Unit4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF ‘CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Written by: Dr. Khawaja Nazir Ahmad 77Introduction Objectives 1, Need for conceptual framework of curriculum development 2, Models.of Development curriculum 21 22 23 3. “Relationship among the elements .. 4. A Proposed conceptual framework. 4l Seif-assessment Questions 5. Process of Curriculum Development SA Formulation of Objectives.. 5.2 Selection of Content... + 5.3. Approaches to Content Organizati Organization Focused on Discipline/subjects. & Organization Focused on Specific Competencies . (iii) Organization Focused on Special Activities and Problems (iv) Organization Focused on Process Skills. (v) Organization Focused on Individual Needs and Interests. . 5.4 —— Self-assessment Questions 6. Selection and organization of Methods, 61 Lecture and Verbal Presentation Methods: 6.2 Discussion-questioning Methods 63 Practice and Drill Methods 64 iewing,, Listening, Answering Methods 65 istic Problem-solving, and Discovery Methods. 66 ° Laboratory and Inquiry 6.7 Role Playing, Simulation and Games. 68 Instructional Methods for Unstructured Situation. 7. Bases for Selecting Instructional TA 72 73 74 1S 7.6 CONTENTS Conceptual Model Proposed by Ralph Tylor Curriculum Model of the General College at the University of Minnesota Conceptual Model Developed by Neagley and Evans @) Playing, Manipulating, Acting (b) School Activities Programme. (©) _ Independent Learning and Sel (d) Community Activities . Achievements of Objectives. Principles of Learning . Individual Learning style Self-fulling prophecies and Educational Strat Facilities, Equipment and Resources Accountability 78Curriculum Evaluatior 81 Meaning and Significance... 82 Design for curriculum evaluation .. 83 Formative Evaluatio 8.4 Summative Evaluatior 8.5 Self-Assessment Questions (Exercise No.3). 86 Self-Assessment Questions (Exercise No.4), Bibliography 9INTRODUCTION \ Education is a purposeful activity which schools organize and arrange to achieve some pre-determined objectives specifically assigned to them, Such activities which the place inside or outside the school under the direction and control of the teachers are known as “the curriculum". How t0 develop a curriculum is a question of great importance and concem. Conceptual frameworks help determine relationships among various elements of the curriculum, The conceptual frameworks also help in evaluating the outcomes of curriculum, and make it possible to modify or change the curriculum in a systematic way. In this unit we shall discuss the various conceptual frameworks of curriculum development and then develop a model of our own. OBJECTIVES ‘When you have gone through this unit, you should bé able to: 1, Discuss the need of conceptual framework curriculum development. 2, State the various models of conceptual framework for curriculum development 3. Explain the elements, 6f curriculum development and relationship among them. 4. Describe the following stages in the process of curriculum development. a. Formulation of objectives b., Selection an organization of content. ¢. Selection and organization of methods d. Curriculum evaluation, 5. Discuss the criteria of content selection ' 6. Reason out ‘the merits and limitations of the various approaches to content organization 7. Discuss the major characteristics, usefulness and applicability of the various instructional methods to achieve different specie as well as general objectives in > structured and unstructured situations. 8 State the bases for selecting instructional methods 9. Explain the concepts of accountability 10. Discuss the necessity of evaluation for the itnprovement of curriculum IL. Describe the faction of (a) formative evaluation, and (b) summative evaiuation. 301., NEED FOR CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT ~ Curriculum development is a complex undertaking that involves many kind of decisions. Decisions need to be made about the general aims of education and the specific objectives of instruction: The major areas of the curriculum along with the specific content of each must be sclected. Choices must be made about the leaming experiences which would ensure the achievement of content, understandings and other objectives. Decisions are needed regarding how to evaluate student learning and the effectiveness of the curriculum in achieving the desired goals and objectives. And, finally, 'as choice must bbe made regarding the over-all pattem of the curriculum. These decisions are made on different levels. Generally speaking, curticulum is socially and historically tocated, and culturally determined. The curriculum does not develdp in a vacuum but it is based on the belief such as, about how people leam, what they should be like, what society is. The curriculum is, therefore, interwoven with the social fabric that sustains it. The decisions regarding curriculum development are based on consideration of many issues. If curriculum development is td:be adequate, all these decisions must be made competently, on a recognized and valid basis, and with some degree of consistency. The complexity and multitude of decisions and the fact that they are made on several diff levels make it all the more important that there must be an effective conceptual frame of curriculum development. It needs to be ensured that while making decisions certain considerations are not underemphasized or others over-emphasizéd, A coficeptual framework is, therefore, like a light house at the sea. It does not the where to go or restrict movement, but itis necessary to guide movements an wam of the danger spots. As described by Hilda Taba, “the conceptual framework is a way to organize thinking about all matters which are important for curriculum development*, "A framework’ she further elaborates," is statement which identifies the elements of the curriculum, states their relationship to each other, and indicates the principles of organization and the administrative conditions under which it is to operate. A conceptual model must be based on a rationale which establishes the sources to be considered and principles to be applied. Both are needed to make consistent decisions about the curriculum. 812. MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 2.1 Conceptual Model Proposed by Ralph, Tyler ‘The conceptual model proposed by Relph Tyler for analyzing and developing a curriculum answers the following four fundamental questions: (i) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? (ii) What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? (iii) How can these éducational experiences be effectively organized? (iv) How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? + Tyler's questions represent a four-step sequence of (1) identifying objectives, (2) (4) evaluating the outcomes. Starting from the purposes and assuming the cyclical nature of the process, we may present this model graphically as under: Selecting, ——_______—> Organising Experiences a Experiences Identifying Evaluating objective = “Out comes Ralph w. Tyler’s model conceptual framework of curriculum Tyler proposes that education objectives originate from three sources: (1) the studies of a society, (2) the studies of the leamers, and (3) the subject-matter specialists. However, it might be asked from what sources do the soeiety and those who study leamers, and the specialists: in subject matter receive theit objectives? is thete some underlying based that ties the three sources together? Tyler's linear sequence of questions appears to be faulty because it fails to show this underlying base. 2.2 The curriculum model of the General College at the University of Minnesota . The curriculum model. of the General College at the University of Minnesota indicates a framework represented by a triangle. The apex of the trianglé represents the 82purposes. One the base is the philosophy of education and'life. One side of the triangle " are the needs and interests of the students while the other side of the triangle is based on the needs of society.and resourées of the school. This model points out that a curriculum is based on beliefs, the purposes which provide direction to the needs of students, and the individual a part of the society. ’ Social need Students needs and Interests And Interest Philosophy of life and education Cufriculum model (university of Minnesota) ‘As we can see from the model, it does not seem to articulate the crucial significance of the meant/experience etc. that may be employed for attainment of the purposes. . Another model is proposed by the Thirty-School experiment. The model describes four inter-related elements: (1) objectives, (2) subject matter, (3) method and (4) organization and evaluation. It seeks answers to the questions: (1) what is to be done, (2) what sub matter is to be employed, (3) how are the results to be appraised? ‘These questions suggest the steps which are not sequential but which are closely inter- related. However, the model does not indicate the bases from which decisions regarding them are made. Hilda Taba suggested an orderly procedure for a more dynamically conceived curriculum. According to her, following steps are required to be taken’ to frame a curriculum: Step! Diagnosis of needs Step 2 Formulation of objectives Step 3 Selection of content . Step Organization of content Step5 Selection of learning experiences Step 6° Organization of learning experiences Step 7 Determination of what to evaluate and of the ways and means of doing it. The model developed by Taba offers statement of the basic principles involved an exposition of the relation of those principles to the practice of curriculum development. Much of the literature on curriculum development is concerned with this model. 2.3. The conceptual model development by Neagley and Evans encompasses the following procedure for a thoughtfully planned curriculum: fi) Organization of the curriculum committec(s) 83(ii) Selection of objectives , aims, and goals of instruction. Gi) Designation of appropriate. content, learning experiences, and teaching. aids, (iv) Choosing the best methods of instruction. () Selection of the evaluation procedures commensurate with the designated objectives, amiss and goals (vi) Trial and evaluation of these materials, learning experiences and methods. A careful study of the conceptiial frameworks given above can be the help us in developing a model containing the basic elements of curriculum development. A curriculum model makes and clarifies the bases of'selection and emphasis on the various elements, as well as the sources from which these criteria are derived. It should, furthermore, indicate as to what criterion applied to which element, because selection involves values and opinions this is where the disagreements and controversies being, From an analysis of the various models of curriculum it could be inferred that the basic elements of curriculum development include (i) Objectives, i) Contents, (iii) Methods, and (iv) Evaluation Objectives are dependent on such factors as values and needs of the sotiety, the nature of knowledge and culture and the needs of the leamers, One the other hand, decisions about content or subject matter derive from an analysis of the characteristics of the knowledge represented by school subjects and the Keamning process. Epistemology and psychology are brought into relationship to develop concepts. The primary consideration in selecting and organizing the methods of achieving, curriculum objectives is, “how the pupil learns”. Here, theories of learning, principles of pedagogy and psychology help in the selection and organization of leaming experiences. ‘The fourth element of curriculum evaluation in not possible, evaluation must encompass the objectives of the curriculum and provide continuing feedback for improvement of the curriculum. The basic elérnents for the curriculum enable us to construct a model for developing a curriculum which aims to answer the following questions. what is the ‘purpose of curriculum? what subject matter is to be used? how are the results to be assessed? ‘The criteria used for answering the questions should be made explicit. 84 (vil) Development of appropriate curriculum guides (viii) The provision of procedures for continuous study, evaluation, and improvement of the curriculum. what learning experiences and schoo! organization are to be provided?3. RELATIONSHIP AMONG THE ELEMENTS As already discussed, the elements of curriculum are closely inter-related ‘and interdependent, Taba observes that a decision made about any one element out’ of relations to others is bound to be faulty. Each element of curriculum acquires meaning and substance in reference to the other elements. For example, the specific objectives derive their meaning from the general aims of education. If the general aim is to develop intelligent citizenship, the development of ability to think critically becomes important. ‘The fact that critical that critical is an important objective imposes certain requirements ‘on the selection and organization leaming experiences, and this, in tum, makes it essential to include the evaluation of thinking the evaluation programme. The type of content organization adopted puts restrictions, the learning experiences which are possible. The consideration of the nature of students and their back grounds help determine the appropriate content and effective leaming experience But, if these elements are seen as mere components or as organically interacting factors curriculum development, their treatment, too often, becomes mechanical. Then the task curriculum development tends to be regarded as merely technological. ‘A good conceptual model also describes the elements and the relationships among them and their supporting principles in such a way as to indicate priorities among the elements and principles to be’ considercd. It should, however, be noted that not all criteria and principles have equal significance in developing the curriculum often criteria of least significance have priority over criteria of greatest significance. 854. APROPOSED CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT FOR PAKISTAN The study of different conceptual frameworks of curriculum development, elements of curriculum und their interdependence presents vivid picture of an effective curriculum model and enables us to propose one which will not only fulfill our societal needs but will also meet our ideological requirement. In‘ the conceptual framework presented below, values are given the central role, whereas in the frameworks discussed 0 far, values are, either ignored or only implied. This framework shows their essential importance for the determination of objectives, selection of content, methods, and + evaluation, the influence of philosophy and beliefs has been recognized in the models of already discussed. But little specific consideration has been given to the concept of values although they reflect beliefs and philosophies and influence the selection of desirable behavior. Values must be in harmony with the physical environment, the leamer, educational objectives, the content, learning experiences and evaluative procedures in order to bind together the elements of curriculum. Throughout the model, values are transposed and appear in médified forms. As we all know, Pakistan being an ideological state, we have certain hard core’values like virtue , truthfulness, honesty etc. which do not undergo any change over a given period. These values provide the overall framework for determining objectives of education of course, taking into account. other requirement of a society. Then form objective we go to determine content method of teaching and finally the evaluation, After evaluation, in cases of need, we refer back to methods, contents, objectives etc. and then finally to'the values. But here referring back t the values means referring only to their periphery and interpretation side and not their cdre sprit, Activity . Diseuss the rain poiits-of diffeeat conceptual models amongst your fellows! colleagues and try to development a model of your own which you think is appropriate for Pakistan, Values and Needs of = . objectives “7 content ‘= methods @ evaluation society _~ ~ ~ 4.1 Self-assessment Quistions! . 1. Why is curriculum development does a complex undertaking? 2. What kinds of decisions does a curriculum developer require to make? 3. What is Tyler’s mode! of curriculum development? 4. What steps does Hilda suggest for developing a curriculum? 5. Whatis the difference between the'conceptual frameworks developed by Hilda’Taba and Neagley and Evans? You have read about varibus model of curriculum development. Which one do ‘you prefer to be adopted for developing curriculum is Pakistan’ Give reasons. _ 865. PROCESS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT The elements of curriculum constitute four stages in the process of development: ‘(Selection of objectives, Gi) selection and organization of content, (ii) selection and organization of learning éxperiences (methods), and (iv) Evaluation. Culriculum development is not at ativty which is undertaken once and then it finished; itis rather a continuous process. Knowledge and insight gained from evaluation are used as 2 feedback for providing a fresh starting point for further development. Let us briefly describe each one of these steps as under: 5.1 Formulating Objectives Given the values, the first stage in curriculum development is formulation objectives. Objectives determine the structure for building the cu éntire education programme, and the nature of the leaming a ‘embodied in them. If the objectives are expressed precisely and clearly, the. selection and ‘organization of learning activities become easy. But if they are general and vague it becomes difficult to select the content and learning experiences and to evaluate the outcome of instruction. Objectives may be classified as under: () Short and Long -term Objectives Objectives are short or long-term. The former are achieved in a fairly short period of time, while long-term objectives usually cover the entire period of education of an individual. (i) Specific and General Objectives ' Specific objectives are related to a particular arca of the curriculum, where as general objectives are not related to any subject area at all, (iii) Behavioural and General Objectives . Objectives are either expressed in behavioral terms or in more general and non- explicit terms. The movement to-state Objectives in behavioural terms often credited to Tyler. He emphasized that: the purpose of a statement objectives is to indicate the kinds of changes in the student to be brought about so that instructional activities can be planned and developed in a way likely attain these objectives; that is, to bring about these changes in students, Behavioural objectives are expressed in the form of what the students a expected to be able to do at the end of a course, 5.2 Selection of Content The hierarchy of aims, goals and objectives have been discussed under the uriit “Aims, Goals, and Objectives of Education" by Dr. Mushta'q Ahmad Goraha, Selection of content and its organization involve moving from the general objectives to specific objectives that are considered to be achievable by a particular population (say students of class VIII). Specific objectives need not be narrowly stated; they may be open-cnded statements of desired outcomes broadly defined. For example, if the genteral objective 1s to help students to attain skills of continued leaming, the specific objectives, related to it, would be to develop skills of reading, listening, questioning and organizing information. 87The next stép is to identify the possible types of content in each, subject area which will help in achieving the specific objectives. Then arises the question of how to organize the content. Taba suggests that content must be organized with a view to getting adequate scope, sequence and integration. Scope means identifying what is to be covered and learned in depth, A more extensive coverage of the subject is confused with depth of understanding and mental processes leamt. Sequence is concemed with the order’in which content and processes are presented to the students. "Much of the confusion and difficulty in developing cumulative and continuous learning comes from the fact that in setting up sequence in curriculum design, only the sequence of content is considered, while the sequence of the powers and competencies is largely overlooked. Integration is associated with the relationship»between the learning in Various areas of the curriculum which takes place at the same time. : + Selection of content must be made on the basis of certain criteria, some of which might be considered more important than others. Before a particular type of content is Included in a course, it should satisfy the criterion of significance, criterion of interest, and criterion of learn-ability. These criteria have been discussed under the -unit. "Principles and Criteria of Content Selection: by Dr. M. R. Siddiqui and also in unit "Curriculum Change" by Dr. A. R. Saghir. 5.3 Approaches to Content Organization In order to Serve educational objectives, content needs to be organized. The type of content organization followed is perhaps one of the most important factors in determining how learning proceeds. Often the curriculum is ineffective not because its content is inadequate but because it is organized in a. way that makes learning difficult. As Taba observes, chaotic content is usually not effective in attaining any important educational objectives. Content organization is both an difficult and complex. It requires an application of all we know about the nature of knowledge, about child- growth and learning. Following are the approaches to content organization: @ Organization focussed on disciplines/subjects. Organization focussed on specific competencies. G® Organization focussed on social activities an problems. (iv) Organization focussed on process skills. . (¥) Organization focussed on individual needs and interests. @) Organization Focussed 6n Disciplines/Subjects ‘The dominant concept of curriculum, historically and currently, is that of school subjects taught by teacheis and leamt by students. The most characteristic. and comprehensive feature of the subject organization is the relative orderliness of this pattern. The curriculum plan appears neatly divided into subjects which are further sub- divided into divisions corresponding to school grades. This orderliness is the inherent principle structure of a discipline. The structure of a discipline, according to Saylor and Alexander as:~ 88“The set of fundamental generalization that binds a fed of knowledge into a unit", organize this body or knowledge into a cohesive whole, fix the limits of investigation and inclusion of knowledge for the discipline itself and provide the basis for discovering what else exists within the field", - Thus, each of the traditional school subjects such as mathematics, chemistry, and physics, has its own distinct organization, and the curriculum planner has only to determine what of this organization to use, and when and how. But the structure of other subjects is very unclear not comipletely lacking, For example, in Pakistan, materials for Pakistan Studies are down from more than one basic discipline like History, Civics, Geography etc. Amalgamation of these materials necessitates special organization of some order of the content. Similarly in many cases the established disciplines do not offer students opportunities to’ learn to deal with problems of living. Therefore new ‘organizations of content that are basically extra disciplinary or perhaps interdisciplinary have been created and classified as subjects. Business education, environmental education, health education, industrial arts education and physical education are just @ few of the many invented subjects, Thus while the established discipline and the subjects clearly derived from them have an order or structure, many so called subjective have no inherent organization, This makes the total curriculum design appear as confused, The literature on curriculum is full of arguments for and against a curriculum nization based on subjects. One of the most persistent argument given in favour disciplines/subjects organization is that. of educational convenience; that is, since knowledge is organized into disciplines, the easiest way to set a school curriculum is to use these subject This agreement of convenience assumes that schools, teachers, parents and citizens general, are geared to the subject-contred curriculum and support whole- heartedly to this organizational pian. In 1960 Jeroine Bruner favoured disciplines/subjects approach by advancing case for teachifig the structure of the subjects. He writes: °The curriculum of a subject should be determined by the most fundariental understanding that can be achieved of the underlying principles that give structure to that subject: Organizing facts in terms of principles and ideas from which they may be inferred is the only known way of reducing the quick rate of loss of human memory.” Emphasis on structure, Bruner argued, would help each student to achieve his optimum intellectual development "and provide a general picture in terms of which the relations between things encounter earlier and Iater.are made as clear as possible. Limitations: the disciplines/subjects organization approach, however, has the following limitations: 1 The subjects tend to become fixed and the curriculum turns oui to be inflexible. 2 ‘There. is lack of direct rclation of the organized subject matter to the problems and interests of the student. 89It may be of these limitations of the discipline/subject centered organization approach, over Bruner himself in 1971 reconsidered his emphasis on stricture of knowledge expressing doubts on the usefulness of disciplines/subjects approach in the modern world of today, and called for a re-ermphasis on structure of the subjects in favour of attention to more urgent problems. Organization Focused on Specific Competencies The competency-based content organization assumes direct relation among objectives, leaming activities, and. performance. In it the desired performances are stipulated as behavioural objectives or competencies; leaming activities are planned to achieve objectives, and the students performance is checked as a basis for his/her moving from one objective to another. Thus in Pakistan Studies the student learns how to read a map and demonstrates this competency before che leams about and demonstrates his knowledge of particular geographic location and relations, Therefore, an organization based on specific competencies is characterized by specific, sequential, and demonstrable leaming of the tasks, activities, or skills which constitute the aéts to be leamed and performed by students, The advocates of competency-based curriculum place objectives before subject’ matter and call for a curriculum plan which would be built around specific life acti of adults. They insist that the objectives should be focussed on what the student is to learn or to do, not what he study or to experience or even to know. Moreover, they view the objectives, though pointed to performance, as more general guidelines for instruction ‘A somewhat specialized aspect of the competency-based organization is the job analysis procedure which involves specification of the basic skills of a trade or occupation and development of specific training activities for skills in a Sequential arrangement. To the extent that the school trains its students for particular jobs, job training is essential, This curriculum organization contributes efficiently to the develop- ment of job competency. Motivation on the basis of job aspirations is high in this phase of the curriculum, and it contributes to the development of talents and capabilities not fully provided for in other curriculum organizations. Furthermore, specific job training utilizes, to the fullest, the maximum that learning résult, fromexperience, and the more meaningful and significant the experience, the more the learning. : Limitations: Following are the limitations to the competency-based approach 10 content organization: 1 ‘The competency-based approach to curriculum development has much utility for some Objectives, It has maximum ullity in the learning’ skills, but has failed to «develop critical reading, listening and discussion. 2. "Performance can be contrived and falsified, especially when it becomes a basis for marks, rewards and punishment, In the affective domain and even in many Cognitive ‘areas one soon encounters insurmountable difficulties in shaping one- to-one matches of specific competencies dnd leaming experiences. 90