Lesson 1 and 2

04 November 2019 08:28

- Wings: generates main lift force of an aircraft, and has primary flight controls (ailerons)
- Fuselage: houses payload Four forces acting on a aircraft
- Tail: stabilizes and has primary flight controls (rudders and elevators) 1. Lift (aerodynamic force)
- Control surfaces are used to change direction of flight 2. Drag (aerodynamic force)
- Engines produces thrust to go forward 3. Thrust (propulsive force)
4. Weight (gravitational force)

Centre of gravity is the average of the total weight

CG only changes if the distribution of mass changes

Power = work/time (watt)

Work=f.d (joule)
Acceleration = velocity/time or a=f/m
Force= delta momentum / time
Inertia: the opposition which a body offers to a change in state of motion or of rest
Mass increases inertia increases. For e.g. when a car suddenly stops you want to keep moving forward
f=ma f is directly proportional to a, m is indirectly proportional to a
pressure = force/area
Aircraft axes of rotation Atmospheric pressure (static pressure) = weight of the atmosphere / Area
Unit for pressure:
1. 1 hPa (hectopascal) = 100 pascals
2. 1000 hPa = 1000 mb which means 1000Hpa = 1 bar
1 pascal = 1 newton / 1 m^2
1 bar = 14.7 PSI

All axis cross each other at the centre of gravity

Topic 1 Page 1
Lesson 3 and 4
05 November 2019 14:15

- ISA
○ ISA stands for -> ICAO standard atmospheric pressure
○ ISA standard temperature is +15 Celsius (Sea level)
○ Standard pressure is 1013.25 (Sea level) Relative density = actual density /
○ Density is 1.225 kg/m^3 (Sea level) ISA density
○ ISA is used to calibrate instruments And in order to calculate aircraft performance
according to the ISA difference
○ Tropopause standard is 36090ft (-56.5c)
- As humidity increase air density decreases
- Static pressure decreases density decreases
- Altitude increase density decreases (pressure is the overriding factor over temp)
- 3 H's which are high, hot and humid all these have negative impacts on air density
- Temperature decreases by a value of 1.98 Celsius for every 1000 feet
- Dynamic pressure
○ is pressure exerted by a moving mass of air (e.g. blow air on the wall with a blow dryer, the
blow dryer is exerting dynamic pressure on the wall)
○ Dynamic pressure symbol is small q
○ Dynamic pressure formula is q=1/2 density (p) x v^2 (true airspeed)
○ Acts in only one direction
- Knots to m/s conversion
○ 1 KT is 0.514 m/s
- Total pressure
○ Is static pressure + dynamic pressure
○ Static pressure is normally around 4 times bigger
- How to calculate airspeed / pitot tube
○ they use a pitot tube and static vents
 pitot tube is always at 90 degrees directly facing the aircraft
□ pitot tube captures both static and dynamic pressure
□ in order to figure out the static pressure we use static vents which are on the
back of the aircraft where the airflow doesn’t disrupts it. These vents capture
only static pressure
□ capsule movement is purely due to dynamic pressure. This is due to the static
forces cancelling out

□ The pitot connection include both static and dynamic pressure

Topic 1 Page 2
 Lesson 5 and 6
06 November 2019 14:11

- All V speeds are calibrated airspeeds (other than Vmo)

- Vmo = is an equivalent airspeed because it describes a high speed
- Density is the only obstacle from telling you your true air speed
- TAS is the only true speed
○ The others are dynamic pressures
- High air speed is when you fly at Mach .4 or around 300 kts, that’s when compressibility thas an
effect
- Starboard
○ right (green)
- Port
○ left (red)
- Inboard
○ from the start of the wing to mid-point
- Outboard
○ from mid-point to tip of the wing
- All aircrafts are single wing or fixed wing
- Wing span
○ The straight line distance measured from one wing tip to the other
- Tip chord
○ The chord length at the tip
- Root chord
○ The chord length at the centreline of the wing (or mid-point along the wing span)

Elements
1. Wing (3D)
2. Aerofoil (2D)
a. An object that’s very good at creating a force (lift) with minimal drag
b. terminology
i. Leading edge radius
ii. Leading edge
iii. Maximum thickness
1) Maximum distance between upper surface and the lower surface
2) Is around 30% of chord
iv. Trailing edge
v. Chord
1) Length of the aerofoil
vi. Maximum camber Filtering (check fig 1)
1) Maximum distance between mean camber line and chord line (P.S. there's only a - Terminology
camber line if the aerofoil is asymmetrical)
○ IAS
vii. Chord line
 Indicated air speed
1) line which connects leading edge to trailing edge
○ CAS
viii. Mean camber line :
 Calibrated air speed
1) cuts the aerofoil into 2 equal halves
○ EAS
2) Line joining LE to TE dividing the aerofoil into two equal halves (other definition)
 Equivalent air speed
3) Line joining LE to TE joining the centres of inscribed circles (other definition)
 purest form of air speed
ix. MUST KNOW!
○ TAS
1) If there is a camber line or an asymmetrical aerofoil it is considered not coincidental,
 True air speed
and if it is symmetrical it is coincidental
 Only true air speed the rest are dynamic pressures
x. Leading edge radius
○ GS
1) Small leading edge radius means the nose is sharp
 Ground speed
2) Large leading edge (LE) radius means the nose is blunt
xi. Thickness cord ratio
1) Ratio of aerofoils max thickness to chord ratio (T/c)
2) A way to judge thickness of an aerofoil
3) T/c is given as a %
xii. Fineness ratio
1) Ratio of chord to thickness (c/T) (doesn’t come in exams)
xiii. Aerofoil camber types
1) Zero cambered ( symmetrical aerofoil)
2) Positive cambered (cambered): mean camber line above the chord line
3) Negative cambered (inverted camber): mean camber line below the chord line
xiv. Wing leading edge and trailing edge
1) Wing leading edge: line joining all LE of aerofoils
2) Wing Trailing edge: line joining all TE of aerofoils

3. Streamlines
4. Streamtubes

Topic 1 Page 3
Lesson 6 and 7
07 November 2019 10:59
Fig1

Wing planform (fig1)

- Geometric shape of a wing as seen from above
- 6 basic wing shapes
○ Rectangular
○ Delta
○ Complex delta
○ Swept pack (high speed)
○ Tapered
 Value of chord reduces from root to tip
 We use taper ratio (TR) which is = tip chord /
root chord
○ Elliptical
- Angle of incidence (fig2)
○ Angle between the chord line of a fixed wing and the
aircrafts longitudinal axis
○ AOI of a tail plane is variable
- Rigging angle
○ The angle between the root chord and the longitudinal
axis
○ Reduces from root to tip
Fig 2
- Wing washout (twist)
○ Aerodynamic feature added to the wing where the AOI
at the wing tip is lower than the root
○ Geometric washout
 Angle of incidence at the root chord is different
than the tip chord
○ Aerodynamic washout
 Changing the aerofoil not changing the angle of
incidence
○ Benefits
 Favourable stall pattern
 Reduction in drag (induced drag)
○ Commercial aircraft use both technics
- Wing surface area
○ To calculate
 Chord average . b (wing span)
 We use gross area which is from one tip chord to
the other including the fuselage
- Variable geometric wings
○ Wing can be changed from rectangular to sweep back
during flight.
- Average chord (mean geometric chord)
○ Average chord = wing surface area (s) / wingspan (b)
- Mean aerodynamic chord (MAC)
○ Point of reference for mass and balance
○ Point of reference for stability
○ MAC is the chord line passing through the geometric
centre of the plan area of the wing
○ The MAC is 2/3 (66.6%) of the root chord
○ They take the wing design and turn it into a
rectangular wing to simplify it
- Aspect ratio
○ The ratio of wing span (b) to average chord (Cav)
○ AR=b / Cav
- Anhedral vs Diherdal angle
○ Andhedral
 The tip chord is lower that the root chord
○ Dihedral
 The tip chord is higher than the root chord
- Sweep angle
○ The angle between the line of 25% (quarter chord line)
chords and lateral axis
- Wing loading
○ Ratio of aircraft weight to wing
○ Wing loading = aircraft weight / wing area
○ Units N/m^2
○ Defines structural requirements
- You have to change the mass to weight multiply by 9.8 or 10

Topic 1 Page 4
Lesson 8 and 9
10 November 2019 14:03

Airflow
- When a flow of air encounters an object in its path, it usually attaches it the object's surface
and then flow smoothly around it
○ 2 conditions should be met
 The objects shape is relatively thin and smooth, with only very gradual changes in
its shape or surface
 The objects is presented to the airflow at no more than a very slight angle
- Streamlines
○ A streamline is a path traced by a particle of air in a steady airflow.
○ Streamlines cannot cross
○ Converging streamline
 Line close in and tend to meet, faster flow, lower static pressure
○ Diverging flow
 Lines turn apart, slower flow , higher static pressure
- Streamtubes
○ Is an imaginary streamtube made of streamlines
○ There is no airflow in or out of the streamtube, only a flow along the tube
- Types of Streamtubes (ducts)

- Airflow properties
○ Steady flow
 Smooth
 Velocity constant
 Density constant
 Flow properties do not change over time
 Laminar flow

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  Laminar flow
○ Unsteady flow
 Mixing
 Velocity changes
 Density changes
 Flow properties change over time
 Turbulent flow
○ Steady flow vs uniform flow
 Steady
□ At one point on a stream line all properties are the same
 Uniform
□ At all points on a streamline properties are the same
○ Incompressible
 Density almost constant with flow changes (less than 5% change)
 Less than 5% density change we can consider a constant density
○ Compressible
 Density change due to flow change (speed of flow)
 Compressibility changes density by more than 5% ( which is significant and cannot
be ignored)
○ Sonics
 Subsonic
□ Less than speed of sound
 Sonic
□ Speed of sound
 Supersonic
□ Greater than speed of sound
○ High speed
 Compressible flow
○ Low subsonic speed
 Incompressible flow
○ Viscous
 Has viscosity
○ Inviscid
 zero viscosity (which is actually impossible)
 Air has a very small value of viscosity (so it negligible)
○ Ideal fluid (we'll be using them in PoF)
 Steady flow
 Incompressible
 Inviscid
- Types of airflow before it changes it shape at the aerofoil
○ Undisturbed airflow
○ Freestream airflow
○ Relative airflow
○ Relative wind

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 ○

Topic 1 Page 7
Lesson 10 and 11
11 November 2019 08:47

Angle of attack (AOA)(Alpha)(Aerodynamic incidence)

- It is the angle between the chord line and relative air flow
- We can experience a difference in AOA if
○ The relative aerofoil changes
○ Aerofoil angle changes
○ Or both change
- AOA constantly changes during a flight
- RAF is always opposite to the path of the CG (centre of gravity)

Equation of continuity (can be for any type of flow)

- Applies to streamlined / steady flow
- Mass can be neither created or destroyed
- If a fluid flows through a pipe, the mass flow is constant (number of molecules entering the
pipe per second)
○ If the area increases the mass increases
○ If the velocity increases the mass increases
○ If the density increases mass increases
○ If area increases velocity decreases
- Mass flow (constant) = density x Sectional area x airflow velocity
○ For ideal fluid density is constant (less than M.4)
○ So only area and volume will be into consideration

Bernoulli's theory
- In the steady streamline flow of an ideal fluid the sum of the energies present remain constant
- Pressure energy + kinetic energy = constant
○ So static pressure + dynamic pressure = total pressure / stagnation pressure / pitot
pressure (constant)

Centre of pressure
- Location of total reaction (TR)(also known as aerodynamic force)(all reacting forces on the
aerofoil)
- Aerodynamic force consist of
Lift

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 ○ Lift
 At 90 degrees to the relative airflow
○ Drag
 Parallel to relative airflow (RAF)
○ You cannot have lift without drag
○ Lift should always be greater than drag

- CP is always found on the chord line

- It almost always moves except for symmetrical aerofoils
- Increase angle of attack the centre of pressure moves forward and vice versa

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Lesson 12 and 13
12 November 2019 10:53

Aerodynamic force equation

- Depends on 3 things
○ Dynamic pressure
 1/2 density x true airspeed ^2
○ Force coefficients
 CL OR CD
○ Surface Area
 S
- Lift formula
○ F= QxCLxS
○ There are 6 other things that effect lift which we cannot ignore
○ CL
 All the factors that affect lift but won't fit in the formula since they have different
units
 CL is a coefficient (no units)
- CL
○ 6 factors that affect CL (listed from most important to least) (Mach Nb only used during
high speed flight)
 Angle of attack
 Shape of the wing
 Surface condition
 Viscosity
 Air turbulence
 Mach number

Topic 1 Page 10
 Lesson 14 and 15
13 November 2019 08:41

2D vs 3D
- 2D
○ Camber

CL vs AOA graphs

○ T/C ratio

AOA for CL = 0 (angle is not always zero)

Also known as alpha nod

○ LE radius

○ Air turbulence


○ Mach number
 When the air start to become compressible it affects CL
 CL changes with Mach number

Newton
- Flow direction changes therefore reaction is created
○ When direction changes -> there is an acceleration
○ When there is an acceleration -> an external force is involved
○ If acceleration is downwards -> force is always downwards

Topic 1 Page 11
Lesson 16 and 17
17 November 2019 08:38

For a symmetrical
- You have to fly at an AOA greater than 0 to generate lift
- When alpha nod (CL = 0) we get
○ No lift
○ No cl
○ But we do get drag
- When you are flying at an AOA
○ There is net lift upwards
○ Since both lift and weight act at approx the same location there is no rotation or no
moment
For cambered
- At a slight negative AOA we get alpha nod
- At alpha nod
○ Lift and weight are acting at 2 different points
○ There is a couple moment
○ The leading edge is going to be heading downwards a bit since the forces act different
- Cambered aerofoils always gives you a nose down leading edge moment for normal ranges of
AOA (lift might be zero but moment is not for cambered aerofoil)

Stagnation point (point where RAF is zero)

- As you increase AOA the stagnation point will go down and aft (back)

Stall speed
- When CL is max V is min
○ When V is minimum it's called Vs (stall speed)

Topic 1 Page 12
Lesson 18 and 19
19 November 2019 08:37

Drag

- When we study drag we study it in 3D (wing)

- Horizontal component of total reaction (Aerodynamic Force) that is parallel to and opposes
the motion of the aircraft
- Drag formula
○ Total drag = 1/2 density x (true airspeed)*^2 x S x Cd {like the lift formula}
- Coefficient of drag
○ Any other factor affecting drag but cannot be put in the formula
- 3 types of drag
○ Parasite drag (zero lift drag)
 Has nothing to do with lift at all
 3 types
□ Form drag (profile drag) {ram drag / pressure drag}
 "Drag due to the shape of the body"
 Pressure difference between the front and the rear of the body
 Streamlined body
◊ Making the pressure difference at the front and rear as minimal
as possible
□ Skin friction drag (profile drag) {surface friction drag}
 "Drag due to friction of the air with the surface of the body"
 Laminar SF decreases
 Turbulent SF increases
□ Interference drag
 "Whenever two surfaces are attached to each other, at an angle, the
airflow from one surface interferes with the airflow from the other
surface"
 For example
◊ Wing and fuselage
◊ Engine and wing
◊ Tail and fuselage
 We can counter act this by adding fairings

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 ◊

○ Induced drag (lift dependent drag)

 Has to do everything with lift
○ Wave drag (High speed drag)

- The only place air can go from high pressure to low pressure is at the tip (spillage) (vortices)

- Pressure difference causes vortices to occur

○ So if the pressure difference is high the vortices are stronger
○ The higher the angle of attack the higher the pressure difference thus creating much
large vortices (at higher angle of attack the lower the speed)

○ As downwash increases upwash increases and AOA decreases and vice versa

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-

- If you have a high Aspect ratio the spillage (vortices) is less since you have less area for
spillage. For e.g. if you have a tapered wing you'll have less spillage than if you have a
rectangular wing

○ For an elliptical wing

 Not much tip available
 Not much spillage
 Vortices are the lowest

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Lesson 20 and 21
20 November 2019 09:43

Issues for delta and sweepback wings

- Leading edge forcing flow to the tip
- So much crossflow on delta/sweepback wings
- So there will be cross flow towards the tip and cross flow towards the root from the tip

Boundary layer
- "Combination of layers where the friction effect is felt"
- Exist all over the aerofoil but the upper surface is more critical
- 2 types
○ Laminar
 Good at reducing one type of drag
 Approx 2mm thick
 Velocity profile is sharp
 Less energy
 Sensitive "separates easily"
 Only lowest flow (layer) touches surface

○ Turbulent
 When airflow goes from laminar to turbulent it's called a transition point
 Every flow (layer) touches the surface
 Unorganized
 Velocity profile is a lot flatter
 Approx 20mm thick
 More energy than laminar (KE)
 More difficult to separate
 One type of drag increases
 Relative velocity is not zero

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 

Transition point
- Point from where laminar flow turn into turbulent flow
- At higher AOA transition point goes forward
- If there is no transition point you either have laminar flow only or no flow at all

Topic 1 Page 17
Lesson 22 and 23
21 November 2019 09:45

Parasite drag
- Formula is DP= 1/2 density x V^2 x CDp x S
- Depends on
○ Configuration
○ Scratches
○ Dents
○ Icing
- DP is directly proportional to V^2
- Weight has no effect to DP

Induced drag
- AOA increases induced drag increases
- Formula is
○ (Coefficient) Cdi = K x CL^2 / PIE (3.17) x Aspect ratio
- Average value of K is 1.4
- AOA is a major factor in the formula

MUST KNOW:
1. INCREASE WEIGHT
a. GRAPH MOVES UP TO THE RIGHT
Induced drag is inversely proportional to v, but parasite drag is directly proportional to v 2. INCREASE ALTITUDE
a. GRAPH ONLY MOVES TO THE RIGHT
Lift / Drag ratio (VMD)

Topic 1 Page 18
- VMD is highest lift to drag ratio
- When we add weight, induced drag increases (up and to the right) causing VMD to increase and
minimum drag increases. P.S. weight doesn’t affect parasite drag so parasite drag won't move.
- For future purposes once you increase weight a graph goes up and to the right
- When we decrease density (increase altitude) Di increases but Dp decreases it shifts to the right
only
- If you config the aircraft (flaps, gear) Di will remain the same but DP will go up and to the left.
(VMD decrease but minimum drag increases)

Topic 1 Page 19
Lesson 24 and 25
25 November 2019 10:57

AR is span / chord (b/c) or even span^2 / surface area Efficiency is = useful output / total input

Ways to reduce induced drag

- Increasing wing span is very important in reducing induced drag
- Wing fence
- Vortilon
○ 2 roles
 Aerodynamic fence
 Provides turbulent flow at high AOA to prevent separation
- Vortex generators
○ 2 roles
 Add turbulent flow to the boundary layer to delay separation (KE)
 Reduces induced drag
- LE saw tooth
- LE notch
- LE devices (slats)
- Wing tip devices
○ Tip end plates (Seen on A320)
○ Tip tanks
○ Winglets (seen on 737)
 A winglet is an aerofoil extended upwards (extending the span)
 Making the wing as close to elliptical as possible, making lift distribution as close to
elliptical as possible

- Wing twist (washout)

○ Changing angle of incidence
○ Tip has a lower AOA reducing the pressure difference but at the tip the AOA is higher
creating a higher pressure difference causing more induced drag

- Lift to frag ratio is the same as the CL to CD ratio (AOA affects both CL and CD)
- Dark blue line is the important line

Directly comparing CL vs CD

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-

- Bravo: is where L/D is max speed is Vmd and AOA is at around 4 degrees
- Charlie: is stall speed AOA is at 16 degrees and you have the worst CL vs CD (CL max)
- Alpha: CL is 0 so lift is 0 the drag you are experiencing is 100% parasite drag

Topic 1 Page 21
Lesson 26 and 27
26 November 2019 14:05

Ground effect
- Ground effect is the increase in lift and decrease in drag due to the close proximity of the
ground
- During ground effect
○ Lift increases
 Effective AOA increases since upwash and downwash decrease
○ Vortices decrease
○ Drag decreases
○ Increases AOA
- Leaving ground effect
○ Lift decreases
○ Vortices increase
○ Drag increases
○ Decreases AOA
- Factors affecting ground effect
○ Height above ground
 If you go beyond one span height (b), then there is no ground effect
 From 3/4 of the span to the full wing span (3/4 b - b) we get minimal effect of G.E
 Surface until 3/4 of the span (3/4 b) we have G.E
 Surface until have the span height (1/2 b) you get very significant G.E
○ Surface condition of the ground
 Uneven ground conditions can cause one wing to experience more lift than the
other wing
○ Wind conditions (especially crosswind)
 Vortices blown away which causes uneven G.E on both wings
- IGE = in ground effect, OGE= out of ground effect
- Low wing aircraft feel the effect of GE more than height wing aircraft
- Horizontal stabilizers
○ When leaving ground effect we increase downwards force on the horizontal stabilizer
causing a nose up (decreasing AOA) and decreasing speed which may cause us to end up
in a stall. You have to be careful especially when you have to do a go around which causes
much more drag when flaps are full
○ When entering ground effect the opposite happens nose down
- During G.E we get a divergent duct effect which cause pressure to increase causing some
instrument to give false inputs (they diverge at a speed of 5kts)
- Wake turbulence
○ Wake turbulence increases as AOA increases
○ Wake turbulence end when main L/G touches down and spoilers deploy
 If you don’t have spoilers wake turbulence ends when nose gear touches the
ground
○ As you move away from the aircraft vortices stabilize at around 3/4 of the span and
accumulate into 2 big vortices
 Sink behind the aircraft
□ Can go up to 9nm behind A/C
□ And can lose up to 500-1000ft of height After vmd speed stability
○ If an aircraft just takes off the vortices move by 5 kts but if there is a cross wind at 5 kts Below vmd speed instability
one of the vortices are going to stay on the runway due to the crosswind and thus causing
a more separation time (a light crosswind is likely to keep a crosswind on the runway,
because a heavy cross wind will just move the wake turbulence faster)

Topic 1 Page 22
Lesson 28 and 29
27 November 2019 10:58

Flight path angle

- The angle between the horizon and path of the aircraft
Pitch angle
- Angle between the horizon and the longitudinal axis (includes AOA and pitch)
AOA
- Angle between RAF and chord line

Stall
- "A condition of decreasing lift and increasing drag"
- "seperation of airflow from the boundary layer (usually the suction part or upper wing/ LP)
○ Unable to sustain level flight

○ Adverse pressure gradient is max at TE

○ As airflow leaves the throat and starts to go towards the TE there is a force acting against
it, so once the force is strong enough it will cause the airflow to separate
○ Reverse flow causes boundary layer seperation
○ The reverse flow creates something called eddies which is like disturbed air which causes
drag

- Think about a Venturi tube when we talk about stall

- When we increase AOA
Stagnation point moves down and back

Topic 1 Page 23
 ○ Stagnation point moves down and back
○ Separation point moves forward
○ Transition point moves forward
- Training aircraft have a nice gradual stalling curve
- Classic stall
○ Wings level stall
○ Reduce speed in order to increase AOA
○ We exceed AOA critical
 If you exceed after AOA Crit the seperation point shoots forward and then you stall
○ Lift becomes less than weight
- Stall formula
○ Vs = (radical) 2W / density x S x Clmax {this is for TAS}
○ Vs for IAS we use density nod or ISA

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Lesson 30
28 November 2019 09:45

Stall
- As you increase AOA centre of pressure (CP) moves forward. Once you stall, centre of
pressure shoots backwards
- Centre of pressure is at the most forward position just before the stall (not during the stall) Vsr = reference stall speed
(AOA Crit) (must not be less than 1g stall
- Uneven stall can cause a spin speed)
- Stall AOA crit doesn’t change (only shape can change stall AOA, eg flaps).
- Stall speed changes
- Large aircraft have AOA sensors (many have indication)
- Small aircraft no indication
- For small aircraft we have 2 stall speeds
○ Stall speed clean config (maximum weight) (Vs1)
○ Stall speed not clean config (maximum weight)(Vso)

Topic 1 Page 25
Lesson 31 and 32
08 December 2019 10:56

- If you extend landing gear value of parasite increases and nose down moment happens, this
means you are decreasing CL. And vice versa for retracting landing gear g=n (load factor)
- Vs1g = stall speed in straight and level flight (wings level not banking) n= lift/weight
- 1g flight Lift = Weight (straight and level flight, constant speed, ALT and heading) If load factor is 1, then lift is equal
- Steady climb or descent lift is less than weight to weight
- Steady turn lift is greater than weight If LF(n)=2, the value of lift is double
- If lift is greater than weight, the load on the wing increases causing them to bend upwards the value of weight (2L/w)

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-

- If we are in a turn
○ Lift increases that means induced drag increases, so you have to increase thrust and if
no thrust is available you have to pitch the nose down
 Nose down means you reduce the range dramatically
○ If moisture is present big vortices may be visible
- This is known as accelerated stall

Topic 1 Page 27
Lesson 33 and 34
09 December 2019 14:34

Shock stall
- AOA not high (not a contributing factor)
- Airspeed very high
- Dramatic increase in drag
- Shock wave acts like a solid wall
- Adverse pressure gradient is very high
- lowest part of airflow is targeted causing reverse flow and seperation

Stall pattern
- Different wings have different stall speeds
- Each aerofoil shape has its own individual stall "behaviour "
○ LE radius
○ T/C ratio
○ Camber

- Each wing planform has its own stall "pattern"

- If stall happens at the tip first (swept back wings)
○ We lose ailerons (no control)
○ If one wing drops we can't reposition the aircraft
○ We get no warning
- Rectangular wing (root stall) (desirable)
○ stalls at root first (effective AOA is lower at the tip than root that’s why root stalls first)
○ We still have ailerons are still functional since we still have airflow over them
○ Separated airflow from the root causes the elevator tail to start buffeting (shaking)
giving you a warning that you are about to enter a full stall (not generating enough lift to
balance weight)
○ CP (where lift acts) on a rectangular wing shoots backwards at the moment just before
stall causing a nose down movement

Topic 1 Page 28
Lesson 35 and 36
11 December 2019 08:55

Swept back wing stall

- Begin to get stall at the tip first then spread to the root
○ Too much crossflow at the tip which stops producing life
○ Airflow is still attached to the tip but lift is not produced because of crossflow not
because of seperation
○ We lose ailerons
○ So we get big loss of lift due to crossflow, and increased of drag due to vortices
- Centre of pressure keeps moving forward
○ Nose up moment
- Bad effects of sweep back
○ Tip stalls first (wing still flying but ailerons lost)
○ Centre of pressure moves forward
 Aggravates the stall
 Gives a nose up pitch moment
 Maximum concentrated downwash to the tail, this causes the tail to have a
negative angle of attack causing an even higher nose up moment (remember root
hasn't stalled)
□ No buffeting at tail
- Slots (outboard LE)
○ Creating another route to let high pressure (from the lower wing) to get to the low
pressure (upper) wing, this re-energizes (strengthens) the boundary layer on the upper
surface
○ This causes seperation to be delayed
○ Retaining ailerons effectiveness
○ We put this outboard not inboard because we want to promote root stall
○ Can be either permanent slot or it can be a slat slot (tends to be used on commercial
aircrafts)

- Stall strips
○ We put them on the LE of the root in order to promote stalling at the root first
- Vortex generators
○ Are put on LE of the wings where stall need to be delayed (for e.g. in front of primary
flight control)
○ Can be used as aerodynamic fences (prevent crossflow)
○ Can be used to help fight shock stall in high speed flight (LOW AOA HIGH SPEED)
- Wing fence
○ Physical aerodynamic wall
- Vortilon
○ Creates an aerodynamic fence
- Engine pylon
○ Helps form an aerodynamic fence
- Saw tooth edges
○ Creates a disturbed flow making an aerodynamic fence
- Wing twist (washout)

Topic 1 Page 29
 - Wing twist (washout)
○ Reducing the angle of incidence at the tip, which means we are reducing the AOA at the
tip

Super stall (deep stall)

- Swept wing + T-tail

- Once stalled we lose all primary flight controls which makes it very hard to recover

Topic 1 Page 30
Lesson 37 and 38
12 December 2019 11:21

Stall warnings
- Audio VSR= Stall speed given to pilot
- Visual VSW= warning stall speed
- Loss of altitude
- Tactile (sense of touch)
○ Stick shaker
- Small aircraft
○ Buzzer / horn
○ Stall warning light
○ Aerodynamic buffet
- Large aircraft
○ Stick shaker
○ Stall warning lights
○ Noise maker

Artificial stall detection

- Flapper switch (Small A/C)
○ As AOA increases, the stagnation point moves downwards and activates the flapper
switch

- Angle of attack vane

○ Mounted on the side of the fuselage, the vane streamlines with the relative airflow and
the fuselage rotates around it. The stick shaker is activated at the appropriate AOA
- Angle of attack probe
○ Consists of slots in a probe, which are sensitive to changes in angle of relative airflow
○ They are always heated or anti-iced

Aircraft without stick pusher

- We always want the stall speed to be either 5kts or 5% (whichever is higher) above the stall
speeds.
Aircraft with a stick pusher
- The stall warning will activate 3kts or 3% (whichever is higher)higher than stall speed, then
the stick pusher will activate at exactly CL max
- They tell us we are at minimum speed a little before CL max which is 2kts or 2% greater than
the actual stall speed

Stall recovery (classic stall)-> Always refer to aircraft manual (POH)

Topic 1 Page 31
Stall recovery (classic stall)-> Always refer to aircraft manual (POH)
- Reattach airflow (BL)
○ Reduce AOA (nose slightly below horizon) -> reduce back pressure
○ Increase power -> minimizes height loss
○ Once speed increases sufficiently gradually (slowly) in a controlled manner increase
AOA to maintain same altitude
 If done abruptly we can enter a secondary stall{classis stall + accelerated stall}
(increasing load factor thus increasing stall speed)
□ Reduce back pressure
□ Increase power
□ Reduce bank angle / wings level
- Shock stall
○ Slow down / reduce speed

Calculate new stall speed

- VS1G new / VS1G old = Rad Weight new / weight old
- Rearrange
○ VS1G new = VS1G old x Rad weight new / weight old

Topic 1 Page 32
 Lesson 39
15 December 2019 08:45

Centre of gravity in accordance with stall speed

- If CG is moves FWD of the aircraft the tail is going to have to increase its downward force (tail lift)
which causes a greater effective weight, this means that we have to increase lift thus increasing
the stall speed.
- Same for gear down we create more parasite drag causing a nose down moment which means
that we are going to increase the effective weight thus meaning we have to increase the weigh
(example below)

- When thrust is increased on engines that are below the CG, as we increase thrust it will give us a
horizontal and vertical component of thrust. So once thrust is increased it will help us with the
vertical component of lift, this means that we will need less lift which means less stall speed.

- Thrust increase = decrease stall speed, thrust ideal = increase stall speed

Topic 1 Page 33
 - Propeller aircraft are the same concept due to prop wash or prop slipstream

Mach number effect

- As Mach number increases past 0.4 CL max starts to dip, and if CL max decreases that means stall
speed increases

Wing contamination
- If we get wing contamination CL max reduces =, thus increasing stall speed

Wing types
- Sweep back wings reduce CL max and increases stall speed
- Tapered wings increase CL max thus reduces stall speed

Turning flight

Topic 1 Page 34
Lesson 40
15 December 2019 10:33

Spins

- Both wings must stall

- Happens when one wing stalls for than the other
- The wing that has stalled more produces more drag and a wing drop due to the stall, which
causes a spin
- Once in a spin never use ailerons use rudders

Ailerons

- 3 phases in a spin
○ Incident spin (initial entry)
○ Fully developed
○ Spin recovery
 Throttle idle
 Neutralize controls
 Check the direction of the spin
 Apply opposite rudder (trying to arrest yaw and roll)
 Now after we have done the steps above we perform the regular stall recovery

2 types of spin
- Upright spin / steep spin / erect spin (AOA 20-30 degrees)
○ Typical spin
○ Nose pitch down
○ More roll than yaw
○ Good thing is we have some rudder / elevator authority
○ Recovery slightly easier
- Flat spin
○ Much more dangerous
○ Very minimal chance of recovery because the RAF is attacking from 70-80 degrees AOA
so we have no controls to try to recover the aircraft
○ CG is very close to the spin axis
Fast rotation

Topic 1 Page 35
○ Fast rotation
○ Mostly yaw little roll
○ You can try to reduce thrust and put yourself in a steep stall then recover

Topic 1 Page 36
Lesson 41 and 42
16 December 2019 15:25

Control surface
- Moveable surface
○ Can change the values of lift, drag and can change the attitudes of the aircraft
- Can be categorized
○ Primary / main / flight control surfaces
 Ailerons
 Rudder
 Flaps
○ Secondary / auxiliary surfaces
 Lift augmentation devices
□ LE
 Slat slots
 Flaps
◊ Variable camber (Droop snoot)
◊ Krueger flap
□ TE
 Fowler flaps
 Plain flaps
 Split flaps
 Slotted fowler flaps (single, double, triple)
 Trim devices
□ Trim tab
□ Control tab
□ Variable incidence tail plane
 Drag devices
□ Spoilers
□ Speed brakes

- Lift augmentation devices (high lift devices) (we also have to think about drag)
○ TE flaps increase camber thus
 Increase CL max
 Decreases AOA of crit
○ Only for take-off and landing we want camber, because during cruise it will cause a lot of
drag!
○ High lift devices are used to change camber
○ TE Flaps are hinged so they can deflect
 There is a change in chord line
 Mean camber line changes too
 Therefore, camber increases and effective AOA INCREASES

○ LE flaps

Topic 1 Page 37
○
 Effective AOA DECREASES

Topic 1 Page 38
Lesson 43 and 44
17 December 2019 10:32

4 types of TE flaps
- Plain flap

- Split flap

- Slotted and multiple slotted flaps

Topic 1 Page 39
- Fowler flaps

- CP movement

Every situation is different with the movement of the nose when flaps are extended.
So for fowler flaps we tend to get a nose down moment. But with plain flaps we tend
to get a nose up moment because we increase downwash on the horizontal stabilizer
thus bringing up the nose

- LE flaps
○ CL max increases and AOA crit also increases so that’s good since it delays AOA crit,
this means that the effective AOA decreases (not like TE flaps AOA crit decreases, and
eff AOA increases)
○ Very effective at low speeds
○ Krueger flaps promotes root stall, it increases AOA crit and CL max a bit but not as
much as slats (slats are found outboard and Krueger flaps are found inboard)
○ Airbus have something like a Krueger flap which is called variable camber LE flap or
droop snoot which is much more aerodynamically efficient

Topic 1 Page 40
 

○ Slats
 We literally get an extension of the CL max AOA graph (not like others which
changes the whole values)
 It not only increases camber but they also reenergize the BL causing seperation
to be delayed
 Very good for low speed flight

- Protection systems
○ Asymmetry protection
○ Flap load relief

Topic 1 Page 41
Lesson 45 and 46
17 December 2019 14:12

Reduce CL

- Spoilers (are also the surfaces name)

○ Objective is to spoil life or reduce lift
○ Increases drag (parasite) and reduces lift
○ We only want to lose lift at a certain part we don’t want to lose lift on the whole wing
○ Should never disturb the ailerons
○ A spoiler can act as speed brake, a speed brake can't be a spoiler
○ Help reduce aileron size (more space for flaps)
○ No flutter
○ No wing stop
○ Reduce adverse aileron yaw
○ 2 modes for spoilers
 Flight mode
□ For roll control (outboard spoiler are involved)
 Ground mode
□ Pins you down
□ Stops ballooning
□ Reduces landing roll

- Speed brakes
○ Only to increase drag and tries to have no effect on lift
○ Rate of deceleration increases
○ Rate of descent increases while controlling airspeed

Airframe degradation
- Airframe contamination
○ Icing
 Profile changes
 CL decreases and CD increases
 Issues with the tail plane due to the disturbed airflow
 CL max decreases
□ Increasing stall speed
 Weight increases
□ Increasing stall speed
 Control issue
 Pressure dependent instruments can get blocked
 Water contamination can affect the BL
 Propeller aircraft
□ Reduce in thrust
□ Vibrations increase
 L/D ratio decreases and fuel consumption increases
 Skin friction increases (SKF)
- Airframe aging
○ Conditions deteriorates over time
 Scratches, dents, dirt, grease etc.…
 Skin friction increases (SKF)
 Fuel consumption increases
 Cost of operation increases

Topic 1 Page 42
Lesson 47 and 48
19 December 2019 09:53

Vfs = velocity of free stream airflow

High speed flight
Mfs= mach free stream or aircraft
mach nb
- Sound travels through pressure waves
- Temperature is the only thing that affects speed of sound V local: speed of disturbed airflow
- The higher the higher is the speed of sound over maximum thickness of the
- Local speed of sound (LSS) is represented with as (a) wing
- Speed of sound is not fixed
- Mach NB (M) relative of TAS to speed of sound => M= TAS/a M local: mach speed of disturbed
- Whenever we fly at mach numbers greater than 0.4 our density changes dramatically airflow of maximum thickness of
○ We get a major increase in compressibility and density the wing
- Before we reach the speed of sound we get into a transonic region
○ The transonic region is a problematic region Mach det (detachment) is the mach
- A shock wave is the accumulation of the pressure waves nb where the whole aircraft is
- Sound waves move away from the source at equal speeds supersonic (bow wave attaches to
- Different parts of the aircraft travel at different speed so the wings might be travelling at the LE)
Mach 1 but the fuselage at mach .9
- Mach crit is when the first place on an aircraft reaches mach 1
○ Shock wave doesn’t happen at mach crit it happens just after mach crit
- The thinner the aerofoil the later we get mach crit
- The thicker the aerofoil the earlier we get mach crit
○ Because speed over maximum thickness increases much more
- Shockwave
○ Boundary where airflow changes in temperature,pressure,density etc..
- Compressibility
○ Once flying at higher speed we get density variations that we have to take into account
(variation of density with speed)
-
- Crossover altitude is when the pilots change from IAS to Mach number
- Mach number is a measure of compressibility
- As we reach sonic speed pressure waves will pile up creating a bow wave
○ Bow wave forms just above mach 1
- Behind the bow wave MACH number decreases, however the LSS increases due to increase
in temperature
- M crit is when mach free stream reaches mach1 over the wing of maximum thickness (first
part of an aircraft reaching mach 1)
- Transonic region is the region where you can have some aerofoils above mach 1 and some
aerofoils below

Topic 1 Page 43
Lesson 49 and 50
05 January 2020 12:18

a= local speed of sound

Formula - If density decrease TAS increase

- a = 38.95 rad T - If density decreases mach number
increases rapidly
- - Calibrated airspeed remains constant

- As shown on the graph below

- Temp in kelvin when using the formula
○ 15 degrees Celsius in kelvin = 273+15 = 288 kelvin
-

The graph above is chicken tikka masala

- As we ascend at the crossover altitude we As we go higher our angle of climb reduce

change from constant calibrated airspeed to
constant mach (increasing angle of attack while
passing crossover altitude) and vice versa

- What happens when we fly at sonic speed

- As the air passes through a bow wave, it is compressed and heated and this causes a new type of
drag called wave drag (loss of energy)
- Drag will reduce if we have a sharp LE because the airflow that will be affected will be less
- The characteristics of a bow wave are the same as a normal shockwave

Topic 1 Page 44
- Bow wave shown fig 4 and 5
- Oblique shock wave shown fig 4 and 5
- Normal shock wave shown fig 2,3
- Normal shockwaves is when the upper Mfs is at 90 degrees
- Oblique shockwaves is when its greater than 90 degrees (airflow also changes direction after it
passes the shock wave and stay supersonic but it is less than before the shockwave)

- Critical max depends on the acceleration of the air over the wing
○ Crit max reduces if we have more
 Thickness
 Camber
 Higher AOA
○ That’s why commercial airliners have more symmetrical aerofoils and swept wings

Topic 1 Page 45
Lesson 51 and 52
06 January 2020 10:03

Effects of shockwaves on lift

- In the subsonic and supersonic regions lift is pretty simple and predictable, the problem is
transonic region because the shockwaves keep moving causing fluctuations of lift

- Shock stall
○ Happens due to the airflow after passing the shockwave, static pressure increases a lot
causing reverse flow and seperation (airflow wants to go from high to low {low pressure
is in front of the shockwave})

- VERY IMPORTANT GRAPHs!

 CL (not CL max) in supersonic region is less than subsonic region

 Point b is shock stall
 Cl recovers when bottom shock wave appears

Topic 1 Page 46
 ○

 AOA crit and CL max reduces as we increase mach number

 Stall speed increases

 MCDR = M critical drag rise

 MDD = M drag divergence
 After mach 1 drag tends to decrease because shock waves are at trailing edge and
seperation tends to reduce
 This is due to loss in KE and seperation drag

○ Low mach numbers we get better vmd (lift to drag ratio) high mach numbers the worse
the vmd
-
- Differences between high speed and low speed stall
○ High speed
 Can happen at any AOA
 Only high speed

Topic 1 Page 47
  Only high speed
 Caused by flow seperation behind the shockwave
 This causes buffeting
○ Low speed
 Happens at high AOA
 Low speeds
 This causes buffeting

- Center of pressure

○ No matter what aerofoil at supersonic speed the CP is at 50% of the chord

 This gives a nose down moments also known as mach tuck or tuck under
 We can counter act this by using mach trim
□ Either move elevator up
□ Angle of incidence of the tail is reduced (trim)
□ Move fuel from the center tanks to the tail tank taking center of gravity back
□ Mach trim also maintains stick force stability at high mach numbers
□ If mach trim fails reduce mach number

- If an aileron is deflected downwards we are increasing camber thus increasing the acceleration
and decreasing mcrit
- Control buzz is a rapid random vibration of control surfaced due to a shockwave moving very
quickly

Effect of shockwave on stability

- Static longitudinal stability increase
- Static lateral stability decreases
- Static directional stability decrease

Topic 1 Page 48
Lesson 53
06 January 2020 14:06

Factors affecting Mcrit

- AOA
- Weight (decrease as weight increase )
- Altitude (decrease since AOA increase)
- CG position (decrease)
- Shape
○ t/c ratio (Decrease)
○ Camber (decrease)
○ Wing
 Sweep (increases mcrit)

Thin aerofoils
- Good to increase mcrit
- Reduces variations / fluctuations in CL and CD in the transonic regions
- Many disadvantages
○ Bad low speed characteristics
○ Not structurally strong
○ Not enough capacity for fuel

Sweepback
- Due to the sweep not all of the air will go to the TE thus the acceleration of air will be slower
thus increasing mcrit

○ 2 airflows in the sweep back wing

 Perpendicular to LE
 Parallel
○ 1 airflow for regular wing
 Perpendicular to LE
- Reduces t/c ratio
- Disadvantages
○ Stall speed increases
○ Clmax decreases
○ Tip stall

Topic 1 Page 49
Supercritical aerofoil
- Relatively thick t/c ratio
- It starts off with negatively camber then turns into an extremely positive camber aerofoil
- Increases crit mach

- Weak shock wave and also towards the back

Disadvantages
- Clmax is reduced
- because of the shape we need very sophisticated high lift devices for low speed
- Not good for low speeds
- It creates a pitch down moment

Topic 1 Page 50
Lesson 54
07 January 2020 11:21

Area rule
- In the transonic region, form drag can be reduced by designing the aircrafts cross section to
change gradually (smoothly) from nose to tail
- The sudden change in the cross sectional area occur at the wings, so the fuselage is "waisted"
in that area
- It does not affect mach crit
- It only reduces the effects of shock waves

Vortex generators
- Adds energy to the boundary layer to try to keep the air attached to the wing even though a
shock wave is formed
- Reduces the shock induced seperation
- No effect on mach crit

Buffet boundaries
- Buffet free range (BFR) is the range of speed that’s we can fly before we get buffet
- This happens because at higher altitude we need a higher AOA to produce same lift that
reduces the m crit
- Weight increase = mcrit decrease and stall speed increase = BFR decrease
- Altitude increase = m crit decrease and stall speed increase = BFR decrease
- CG FWD = mcrit decrease and stall speed increase = BFR decrease
- Load factor increase = Mcrit decrease and stall speed increase = BFR decrease
- Altitude where you only have one speed to operate is called an aerodynamic ceiling or aka the
coffin corner
○ This aerodynamic ceiling is only considered for 1g flight where you can't turn or you
can't change LF at all
○ The highest altitude which commercial aircraft can fly at is called the 1.3g altitude where
you can bank up to 40 degrees or we can hit turbulence for up to 1.3g with buffeting
○ If you want to increase your 1.3 g altitude you decrease in altitude

- Buffet onset boundary chart (BOB)

○ Aerodynamic ceiling
○ 1.3g altitude
○ Bank angle at which buffet start
○ Buffet free range

Topic 1 Page 51
Lesson 55
07 January 2020 15:29

Mach angle
- Tangent of all sound level is mach line
○ Mach line is a tangent to all the sound wave, which represents maximum distance
- Hypotenuse (TAS)
○ represents the TAS of the moving object
- Radius (a)
○ Represents the speed of sound

Sin(u) = a / mach number (TAS)

Sin (u) = 1 / mach number

A turns into one since a is traveling at the speed of sound which is mach 1

Mach cone is also known as area of influence

The smaller the mach angle the high the mach number of the object (TAS)

- Venturi effect for supersonic flow is the exact opposite of subsonic flow!
- Expansion when happens when a supersonic flow is coming across a divergent duct, it will
increase the airflow

Topic 1 Page 52
Lesson 56 and 57
08 January 2020 14:10

2 types of stability
- Static stability
○ Initial reaction of the aircraft after the force is removed
 If a gust of wind hits an aircraft and gives it a pitch up moment
□ If the nose initially goes back to its original position then it has a positive
static stability (static stability)
□ If it stays and doesn't move it has a neutral static stability
□ If it keeps rising it has a negative static stability (static instability)

○ Only positive static stability can have oscillation (since it’s the only one that passes back
through the origin)

- Dynamic stability
○ How an aircraft reacts overtime
○ The graph below is statically stable but dynamically unstable

○ The graph below is statically stable but dynamically neutral

- Oscillation (pendulum)
○ Movement *back and forth* with a regular rhythm about a centre point / equilibrium
 Amplitude is the maximum extent of a oscillation measured from the position of
equilibrium
 Frequency is the number of oscillations (cycles) per unit time
□ Frequency is inversely proportional to period
 Period is the time taken to complete 1 oscillation (cycle)
 Vibration as vibration increases, frequency increases and period decreases

- Aeroplane refrence axis

Topic 1 Page 53
-

- Pitching moment is represented as (M) {lateral axis}

○ +M is pitching up
○ - M is pitching down
- Rolling moment is represented by (L) {longitudinal axis}
○ +L is roll to the right
○ -L is roll to the left
- Yawing moment is represented by (N) {normal axis}
○ +N is yawing to the right
○ -N is yawing to the left

- Longitudinal stability has to do with the lateral axis (stability in pitch)

○ No pilot action
- Lateral stability has to do with the longitudinal axis (stability in roll)
○ No pilot action
- Normal axis stays the same (stability in yaw)
○ No pilot action

- Controllability decreases if stability increases, and vice versa

○ You want to move the aircraft but it doesn't want to move
○ Stick force will be more
○ The more stable the aircraft the larger surface deflection you'll need to get the same
result as a less stable aircraft

- Manoeuvrability
○ Good controllability
○ Good structural strength
- 2 aircraft have the same controllability but the one with the stronger structure has a higher
manoeuvrability

Topic 1 Page 54
Topic 1 Page 55
Lesson 57 and 58
09 January 2020 08:47

Moment = f . Arm
Aerodynamic center:
- A point on the chord line around which the aerodynamic moment remain constant
○ The change in lift when we change AOA takes place at the aerodynamic center
○ It's like a fixed pivot on a wing
- In subsonic flow it has a fixed position
○ 25% chord line

- 2 main contributors to static long stability

- Horizontal stabilizer
- CG position
○ The more forward the CG the more stable (less control)

- Any horizontal aerofoil ahead of the cg has a destabilizing affect

- Any horizontal aerofoil behind the cg has stabilizing affect

- When the de-stabilising moment is equal to the stabilising moment we call it the
"neutral point"
- We never want the CG to be on top of the neutral point or behind it or we'll get neutral
or negative static stability

- Static margin is the distance between CG position and the neutral point

- FWD CG limit represents the most forward limit where CG is allowed to be

○ It represent that
 The aircraft will have maximum (static) certified longitudinal stability and
minimum certified controllability
 The highest stick force allowable for an aircraft

- AFT CG represents the most AFT CG is allowed to be

○ It represent
 The aircraft will have maximum certified controllability and minimum (static)
certified longitudinal stability
 You have a much lighter and minimum stick force

Topic 1 Page 56
-

Topic 1 Page 57
Lesson 59 and 60
12 January 2020 08:31

- Fuselage and nacelle are destabilizing factors IF CG is more forward in an aircraft

○ Due to it aerodynamic center being FWD of the CG is more stable, if its AFT its less
- Downwash has a negative effect on stabilizing stable
○ Downwash reduces the AOA at the tail thus creating a de-stabilizing effect
 The solution is by longitudinal dihedral

- Longitudinal dihedral is a positive contribution

- Wing is a negative factor
- And the horizontal stabilizer is a big positive contributor
- More power (thrust) give it a pitch up moment which gives it a destabilizing effect
- Flaps are a destabilizing effect (downwash increases)

- Manoeuvre stability
○ During the duration of a pitch up the aircraft wants to become more stable
since it gets a new RAF and an increase in AOA. Once we reach our pitch angle
and we stop change pitch attitude stability goes back to normal.
 At higher speeds we do get an increase of AOA but less than low speed
flight. So at higher altitudes we will get an increase in stabilizing effect
but a smaller effect than low speed flight (low speed more stability, so
stick force stability is higher at low altitudes)
○ Nose up moment -> a greater AOA at the tail therefore static stability increases
○ Nose down moment -> less AOA tail therefore static stability increases
○ During a manoeuver the neutral point moves aft and we call the new point the
manoeuver point (like a new neutral point during the manoeuvre)
 Manoeuvre point always is AFT of the neutral point

- Stick force per g

○ The greater the load factor (g) the greater the stick force

Tailoring control forces

- We have systems in place to help prevent executing a dangerous manoeuvre, this
system technically increases stick force if a pilot tries to perform a dangerous
manoeuvre
○ down spring
○ Bob weight

Topic 1 Page 58
Lesson 61
14 January 2020 14:08

Landin control requirement

- While in a flare there a several things that what to cause a nose down moment
○ Flaps increase downwash and create a pitch down moment
○ Idle thrust want to give a nose down moment
○ In ground effect the effective AOA will increase a at the tail giving a nose down moment

Longitudinal dynamic stability

- Depends on 2 factors
○ Static stability
○ Air resistance
- Divergence
○ negative static and negative dynamic
- Subsidence (dead beat return)
○ Positive static and positive dynamic stability
○ Without oscillation
- Neutral static stability
○ Neutrals static
○ Neutral dynamic
- Damped oscillation
○ Positive static and dynamic stability
○ There is oscillations
○ The oscillations reduce because of the damping effects
- Undamped oscillation
○ Positive static and neutral dynamic stability
○ The oscillations keep going because the pilot tries to contribute and creates a neutral
force
- Divergent oscillation
○ Positive static and negative dynamic

- As static stability increases dynamic stability decreases

○ Oscillations increase, more time to return to equilibrium
- Higher air resistance higher dynamic stability
○ ALT decrease density increase = better dynamic stability
- At high speed at cruising altitude dynamic stability reduces, and oscillations increase and are
more frequent

- Long period oscillations{AKA phugoid) (1-2 minutes)

○ Variations in pitch, altitude, attitude, and airspeed, but nearly constant angle of attack
(load factor too)
- Short period oscillations (1-2 seconds)
○ Involves significant changes in AOA, with approximately constant speed, height, pitch
and attitude
- Pilot induced oscillation
○ When a pilot makes the oscillation or dynamic stability worse, this usually occurs with
short period oscillations
○ How to deal with it
 Leave control column
 Reduce thrust
□ Speed reduces
 Lift reduces
◊ Altitude decreases
 Density will increase (increasing air resistance and

Topic 1 Page 59
 Density will increase (increasing air resistance and
damping effect)

Topic 1 Page 60
Lesson 62
14 January 2020 15:32

Slide slip
- + B (beta) shows a right slide slip angle
○ The correction to this should be +N

○ If RAF hits right side of the plane it is a right side slip +B

 Correction is +N
○ If RAF hits the left side of the aircraft it is a left side slip -B
 Correction is -N
○ The vertical stabilizer is responsible for correcting side slips

- Weather cock effect

○ When during take-off you experience slide slip and while on the ground you want to
maintain the center line
 For e.g. if you get right side slip you will apply right rudder in order to maintain
center line

- Fuselage
○ Keel (side) surface forward of CG is destabilizing
○ Keel surface behind the CG is stabilizing
CG moves AFT -> Static directional stability decreases

Topic 1 Page 61
 ○ CG moves AFT -> Static directional stability decreases
○ CG moves FWD -> Static directional stability increases

- Vertical stabilizer
○ Dorsal fins
 Will reduce the aspect ratio of the vertical stabilizer
□ With a dorsal fin the Avg chord increase
□ Thus decreasing aspect ratio because span stays the same
 Dorsal fin does nothing for slow speed flight since it will still be affected by the
downwash of the wing
 Dorsal fin increases the AOA crit of the tail
□ Can take bigger side slip angles this happen because we reduced AR
 Sweep of the vertical stabilizer
□ We do this deliberately to increase AOA crit
○ Ventral fin
 Found at the end and at the bottom of the fuselage
 It gives slow speed assistance
□ Doesn't get affected by the downwash
 It help the yawing moment at high AOA when the downwash is affecting the
vertical stabilizer

○ Very big tail + high ALT + high speed = static stability increases a lot, and dynamic
stability reduces causing short frequency oscillations making an aircraft move like a
snake
 In order to counter act this commercial operate 2 YAW dampers for high ALT and
speed
- Swept wings

○ When a right slide slip happens we get an increase of lift on the right wing which also in
turn increases our induced drag

- Contributors to directional stability

○ Vertical stabilizer
 Positive effect
○ CG position
 Forward -> more stability
 AFT -> Less stability
○ Vertical surface
 AFT of CG -> positive stability
 FWD of CG -> negative stability
○ Fuselage
 AFT of CG -> positive stability
 FWD of CG -> negative stability
○ Engine nacelles
 Negative stability

Topic 1 Page 62
  Negative stability
○ Wing sweep
 Slight positive stability
○ Ventral fin
 Positive stability
○ Dorsal fin
 INCREASES AOA CRIT NOT STABILITY
○ Trim tank (MACH TUCK)
 AFT CG which reduces static directional stability (helps with oscillations)

Topic 1 Page 63
Lesson 63 and 64
19 January 2020 11:09

Lateral stability
- Sideslip: the angle between RAF and longitudinal axis
- Determined by the response of the aircraft to the sideslip
- When aircraft is disturbed in roll it will sideslip
- Right roll we get right side slip and left roll left side slip
- Rolling moment coefficient is CL don’t confuse lift coefficient
- If the aircraft is laterally stable it should roll away from side slip
- Any part of the fuselage above the CG has a positive effect on stability
○ Dorsal fin has a positive
○ Ventral fin are destabilizing
○ Engine nacelles depends on the location of the engine

Contribution of the wing

- Example of why dihedral stabilizes an aircraft

Topic 1 Page 64
 - Effects of flaps on lateral stability

○ When flaps are extend the moment force decreases thus creating a shallower positive
stability
○ This happens because the arm is shorter from CG

- Effect of power
○ For jet aircraft
 Negligible effect
○ For propeller aircraft
 Negative dihedral effect
 Due to propwash having an effect on the slipstream
 The lift vector moves inboard causing less rolling moment


Interaction of lateral and directional stability (dynamic)

- In a side slip the aircraft will yaw and roll
- If the directional stability is stronger than lateral stability, the aircraft will enter a spiral dive
○ Not periodic (no oscillations)
- If spiral dive happens gradually the pilots will have time to react
- If lateral stability is stronger than directional stability, the aircraft will enter a dutch roll
○ Dutch roll is short period oscillations
○ Dutch roll is short periodic (oscillations)
○ Tendency for pilot induced oscillation making the situation worst
○ A yaw damper will sense the yaw rate and apply rudder input at the correct time to
dampen the oscillations
○ If yaw damper fails in flight reduce altitude and speed

Topic 1 Page 65
Lesson 65 and 66
19 January 2020 12:49

Flight controls

Primary flight controls

- Ailerons
- Rudder
- Elevator

Secondary flight controls (auxiliary)

- Lift augmentation devices (high lift devices)
○ LE
 Flaps
 Slats
 Slots
 Snoot
○ TE
 Flaps
□ Split
□ Slotted
□ Fowler
□ Plain
- Trim devices
○ Trim tab
○ Control tab
○ Trimble horizontal stabilizer (THS)
- Drag devices
○ Spoiler
○ Speed brakes

How do they work

- Changing camber (ailerons, rudder, elevators, etc..)
- Change angle of incidence (all moving tail/ slab tail)
- Changing the airflow (spoilers)

Hinge moment
- The control force x the distance to the hinge point
- This expresses the stick force the pilot has to apply
- In order to maintain a certain aileron deflection the pilot has to equal the hinge moment
- The higher the hinge moment the higher the stick force
- Hinge moment = AF x ARM
- Aerodynamic force(AF) = q(1/2 rho.v^2) x CL (coefficient of lift) x S
- Hinge moment only counts with cable controlled aircraft or conventional control systems

Aerodynamic balance
- Design methods used to help reduce the hinge moment and help the pilot move the flight
controls
- Only used on conventional flight control system
- Methods to reduce stick force
○ Inset hinge
 Move hinge point behind the control surface LE to reduce the arm
 Control surface efficiency is not affected
 Over balance is when hinge point is behind CP
Horn balance

Topic 1 Page 66
○ Horn balance
 Small area of the control surface is positioned ahead of the hinge
 Horn generates small Aerodynamic force that opposes the hinge moment
 Area of the horn must be calculated not to cause over balance
○ Internal balance
 Uses differential pressure to reduce the hinge moment
 A flexible diaphragm or seal between TE of the main body and LE od the control
surface
○ Balance tab
 Pilot input moves the control surface (doesn't move the tab)
 Control surface moves the tab in the opposite direction
 Aerodynamic force on the tab assists the pilot
 Efficiency on the control surface is reduced
 There is a tab linkage between the main surface and the balance tab

○ Servo tab
 Efficiency is reduced
 The pilot input controls the small tab and the small tab moves the control surface
 If the tab goes up the control surface will go down
 Stick force is reduced because the pilot only has to move a small tab
 Manual reversion was used in older commercial aircraft as a backup in case the
hydraulics fail, so the servo tab system was used as a backup system on older
aircraft
 Control lock are external locks that we insert on the ground so the control surface
doesn't move (tab still moves)
□ If a pilot tries to move the controls, the tab will move but the flight control
surface won't move
□ Cockpit check alone is not enough the pilot must make sure that the pins are
removed
 If control surface jams we get an opposite effect on the servo tab

○ Spring servo tab

 Slow speed the pilot will not move the tab
 At slow speed the spring tension will prevent the tab movement
 At slow speed the pilot will move both the control surface and the tab in the same
direction
 This causes a high stick force at slow speed
 At higher speed the spring compresses which allows the pilot to move the tab in
which the tab will move the control surface
○ Anti-balance tab
 Exactly the same as balance tab but goes against the pilot

Topic 1 Page 67
 Exactly the same as balance tab but goes against the pilot
 Surface efficiency increases but stick force also increases

Topic 1 Page 68
Lesson 67 and 68
21 January 2020 11:13

Methods to reduce stick force beyond capability of aerodynamic balance

- Power assisted
○ Small part mechanical and large part hydraulic power
 A part goes through a hydraulic actuator and the other part goes directly to the
flight control
 Revisable (we have a natural feel and feedback from controls_

- Fully powered flight controls

○ Fully hydraulic power
 Only goes through a hydraulic actuator
 irreversible (no natural feel and feedback)

- Artificial feel (Q feel)

○ We will have an artificial unit which gives us an IAS and adjust the tension between the
cable and the hydraulic actuator
 Higher speed higher tension

Topic 1 Page 69
 ○

Control flutter
- Uncontrolled vibrations with increasing amplitude due to air elasticity
- Destructive vibration
- Keep increasing with time until the surface is damaged
- Can happen to wings, tail and flight control surfaces
- Happens due to aero elasticity
○ Interaction between inertial, elastic and aerodynamic forces
- Torsional axis
○ The axis around which the wing will twist

- How will torsional flutter happen

○ Wing twist down
○ Ailerons lag behind because of inertia
○ Deflection increases -> aerodynamic force increases
○ More twist and so on

○ Once wing reaches its elastic limit

 Wing will now unwind (go back to its position)
 Wing will twist upwards and the aileron will try to follow but inertia will make it
lag behind causing the same process as above
 Process will keep happening until the wing breaks off

Topic 1 Page 70
 

○ If aileron CG is moved forward to the hinge point we will cancel the lag effect thus
cancelling the flutter effect
○ Or we can do something called mass balancing to prevent flutter

Mass balancing
- We add weight ahead of the hinge point of the control surface
- This moves the CG forward of the control surface
- This helps us prevent fluttering

3 ways we can prevent flutter

- Mass balancing
- Do not exceed Vmo
- Make wings stiffer

Longitudinal control
- Pitching around the lateral axis
○ Lateral axis can be known as the pitch axis
- As we pitch up
○ AOA of the whole plane increases
○ That means we will get a small upwards lift from the tail
○ So in order to maintain pitch up attitude he should always apply a force on the stick or
else the plane will go back down due to the upwards lift on the tail plane

○ The elevator is a displacement control which means we have to keep a force to maintain
a certain pitching moment

- Elevator deflection required

○ CG moves forward -> stability increases -> more deflection required
Downwash increases -> tail efficiency is less -> more elevator deflection required

Topic 1 Page 71
 ○ Downwash increases -> tail efficiency is less -> more elevator deflection required
○ Power increase -> if thrust line is below CG -> down elevator required (vice versa)

- Elevator authority
○ The degree of control that an elevator has over the pitching moment of the aircraft
○ Most demanding case for up elevator is during final approach (CG FWD limit, flaps fully
extended, slow speed and gear extended) so maximum up elevator may be required to
flare the aircraft

Topic 1 Page 72
Lesson 69 and 70
22 January 2020 09:42

Lateral control
- Large aircraft we use ailerons and spoilers to achieve roll
- When we roll to either side we get an opposite roll effect due to aerodynamic damping
○ If both the rolling moment and the aerodynamic moment (opposite to rolling moment)
are equal we get a constant rate per roll
- If we return the stick to neutral the aircraft will remain at the same bank angle it won't return
back to the original position (rate of roll is 0)
○ This means that ailerons are rate control
 A given aileron deflection produces a constant rate of roll
 Once we are at a constant bank angle and the ailerons are neutral rate of roll is 0
and bank angle is constant

- At high altitude due to decrease aerodynamic damping are ability to roll will increase
- With larger wing span aircraft there is less rate of roll available due to
○ If wing span increase there is more radial velocity, which means more aerodynamic
damping
○ With more aerodynamic damping this causes the rate of roll to decrease

Cross effects
- If there is roll there is yaw and vice versa
- Adverse aileron yaw
○ Yaw opposite to roll, occurs due to difference in induced drag between the wings
○ Example: if we roll to the left
 The left wing will have less lift and less induced drag
 The right wing: will have more lift and induced drag
 This will cause the aircraft to yaw to the right while its rolling to the left

- Methods to reduce adverse yaw

○ Differentials ailerons
 Aim to equalise the drag
 Angle of deflection is large on the decreasing camber side (up deflection side)
□ Parasite drag increases
 Angle of deflection is less on the increasing camber side (down deflection side)
□ Parasite drag decreases
○ Frise ailerons
 Aim to equalise the drag
 Portion of the LE of the aileron sticks out on the decreasing camber side (up
deflection side) to spoil the airflow
○ Roll spoilers
 Aim to equalise the drag
 Spoilers on the side where the aileron goes up, the spoilers move up to increase
parasite drag and equalise drag (automatically)
 They don’t cause wing twist which in return cannot cause flutter
 They also increase the rate of roll
 Effectiveness is not reduced at transonic speeds
 They do not occupy space at the trailing edge which then can be utilized for flaps
 Outboard ailerons are used only in slow speed flight
□ Because this can cause a large bending moment
 Inboard ailerons (flaperon) are used at high speed and low speed flights
○ Aileron rudder coupling
 Move rudder in the same direction as the roll
 Done on commercial aircraft by the yaw damper

Topic 1 Page 73
  Done on commercial aircraft by the yaw damper

- High speed aileron reversal

○ At high speed (>Vmo) the aerodynamic force creates by the outboard aileron is large,
and will cause the wing to twist. This will change the wings angle of incidence and
produce an aerodynamic force in the opposite direction, if the wing twist is large enough
the wings will move in the opposite direction to pilot input

Directional control
- Yawing around the normal axis
- Achieved by the rudder
- Rudder is used for
○ Spin recovery
○ Dampen Dutch roll (yaw damper)
○ Crosswind take-off/landing
○ During turns to balance the aircraft
○ In case of asymmetrical thrust
○ Correct for propeller effects on single engine aircraft
- It’s a displacement control surface
○ You need to displace and hold the rudder in order to maintain the yaw

- Rudder ratio changer / rudder travel limiter

○ Reduces the deflection angle of the rudder with speed

Topic 1 Page 74
Lesson 71 and 72
23 January 2020 09:22

Trim
- Reduce the stick force to zero
- The aircraft will maintain its attitude without the pilot having to apply force on the controls
- Trim = equilibrium
○ Opposing forces must be equal
○ Opposing moments must be equal

For light aircraft

- Trim tab
○ Trim tab doesn't move if we pull the stick backwards
 We have to move the trim will/switch to move the trim tab
 The stick will not go back to neutral it will stay deflected

○ Advantages
 Simple system
 Stick force is zero
○ Disadvantages
 increases drag
□ Trim drag
 Trim runaway
□ Mechanical failure can cause the trim tab to keep moving
□ Not that significant because it’s a small surface
 Trim jam
□ Can cause a higher stick force
□ Not that significant because it’s a small surface
 Less trim range

For large aircraft

- We use trim horizontal stabilizer (THS)
- The tick will go back to neutral
- The THS will align with the elevator causing the trim effect
- If we have a stabilizer runaway / jam we will get major control problems

Summary

Topic 1 Page 75
-

Fixed tab
- Adjusted on the ground, to correct a permanent out of trim condition. They are usually
found on ailerons and rudders, cannot be changed in flight!

Trim position before take-off

- The most important factor for setting trim before take-off is CG position
○ Then we consider flaps
- More forward CG (nose heavy) we need more nose up trim
- We use trim to always have almost the same amount of deflection during take-off
○ If we don’t have trim set we might have abnormal stick forces so the stick force
might be too sensitive or too heavy
-

Topic 1 Page 76
Lesson 73 and 74
26 January 2020 10:20

Flight mechanics
- Steady flight
○ Forces acting upwards balance forces acting downwards
○ Forces acting forward are equal to the forces acting backwards
○ Sum of all moments = 0
- A steady flight can be (equilibrium)
○ Cruise
○ Climb
○ Descent
- Accelerated flight (no equilibrium)
○ Take-off
○ Landing
○ Turning
○ Diving

- 2 parameters that are used to compare performance

○ Endurance
○ Range

Straight horizontal steady flight

○ CG AFT
 Lift / weight moment decrease
 Tail down force decreases
 Trim drag decreases
 Thrust required decreases = fuel consumption decreases
 Range and endurance increase
○ CG FWD
 Lift/weight moment increase
 Tail creates a larger nose down moment
 Trim drag increases
 Thrust required increases = fuel consumption increases
 Range and endurance decreases
We always want the lift weight arm to be small during cruise

Topic 1 Page 77
 ○ We always want the lift weight arm to be small during cruise

An aircraft that wants max range

- Fly faster (1.32 vmd / 32% faster than vmd)
- Travel further
- Burn less fuel for a given distance

An aircraft that flies for max endurance

- Fly slower (sly at vmd)
- Travel less
- Spend more time airborne
- Burn less fuel for a given time

Straight and steady climb

- Climbing at a steady speed

○ For there to be a positive AOA the longitudinal axis must be above the flight path
○ FPA: Flight path angle
○ AOC: Angle of climb
○ Pitch angle = AOA + FPA
○ Weight is perpendicular to the horizon
○ Lift acts perpendicular to the flight path
○ Drag is parallel backwards to flightpath
○ Thrust is parallel forward to the flight path

Topic 1 Page 78
 -

- Used to measure climb performance are

○ Rate of climb (ROC)
 As quickly as possible
 To get to cruise as quickly as possible
○ Angle of climb(AOC) / climb gradient
 Goal is to climb as steeply as possible
 For obstacle clearance
- WsinAOC can be said as weight apparent drag

- These forces determine our angle of climb (AOC)

- T-D can be known as excess thrust
○ So we can write the formula like this
 sinGama = excess thrust / weight
- For commercial aircraft AOC = AOC (because of small Angles)
○ SINGAMA= T-D/ W = TANGAMA = CLB GRD
 So we can find the climb gradient with either sin or tan gama we just have to x100
to get the %

- Factors
○ Weight increases
 AOC decreases
○ Density increases
 Thrust increases so AOC increases
○ CONFIG
 Clean configuration decreases drag and increases AOC

Question

Topic 1 Page 79
-

- When they give us mass always multiply it by 9.81 to get weight !

- We found weight by assuming lift = weight then divided it by 8

Topic 1 Page 80
Lesson 75
27 January 2020 12:05

VX maximum AOC speed

- Jet aircraft

○ For a jet aircraft vx = vmd

- Propeller aircraft

○ Vmp
 velocity minimum power
 Vmp = 0.76Vmd

- VY maximum ROC speed

- VY is higher than VX

Descending and gliding

Topic 1 Page 81
Descending and gliding
- For descent
○ FPA = AOA+ Pitch angle

- We use flight path line as the reference line same as climb

- Lift is less than weight

- Drag is greater than thrust but no deceleration

- Descent performance parameter

○ Angle of descent (AOD) or descent gradient
○ Formula is sinGama = (D-T)/ W
 (D-T) can be known as excess drag
○ Rate of descent (ROD)

- If we increase thrust during a descent we need to decrease the angle of descent or speed will
increase
- If we increase drag during descent we must increase the angle of descent or your speed will
decrease
- If weight increases AOD is smaller

Topic 1 Page 82
- If weight increases AOD is smaller

Topic 1 Page 83
Lesson 76
28 January 2020 08:57

Emergency descent Vmp = velocity minimum

- When there is a cabin decompression power
- Aim is to descent to 10,000ft within 10 minutes
○ Maximise rate of descent
- ROD is directly proportional to AOD and speed
○ In order to maximise APD we must maximise excess thrust

- Procedure
○ Don the oxygen mask
○ Disconnect auto pilot
○ Pitch down and allow speed to increase to Vmo/Mmo
○ Thrust idle
○ Extend speed brakes

Power idle descent

- If we are descending at constant mach number
○ IAS increases so we must decrease AOA to keep the same ROD
○ If we need to decrease AOA we must decrease the longitudinal axis so we must pitch
the nose down thus decreasing both AOA and pitch angle

Power off descent / gliding

- Descent with no thrust
- Advantages
○ Save fuel
○ Engine life increase
○ Noise decreases
○ Pollution decreases

- Forces acting on an aircraft during glide

○ Weight
○ Drag
○ Lift

- D/L = tanGama
○ For maximum glide range gama must be minimum
 Best glide angle = minimum gama
 L/D maximum is D/L minimum
○ Weight has no effect on glide range provided we remain at Vmd
 Glide speed will change but glide range will remain the same, so we Vmd will
be faster but range will remain the same
 With a heavier aircraft we will have the same range but the heavier aircraft
will have a higher rate of descent (decreases glide endurance)

- How to calculate horizontal distance of glide

Topic 1 Page 84
- How to calculate horizontal distance of glide

○ Glide range = L/D x ALT (the answer will come in feet we have to convert to nautical
mile)
○ 1 nautical mile = 6076 feet (6000 feet)

- Effect of wind
○ Tailwind glide range increases
○ No wind glide range not affected
○ Headwind decreases glide range

- Maximum glide endurance

○ Time spent in the glide
○ If we want to restart the engine
○ Fly at speed less than Vmd, this speed in Vmp = 0.76 Vmd
 Minimum rate of descent
 Minimum sink rate

- Factors affecting glide

○ Weight
 If weight increases range is constant
 Glide endurance decreased
 ROD increased
 VMD increased
 Glide angle ctt

- Configuration (not clean)

○ Drag increases
○ Glide range decreases
○ Glide endurance decreases
○ Glide angle increases

- Wind speed (ROD ctt)

○ Tailwind glide range increases
○ No wind glide range not affected
○ Headwind decreases glide range
○ Wind has no effect on endurance

Topic 1 Page 85
Lesson 77
29 January 2020 11:15

Turning
- A turning aircraft is changing direction
○ So it is not in equilibrium
○ There is an unbalance force acting on it
 This force is called centripetal force
 Centripetal force = lift sinphi
 Lift Sinphi = mxV^2/ radius

- When we turn lift turns into 2 components

○ So when we turn we lose lift and in order to compensate we have to increase AOA
○ As we increase AOA we get more drag so we also have to increase thrust a bit
- Bank angle is the angle between the lateral axis and the horizon

- So in order to find the radius we can use this formula

Radius = v^2(m/s) / g x tan Fi

Topic 1 Page 86
 ○ Radius = v^2(m/s) / g x tan Fi
○ Radius is in meters
○ Convert kts to m/s
 From kts to m/s half it and from m/s to kts double
○ G = 9.81

- Calculating time needed to turn through 360

○ Formulas
 Circumference = 2pieR
 Time = 2pieR / TAS (m/s)

- Calculating rate of turn ROT

○ ROT = V/R
○ ROT = GtanFi / V
 We get it in radian per second
 To convert from radian to degree multiply by 57.3 degrees

- Thrust and drag while in a turn

○ Lift needs to increase so AOA increases
○ As we increase AOA drag increases
○ As drag increases we also need to increase thrust
○ Speed remains the same

- Standard rate turn or rate 1 turn

○ 3 degrees / second
 1 minutes for 180 degree
 2 min for 360 degree
- Rate 2 turn
○ 6 degree / second
 30 second for 180 degree
 1 minute for 360 degrees

AOB for rate 1 turn

- (TAS (KTS) / 10) + 10

Level coordinated turn

- Outer wing is faster than inner wing
- Outer wing has more lift
- Tendency to over bank
- Pilot must hold off bank
○ Need to apply aileron input in the opposite direction

Climbing turn
- Outer wing is faster
- Outer wing has a higher AOA
○ More tendency to over bank since both AOA and wind speed are affecting the bank
- Pilot must hold off bank

Descending turn
- Outer wing is faster
- Outer wing has a lower AOA
- No need to hold off bank

- Radius is directly proportional to TAS^2

- ROT is directly proportional to TAS/R

Topic 1 Page 87
 - Best speed for turn are when we have a low TAS and a big TAN phi
- Va = design manoeuvring speed
○ This speed gives the minimum radius and maximum turn rate

Effect of altitude on turning

- Altitude increase = thrust decrease: unable to balance drag
- IAS decreases = lift decreases: less force to turn the aircraft
- IAS/TAS relation: as altitude increase TAS is more = radius increases and ROT decreases

Turn coordination and balance

- For a coordinated turn
○ Angle of bank, TAS and ROT must be harmonized (appropriate to each other)
○ Angle of bank and rudder appropriate for each other
○ Longitudinal axis is tangential to flight path
- Instrument that we use for turn coordination is called a turn coordinator
○ During taxi when the pilot applies rudder input to steer the aircraft the ball in the turn
coordinator will move in the opposite direction (it will show a skid)

- Slipping turn
○ AOB is too large or rudder input is insufficient

- Skidding turn
○ AOB is too little or rudder input is too large

- We can achieve 2.5G if we are turning 67 degrees

Topic 1 Page 88
Lesson 78
30 January 2020 09:15

Asymmetric flight
- We have engine failure on a multi engine aircraft
- Effects
○ Thrust will decrease
 Performance decreases
○ Drag increases (especially with a propeller aircraft)
○ There will be a yawing moment
 Can develop into a spin
 Correction of yaw is top priority when we have an engine failure
○ Nose will start pitching down

- Yawing moment generated depends on

○ Engine thrust
○ Distance from CG
○ Drag from dead engine

- Critical engine
○ An engine is an engine whose failure causes the largest yawing moment
○ On jet aircraft we only get a critical engine if we have a crosswind
 It will be the outboard into wind direction is the critical engine

- Vmc
○ minimum control speed
○ Critical speed in which the critical engine is lost the pilot an control the aircraft
○ Only guarantees straight fight

- Forces are balanced but rudder force is not balanced

○ Two methods
 Wings level
□ Use rudder to yaw to the right more and create a sideslip which creates a
side force on the fuselage to balance the rudder force to prevent the aircraft
from drifting
□ Turn coordinator shows no bank and the ball is centred
□ Advantages and disadvantages
 Creates more drag (bad)
 A risk of fin stall (bad)
 Reduced climb performance (bad)
 Wings are kept level (good)
 Better visual performance (good)
 5 to live
□ Bank to live engine
 The horizontal component of lift will balance the rudder side force
□ Bank angle must not exceed 5 degrees bank
 Increase risk in fin stall
□ Turn coordinator
 Will show no or very minimal bank
 Ball will go towards the live engine
□ Advantages and disadvantages
 Better efficiency
 Less drag
 Better climb performance
More rudder authority

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  More rudder authority
 Less visual consistency

 It is possible to do both methods at the same time

- Worst yawing moment when engine failure happens is

○ Maximum thrust
 Low temperature (high density)
 Low altitude (high density)
 AFT CG limit smaller arm to the rudder

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Lesson 79
02 February 2020 12:17

Vmc = minimum control speed Vmca is normally less than

Vmcg
- Vmcg
○ Minimum control speed on ground Straight flight means
○ The calibrated airspeeds during take-off run, at which, when the critical engine is maintain a heading within
suddenly made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the aeroplane using 20 degrees
the rudder (nose wheel is not included in the calculation)
○ Factors affecting Vmcg
 Altitude
 Temperature
 Rudder arm
□ It is constant on the ground because the aircraft rotates around the gear
not the CG (in the air it is not constant)

- Vmca
○ Minimum control airspeed
○ The calibrated airspeeds during climb, at which, when the critical engine is suddenly
made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the aeroplane with that
engine still inoperative and maintain straight flight with an angle of bank of not
more than 5 degrees bank
○ Factors affecting Vmca
 Angle of bank
 CG position
 Aileron effectiveness
 Flap position
 Undercarriage
 Altitude and temperature

- Vmcl
○ Minimum control speed landing configuration
○ The calibrated airspeeds during approach or landing, at which, when the critical
engine is suddenly made inoperative it is possible to maintain control of the
aeroplane with that engine still inoperative and maintain straight flight with an angle
of bank of not more than 5 degrees bank or to bank 20 degrees to the live engines
within 5 seconds to perform a turn
○ Factors affecting Vmcl
 Aileron effectiveness
 roll

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Lesson 80
02 February 2020 13:40

Load and safety factors

Commercial aircraft
- Limit load Above 2.5
○ Maximum load to be expected in service (2.5g) - Structures bends and might
- Ultimate load get distorted
○ The load at which the structure will fail
- Factor of safety Above 3.75
○ The ratio of ultimate load to limit load for aircraft structures the factor of safety is - Structure failure
1.5.
○ UL/LL

- Positive limit load factor for a jet transport aircraft is +2.5, the negative limit load is -1
- For a utility category aircraft (4.4 positive, -1.76 negative)
- Aerobatic aircraft (6 positive, -3 negative)

Manoeuvre envelope (v-n diagram)

- Performance boundaries necessary for flight

Design speeds
- Airspeed is a very important factor in determining limits of the flight envelope
- Design speeds are concerned with the structural strength of the aircraft
○ Pilots do not use these speeds!

- Va
○ Design manoeuvre speed
○ The highest speed at which sudden, full elevator deflection (nose up) can be made
without exceeding the design limit load factor
 It will stall before it passes the limit
○ Hot to calculate
 Va= Vs1g x Rad(n)
 Va new = Va old x rad (W new / W old)
□ Rule of thumb
 % of change in Va is 1/2 the % change in weight

- Vb
○ Design gust speed
○ A speed (66ft/s) of maximum vertical gust that will make the aircraft stall before the
aircraft gets damaged
- Vc
○ Design cruising speed
○ Speed selected by a designer and used to assess the strength requirements in cruise

- Vd
○ A speed based on the principle of an upset occurring when the aircraft is flying at Vc,
resulting in a shallow dive, until recovery is affected

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Lesson 81
03 February 2020 14:31

Va speed factors
- As altitude increases Va increases Vle
- Flaps deployed Va decreases and the envelope becomes much smaller - Landing gear
extend
Vra / Mra (Rough air speed) (turbulence penetration speed) maximum
- Slightly higher than Vb, will give adequate protection from over stressing the aircraft plus Vlo
gives maximum protection from an inadvertent stall - Landing gear
in operation
Vmo maximum
- Vmo must be equal to or less than Vc and must be sufficiently below Vd speed

Vne (never exceed speed)

- Set below Vd to allow for speed upsets to be recovered (Vne = 0.9Vd)

Vno (maximum structural cruise speed) (normal operating speed limit)

- The normal operating cruise speed limit and must not be not greater than the lesser of Vc
or 0.89Vne

Gust loads
- Vertical gust
○ Sudden changes in LF
○ +Gs and -Gs
○ Large loads on the airframe
- Formula
○ Load factor (n) gust = CL gust ( CL Straight and level + change in CL) / CL straight and
level
○ Example

Factors which affect gust load factor

- Altitude
○ As altitude increases load factor decreases with a vertical gust (assuming same gust
and IAS)
 So at a lower altitude gust will affect an aircraft more
- Wing shape
○ No sweep wing will have a bigger increase of lift with the same AOA
○ So a no sweep will have a higher load factor for the same amount of gust
○ So a swept back wing will have a smoother ride than the no swept back wing

- Aspect ratio
○ The higher the aspect ratio the higher the load factor is going to be
So gliders will experience the highest gust load factors in accordance to other

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 ○ So gliders will experience the highest gust load factors in accordance to other
aircraft

- Airspeed
○ If there are 2 aircraft A flying faster and B flying slower both experience same up
gust
 Aircraft flying faster will experience a higher gust load factor
□ Aircraft A has a less initial CL (less AOA)
 Aircraft flying slower will experience a lower gust load factor
□ Aircraft B has a higher initial CL (higher AOA)
○ So the faster aircraft has a greater % change in CL than the slower aircraft

- Weight
○ If the weight is more on an aircraft that means the aircraft is flying with a higher
initial CL (higher AOA) so the heavier the aircraft the less % change it in CL than the
lighter aircraft

- Wing loading
○ Formula = Aircraft weight / wing area
○ High wing load aircraft has greater CL (think about the lift formula it has to create
more CL because of the deficiency is S )
○ Low wing loading is more sensitive to gust

Values to memorize
- Vb
○ 66ft/sec
- Vc
○ 50ft/sec
- Vd
○ 25ft/sec

Aero elasticity
- By putting the wings in front of the LE we move the flexural axis closer toward the AC
which will delay the twisting motion when the wing is bending

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Lesson 82
04 February 2020 14:10

Propellers
What is a propeller
- A rotating propeller converts engine power into thrust

Definitions
- Blade face faces the tail (or the cockpit)

- Blade back faces forward in the direction of thrust

- Blade angle /pitch angle (not blade angle of attack)

○ The angle between the plane of rotation and extended chord line
○ At the root the blade angle is largest and as we get to the tip of the propeller the blade
angle starts to decrease
 So like wing twist decreases from root to tip the same for propellers

○ The blade angle is calculated at 75% of the propellers length

○ when the blade angle is big it's called course blade
 Fully course (feathered) is almost 90 degrees to the plane of rotation
○ When the blade angle is small it's called fine blade angle
 Fully fine is parallel to the plane angle
- Helix angle
○ Angle between the plane of rotation and the relative air flow (RAF)
○ Most of the time blade angle is greater than helix angle

- Geometric distance
○ What forward distance theoretically would a propeller travel in one full revolution

- Effective pitch
○ The real distance a propeller travels in one full revolution

- Slip
○ The diffrence between the effective pitch and geometric pitch

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Lesson 83
04 February 2020 14:55

Types of propellers
- Fixed pitch propeller
○ The blade angle / pitch angle is fixed at manufacture

- Two pitch propeller

○ Can set either fine or coarse pitch, but nothing in between

- Adjustable pitch propellers

○ The blade angle is adjusted on the ground, but then acts as a fixed pitch propeller at that
fixed setting in flight

- Variable pitch / constant speed propeller

○ Blade angle is automatically adjusted in flight to maintain the ideal angle of attack across
a range of airspeeds
○ The blades are coarsened for high speed and fined off for low speed

Forces acting on a propeller

- Thrust
○ Acts 90 degrees to the plane of rotation (NOT RAF)
- Torque drag
○ Parallel and opposite to the plane of rotation
- Shaft torque
○ The torque force created by the engine to overcome the torque drag
○ Acts parallel in the direction of the plane of rotation

Relative airflow of a propeller

- Depends on the TAS and the rotation speed

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 - Depends on the TAS and the rotation speed

- The tip of the propeller will have a greater AOA than the root since the rotation speed at the
tip is larger than at the root

- If we put the nose up (constant airspeed) the TAS will decrease and cause an increase in AOA,
this will cause the thrust and torque to increase which means shaft torque will be less thus
decreasing RPM
○ And vice versa

Fixed pitch propeller

- Fixed blade angle
- Simple, cheap, reliable -> but far from ideal
- Blade AOA is constantly changing
- Rarely at optimum AOA / L/D max / approx 4 degrees
○ This has to do with the TAS and rotation speed (RPM)
- Choice of fixed pitch
○ We can either have a fine or coarse propeller
 Coarse is good for high speed but need a lot of power for low speed (because of
the very high AOA at low speeds)
 Fine is good for low speed but bad for high speed

Blade twist is a technique used to try to even out thrust as much as possible

Variable pitch constant speed propeller

- The constant speed propeller is mechanically controlled by a governor to keep propeller
blades at their optimum angle of attack over a wider speed range
- During take-off run the propeller is set to fine pitch, and is then coarsened as the TAS
increases in flight

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Topic 1 Page 98
Lesson 84
06 February 2020 09:15

Engine failure (windmill effect)

- Torque drag > shaft torque (we loss shaft torque when the engine failed)
○ Propeller slows down
- Constant speed unit (CSU) "fines" off the blade in an attempt to maintain RPM (very big
negative AOA)
- Total reaction changes direction
○ Small driving force rotating the propeller in the usual direction
○ Massive amounts of drag

- Wind milling is not desirable at all (only time it will be useful reason to allow the propeller to
windmill is to try and restart the engine)
- Wind milling decreases glide performance dramatically
- For multi engine aircraft we will get large asymmetric forces
○ controllability problem
- Feathering is when we coarse the blade as much as possible to create a zero lift AOA which
causes no forces to be created. This mean we have minimised drag as much as possible

Reverse thrust
- Blade is moved beyond fully fine pitch (0 degrees) into the reverse pitch angle (known as beta
range)
- Components of total reaction
○ Reverse thrust / drag (mean the same thing)
○ Torque drag increases (different to wind milling as reverse pitch requires a lot of engine
power)

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 -

Fixed pitch propeller efficiency

- Only one speed which the fixed pitch propeller is operating most efficiently

- Efficiency of a fixed pitch propeller varies with forward speed

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Lesson 85 and 86
09 February 2020 09:41

Power absorption Longer blades issues

- A propeller must be able to absorb the shaft power produced by the engine - Clearance issue (ground)
- For very powerful engines various propeller design methods can be used to increase - Clearance (aircraft)
power absorption ○ Engine failure very
big problem with
Propeller solidity asymmetric thrust
- The higher the propeller solidity the higher the power absorption - Higher tip velocities
- Propeller solidity = propeller blade frontal area / propeller disc area ○ Efficiency reduces
○ 2 ways to achieve a higher solidity ○ Increase in noise
 Increase blade chord
□ We get a higher aerodynamic force
□ Aspect ratio decreases: induce drag increases (efficiency decreases)
 Increase number of blades
□ Reduces noise Right hand propeller (RH)
□ Disadvantages - Spinning clockwise
 Complex hub from cockpit view
 Aircraft engine must be more powerful
 Normally 6 blades are the most

- Contra rotating propellers

○ Increases solidity
○ More complex
○ Heavier
○ More powerful engine required Critical engine is the
○ Eliminates some propeller effects engine you don’t want
 Gyroscopic effect to lose!
 Torque reaction

Propeller effects
- Torque effect
○ In the air the effect would be left roll
○ On the ground the effect would be left yaw
○ The more you increase power the more the torque effect

- Slipstream effect
○ The slipstream from the propeller meets the fin at an angle a creates a force
○ Worst combination is a lot of power and a slow speed
○ The faster the TAS the straighter the slipstream becomes and less effect
○ The effect will be left yaw and we counteract with right rudder (for RH)

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 ○

- Asymmetric blade affect (p-factor)

○ Slow flight and at high AOA of attack
○ Due to the downwards propeller creating more thrust than the upwards propeller
we get a right offset of total thrust created making a left yawing moment
 Right rudder correction needed
○ The down going blade
 Higher AOA than the up going blade
 Higher speed than the up going blade

- Gyroscopic effect
○ A propeller has the properties of a gyroscope (any rotating mass)
 Rigidity in space
 Precession
○ Gyroscopic precession
 Reaction that occurs when a force is applied to the rim of a rotating disk
□ Reaction occurs at 90 degrees ahead in the direction of rotating
propeller
 Examples
□ Pitch down (RH)
 Force on the top
 Reaction happens 90 degrees later
 We will get left yaw

○ Only happens for pitch and yaw not roll

○ We can remove these effects by
 Contra rotating propellers
 Counter rotating propellers (for multi engine)

- Thrust bending force

○ Since we get more thrust towards the end of the propeller we get bending moments
towards the end of the propeller
○ So we need a strong root to keep the propeller from snapping

- Torque bending
○ As the propeller is rotating we get a torque force going in the opposite direction
which may give us a bending moment towards the opposite direction (a resistance)

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 which may give us a bending moment towards the opposite direction (a resistance)
 We must have a strong root

- Centrifugal force
○ As the propeller is rotating we get some type of pulling force trying to pull the
blades out of the rotating force creating a stretching like moment
 We must have a strong root

- Aerodynamic twisting moment (ATM)

○ It's when the aerodynamic force is trying to twist the blade due to the aerodynamic
force
○ To try to make the blade angle more coarse

- Centrifugal twisting moment

○ Tries to make the blade angle more fine

- Propeller blade icing

○ Effects
 Lift will decrease
 Thrust generated decrease
 Drag increase
 Efficiency decrease
 Weight increase
 Earlier stall

○ More chance of inboard icing on the propeller

 Because the tip moves faster creating more friction which causes a heating
effect
○ Does not build up equally on each blade
 Absolute imbalance (severe vibration possible which can cause destruction)
□ Weight
□ Thrust
□ Lift
□ Efficiency
□ Stall

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