate never wets the surface, the overall heat transfer coefficient is higher in
comparison with film wise condensation. The overall heat transfer coefficient in the case of dropwise
condensation is around 10 times larger than in the case of film wise condensation. For the dropwise
condensation the surface should be highly polished.

Filmwise Condensation:
Filmwise condensation is the type of condensation process in which the vapors are condensed in the
form of a layer or film on the surface. In the filmwise condensation process, the condensate material
wets the surface of the condenser body therefore it adds extra resistance for the transfer of heat. The
overall heat transfer coefficient is less in the case of filmwise condensation, because of this the rate of
condensation is also lower for filmwise condensation. As the rate of condensation is lower, the
equipment based on filmwise condensation is generally larger in size than equipment with dropwise
condensation.

PROCEDURE:

 Adjust the heat input to 5W and make sure that desired condenser pressure is
achieved.
 Note the power supplied, vapor pressure, liquid, and metal temperature.
 Increase the heat input to 10 W.
 Adjust the flow rates to achieve desired pressure and then note down the readings.
 Increase heat input to 15W, 20W, 50W, 100W, 150W, 200W, and 250W
 Repeat same procedure.
 Plot a logarithmic graph between heat flux and temperature difference.

OBSERVATIONS:

Area of Heating Element = A = 0.0019 m2

T
Q T1 T2 Heat
No excess
(W (oC (oC Flux Q/A
. = T1 –
) ) ) (W/m2)
T2
1. 5 32 25 2631.6 7
2. 10 43 25 5263.2 18
3. 15 57 27 7894.7 30
4. 20 72 26 10526.3 46
5. 100 64 50 52631.6 14
6. 150 70 55 78947.4 15
7. 200 73 57 105263 16
8. 250 76 59 131578 17

GRAPHS

CALCULATIONS:

Heat T excess Heat Transfer

No
Flux Q/A = T1 – Coefficient h
.
(W/m2) T2 (W/m2.K)
1. 2631.6 7 375.9
2. 5263.2 18 292.4
3. 7894.7 30 263.2
4. 10526.3 46 228.8
5. 52631.6 14 3759.4
6. 78947.4 15 5263.2
7. 105263 16 6578.9
8. 131578 17 7739.9

COMMENTS:
 The first graph (for the first 4 readings at constant pressure) indicates that the values
taken are before the transition phase begins. There is a direct relation between the
logarithmic equations of the heat flux and the excess temperature.
 The second graph (for the last 4 readings at variable pressure) is a less steep direct
relation between the logarithmic equations of the heat flux and the excess
temperature. However, we cannot conclude anything from this trend. This is because
the boiling phases could only be observed at constant pressure.
 The lack of ability to regulate the pressure can be attributed to the limitation of the
flow rate of the cooling fluid. As the cooling fluid could not bring the system at
equilibrium, hence we cannot extend our experiment to those larger values of heat
flux.

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