Linguistic and Philosophical Investigations

ISSN: 1841-2394, e-ISSN: 2471-0881

Vol 23 (1), 2024
pp. 702 - 718

Learner-Centered Teaching in Nepal: Insights from Basic

School Teachers, Students and Administrators

1Dr. Rajendra Kumar Shah,2 Samjhana Basnyat

1Associate Professor Tribhuvan University
Sanothimi Campus Faculty of Education
Head of the Department (HOD) Department of Foundation of Education
[email protected] ORCID: 0000-0003-0533-1338
2Assistant ProfessorTribhuvan University
Sanothimi CampusFaculty of Education
Head of the Department (HOD) Department of Education Planning and Management
[email protected] ORCID: 0009-0009-1328-2717
Learner-Centered Teaching in Nepal: Insights from Basic
School Teachers, Students, and Administrators
Abstract
Learner-centered teaching is a philosophy, initially developed in Western countries, is increasingly
influencing education globally, including in developing nations like Nepal. This study aims to explore the
perceptions of teachers, students, and educational administrators in Dhangadhi Sub-Metropolitan City
regarding learner-centered teaching practices. A general qualitative research approach was used, with
purposive sampling selecting 12 teachers, 12 students, and 2 educational administrators from the
Education Section of Dhangadhi Sub-Metropolitan City. Data were collected through in-depth interviews,
and observations. The findings indicate that the curriculum at the school level in Nepal, along with the
national curriculum framework and educational policies, reflects a commitment to learner-centered
teaching. However, despite this formal acknowledgment, there is a noticeable gap when it comes to
providing a clear framework for implementing learner-centered teaching within the curriculum. While the
overall policies advocate for such an approach, the curriculum lacks specific guidelines, structures, or
models that would help teachers effectively adopt and apply learner-centered methods in the classroom.
Accordingly, most basic school teachers support learner-centered teaching, their classroom practices
remain predominantly teacher-centered. Major obstacles include poor physical facilities, overcrowded
classrooms, and insufficient parental support. Additionally, social influences are not always favorable. To
enhance the implementation of learner-centered teaching, adjustments are needed, including greater
community involvement in the teaching and learning process.
Key words: Learner-centered teaching, teacher centred teaching, curriculum, teaching, learning, pedagogy

Received: 10 May 2024 Revised: 10 June 2024 Accepted: 29 June 2024

Pedagogical Practices in the Nepal
Since the establishment of democracy in 1950, Nepal witnessed a divergence from its previously slow and
stagnant educational growth, marked by an increase in the opening of schools. Prior to this period,
education in Nepal was predominantly influenced by faith and classical Sanskrit traditions, with limited

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implementation of Western education during the Rana regime (Shah, 2024). During the ancient and
medieval periods, teaching was primarily teacher-centered and based on rote learning. Religious scriptures
and select literature constituted the main educational materials (Bajracharya, 1974). The tradition of orally
transmitting knowledge was necessitated by the scarcity of written texts. Consequently, religious books
were the primary sources for teaching and learning (Shah, 2024; Alexander, 2000). Rather than fostering
understanding, the norm was the memorization and replication of subject matter. Alexander (2000)
characterized this form of pedagogy: "the mode of transmission was oral - through continuous recitation
and repetition, backward and forward from teacher to students; texts were committed to memory." In this
system, teachers held a high status as the primary sources of information and exercised considerable
autonomy in text selection and pedagogy, tailored to individual needs and processes. Progression to the
next level of learning was contingent upon a student's ability to memorize and recite a given piece of text
to the instructor (Altekar, 1956).
During the Rana period, English was adopted as the medium of instruction. The educational materials
predominantly comprised religious scriptures and select literature. The curriculum relied heavily on a
limited number of textbooks (Singh, 2012). Religious instruction, both Buddhist and Hindu, was
characterized by rote learning, group recitations, and the repetition. The religious education system lacked
a structured examination method, with student progression being entirely dependent on the teacher's
discretion. Education during the Rana era was predominantly academic, emphasizing drilling,
memorization, and lecturing Aryal, 1970). However, standardized evaluations began to emerge in the form
of half-yearly and annual examinations.
The advent of democracy in Nepal facilitated the opening of schools and the advancement of education. The
first commission on education, the Nepal National Education Planning Commission (NNEPC) of 1954,
signaled the commencement of the projected growth of Nepal's educational sector. Subsequent educational
reform commissions, such as the All-Round National Education Commission (ARNEC) in 1961 and the
National Education System Plan (NESP) in 1971, further contributed to this development. These
commissions led to the establishment of dedicated school buildings, adequate numbers of classrooms, and
a sufficient cadre of teachers. Arrangements for grade-wise education, textbooks, and examinations were
systematically instituted. Despite these advancements, traditional pedagogical methods persisted,
characterized by lecturing, drilling, rote memorization, and chorus repetition.
Beginning in 1984, the Seti Programme, Primary Education Development Programme (PEDP), and Primary
Education Project (PEP) have significantly influenced the growth of education, impacting initiatives that
continue to this day. Various educational initiatives, such as the National Education Commission (NEC),
Basic and Primary Education Programme I (BPEP-I), Basic and Primary Education Programme II (BPEP-II),
the National High Level Education Commission, Education for All (EFA), and the School Sector Reform
(SSR), have substantially contributed to the advancement of education in Nepal during this period. The
emphasis on and value placed on access to quality education have become increasingly relevant. Schools
were designed to include essential facilities such as houses, toilets, playgrounds, greenhouses, and
compounds. Classrooms were required to be adequately illuminated and ventilated and equipped with
appropriate furniture, appliances, and sufficient space. However, despite these advancements, deficiencies
in physical facilities remain (Shah, 2024). Many schools still operate in old buildings with inadequate
classrooms, overcrowded lessons, and a lack of toilets or separate restrooms for boys and girls (Shah,
2020). Additionally, issues such as poor furnishing and overall inadequate physical infrastructure continue
to be observed.
The curriculum and textbooks have undergone multiple revisions since 1984. Essential features of the
program have been established, including grade-wise terminal targets, primary-level terminal goals,
subject-area scope and sequence, and the availability of optional subjects (Sharma, 2005). Emphasis has
been placed on making the program more practical and applicable to everyday life, as well as on ensuring
it is gender-responsive, equitable, and child/student-friendly (Singh, 2012). Textbooks were updated in
conjunction with curriculum revisions. The importance of using the mother tongue for instruction at lower
primary grades has also been highlighted. However, there has been a shortage of training content and

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 limited implementation of these updated methodologies. Traditional pedagogical methods, such as whole-
class instruction, lecturing, instructor superiority, and a focus on test orientation, continue to be prevalent
(Singh, 2012). This is despite the emphasis on individualized teaching, child/student-centered approaches,
and continuous and formative assessment.
In Nepalese schools, pedagogical practices are primarily dominated by teachers, who treat students as a
homogeneous group and place a high emphasis on rote memorization. A comprehensive pedagogical
approach, where the entire class is taught in the same way and at the same pace at all times, is not conducive
to the needs of children, particularly those who differ from the majority in the classroom. The slogan
"quality education for all" necessitates attention to the individual appropriateness of pedagogy for each
child LCT, as highlighted in the objectives of Nepal's primary education system, has been reiterated in
important educational documents (MOES, p. 13, 2002).
At present, there are notable discrepancies in the support provided to teachers and the practices employed,
particularly when analyzed through the lens of more effective pedagogical approaches such as LCT. One
major issue is the provision of a single national-level curriculum and a single textbook. In contrast, an LCT
curriculum is typically constructed according to the interests and needs of the pupils, utilizing a variety of
resources and activities (Hawes and Hawes, 1932). Another significant discrepancy is the emphasis on
norm-referenced tests. While the current system prioritizes these assessments, LCT employs criterion-
referenced tests with a formative emphasis, which are better suited to individual learning progress (Craft,
1996). Additionally, there is a dominance of whole-class teaching. This method fails to address the
differentiated levels of student learning effectively, whereas LCT advocates for individualized or group
teaching to better meet diverse student needs.
Student promotion is predominantly based on periodic, summative evaluations. In an LCT approach,
however, students should receive continuous support to maximize their learning potential. This continuous
assessment allows for ongoing feedback and adjustment, fostering a more supportive and effective learning
environment. Classroom pedagogical practices are significantly influenced by teacher preparation and the
transfer of training skills. This study examined the transfer of these training skills within classroom
settings. Findings indicated that there are no significant differences in the classroom delivery practices
between trained and untrained teachers. Moreover, studies in Nepal have highlighted that there is no
substantial difference in the academic achievements of students taught by trained versus untrained
teachers.
Studies on the impact of training have highlighted several shortcomings. Trainers often fail to serve as role
models for teachers, which undermines the effectiveness of the training. Additionally, large class sizes and
poor classroom facilities create environments that are not conducive to the implementation of improved
pedagogical methods. Teachers frequently lack the competence to properly utilize LCT methods. The
training packages themselves also have deficiencies, such as a lack of activity-based learning components.
While the vision of pedagogical improvement through LCT and diversity education is appropriate for
enhancing the quality of education, several critical questions remain unanswered. It is necessary to define
what LCT means in the context of Nepal. Efforts to achieve LCT must be consolidated effectively.
Additionally, appropriate assessment tools need to be identified and their purposes clearly defined.
Classroom pedagogy must also account for the diverse population of children in Nepalese schools.
Furthermore, it is essential to examine the conditions and activities necessary to enable teachers to identify
their pedagogical needs and employ better approaches in their classrooms. This includes creating
supportive environments, providing adequate resources, and offering continuous professional
development to ensure that teachers can implement LCT effectively.
Research questions

• How do basic school teachers, students and administrators perceive learner-centered teaching?
• How do basic school teachers and students implement learner-centered teaching in their classrooms?
• What challenges do basic school teachers and students encounter when applying learner-centered teaching
methods?

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Review of the Literature
This section is divided into two parts: theoretical and empirical. The theoretical part offers an in-depth
analysis of learner-centered teaching, examining its foundational concepts, theories, models, and
pedagogical principles. It explores how these concepts are applied in practice, their rationale, and their
implications for teaching and learning. The empirical part reviews previous studies on LCT, focusing on
implementation, outcomes, and challenges. It synthesizes key findings, identifies trends and gaps, and
discusses their implications for current practices and future research. Together, these analyses provide a
comprehensive overview of LCT, combining theoretical insights with practical evidence.
Theories informing learner-centred teaching
LCT can be interpreted differently by various scholars who emphasize the significant role of learners in
pedagogical practices. One common definition of LCT includes the idea that students should have some
degree of control and responsibility over the appraisal process, such as through peer and self-assessment
(Falchikov & Boud, 1989; Klenowski, 1995; Topping, 1998). This perspective highlights the importance of
students being actively involved in evaluating their own and their peers' progress. Additionally, LCT in
curriculum design often involves empowering learners to make decisions about what to study and how to
approach their learning. This approach allows students to take charge of their educational journey, which
is a core aspect of LCT (O'Neill & McMahon, 2005). This empowerment is not limited to learners alone; it
also involves a shift in the roles of teachers. Rather than merely delivering content, teachers are expected
to facilitate the learning process by helping students achieve their educational goals. According to Kember
(1997), LCT emphasizes the outcomes of student learning rather than the content itself, placing the
responsibility on teachers to support and guide students towards desirable results. Furthermore, LCT is
often defined as promoting the development of learners throughout the learning process. In practice, this
means that learners should receive ongoing, formative assessments rather than just end-of-course
summative evaluations. Daily feedback and continuous assessment are crucial for reinforcing learning and
helping students to grow and improve continuously (Brown, 2004; Gibbs & Simpson, 2004). By
incorporating regular evaluations, LCT strengthens the learning experience and supports student
development more effectively.
LCT requires the adaptation of pedagogical processes to align with the needs, desires, learning styles, and
contexts of individual children. According to Wiles and Bondi (1993), an approach centered on the child
must focus on each student individually to provide comprehensive learning experiences across affective,
cognitive, and psychomotor domains. This approach underscores the importance of addressing the varied
dimensions of student development and tailoring instruction to meet diverse needs. The principles of
quality and equity in education are inherently linked to a child-centered approach. Hawes and Hawes
(1932) further define LCT as an educational theory or system that prioritizes the pupil and their individual
characteristics in the instructional process. This perspective shifts the focus away from subject matter,
external authority, and rigid educational requirements, placing the student at the center of learning.
Consequently, the curriculum is designed based on the interests and needs of the students, ensuring that
educational content is relevant and engaging for each learner.
A critical issue in pedagogical practices is determining who should be the central decision-maker in a child's
education: the teacher or adult, or the child themselves. In this context, Jean-Jacques Rousseau's
perspective offers significant insights. Rousseau argued that children should be granted more genuine
freedom and autonomy, allowing them to take a more active role in their learning experiences. He
emphasized that experience plays a crucial role in learning and should precede formal instruction.
Rousseau believed that education should not begin with the extensive body of information adults deem
important but rather with what the child is capable of learning and interested in.

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Rousseau's viewpoint highlights the distinction between children and adults in terms of perception and
understanding. He argued that children should exercise reason based on their own experiences rather than
on concepts beyond their comprehension (Doddington and Hilton, 2007). This approach suggests that
instead of starting with predetermined subjects and skills valued by adults, education should begin with
what is already within the child's experience and ability. By focusing on this, learning becomes more
engaging and enjoyable, fostering a child's desire to continue learning and developing into a responsible
member of society (Sutherland, 1988).
Edgeworth developed a methodology course grounded in the principles of LCT. In his approach, Edgeworth
advocated for encouraging children to learn through invention and exploration rather than through
traditional, rigid disciplines that may be beyond their comprehension (Doddington and Hilton, 2007). This
methodology emphasizes engaging children in creative processes that foster their learning, rather than
imposing external structures or content that may not align with their developmental stage or interests.
Similarly, Pestalozzi, a prominent educational philosopher, championed the idea of nurturing a child's
innate knowledge (Doddington and Hilton, 2007). Pestalozzi believed that education should begin with
moral development and gradually integrate intellectual education as the child’s awareness grows. He
argued that intellectual education should start with object perception and then expand in alignment with
the child's cognitive development. Pestalozzi viewed children as active participants in their learning
process and critiqued the rote learning methods prevalent during his time. He stressed that the role of
educators was not to impose knowledge but to facilitate and encourage the child's self-activity through
sensory experiences (Doddington and Hilton, 2007). This approach aimed to foster an environment where
children could actively engage in learning, thus moving away from traditional, passive methods of
instruction.
The Plowden Report, published in 1967, is widely recognized as a seminal work in the field of child-
centered education. Officially titled "Children and Their Primary Schools," this report is celebrated for its
profound impact on educational practices and its enduring influence on the principles of LCT. The most
frequently quoted passage from the report, “At the heart of the educational process lies the child” (CACE,
1967), encapsulates the core philosophy of LCT, which places the child at the center of the educational
experience. The Plowden Report emphasizes that achieving the desired educational outcomes requires
aligning legislation, curriculum, and other educational elements with the intrinsic needs and acceptance of
the child. The report advocates for more formal and flexible training methods, such as group work, which
were highlighted as pivotal in creating an effective learning environment. This approach contrasts with
traditional methods and underscores the importance of adapting educational practices to the needs of the
child. According to the report, the school environment should be designed to provide children with a
supportive atmosphere that allows them to develop naturally, at their own pace, and in a manner that is
appropriate for them. This philosophy reflects a broader vision of education that responds to the inherent
growth patterns of children, emphasizing a curriculum that is both transparent and thematic.
The major philosophies emerging from the Plowden analysis advocate for a primary education system that
is responsive to the developmental needs of children. The report promotes a curriculum that facilitates
learning through the provision of resources and the encouragement of exploration, rather than relying
solely on traditional, didactic teaching methods. The Plowden Report thus represents a significant shift
towards a more child-centered approach in education, one that values the child’s active role in the learning
process and seeks to create a nurturing environment conducive to their holistic development (Doddington
and Hilton, 2007).
Dewey, a prominent educational theorist, made significant contributions to understanding the relationship
between education and society. In his 1899 work, Dewey emphasized the critical link between schools and
the broader social context, arguing for necessary reforms in educational practices to better align with
contemporary social needs. He was concerned that educational methods and materials were not adequately
addressing the diverse and evolving needs of students within their local contexts. Dewey argued that
schools needed to adapt their approaches to better reflect and respond to the social environment in which
they operated. He believed that educational methods should evolve to meet the specific needs of students

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and their communities, rather than adhering to outdated or irrelevant practices. This perspective
underscores the importance of making education more relevant and responsive to the social and cultural
contexts of the time.
Dewey’s concerns extended to the availability of resources in schools. He noted that many schools lacked
sufficient resources to provide meaningful learning experiences for children, particularly those from
under-resourced regions. Dewey was critical of traditional methods that relied heavily on abstract
instruction and theoretical content, advocating instead for practical exercises and hands-on learning
experiences. He argued that science education, in particular, should involve direct, practical activities
rather than relying solely on textbooks and lectures. In his 1915 work, Dewey further developed his ideas
about the role of children’s interests in the learning process. He stressed that education should be centered
around the interests and experiences of the child, rather than focusing solely on prescribed curricula or
external standards. Dewey viewed fiction and other engaging media as integral to the educational
experience, recognizing that these tools could connect with children’s lived experiences and stimulate their
natural curiosity and motivation to learn. Overall, Dewey’s educational philosophy emphasizes the need for
education to be dynamically integrated with societal needs and to engage students through relevant,
practical experiences. His work advocates for a more student-centered approach that considers the
interests and contexts of learners, aiming to create educational environments that are both meaningful and
effective.
Empirical Studies
This section provides a comprehensive review of previous studies, divided into two subsections for clarity.
The first focuses on research conducted in Nepal, analyzing local nuances, methodologies, key findings, and
implications. The second subsection examines international studies, comparing and contrasting them with
those from Nepal. This comparison highlights approaches and findings, identifying common themes and
applications. The review synthesizes existing knowledge and identifies gaps for future research, offering a
thorough understanding of the current state of research on the topic.
Nepalese studies on learner centred teaching
Bajarcharya (1995) conducted a Ph.D. study on using a narrative approach to enhance the interaction
between science and culture in education. The research examined science education within real school and
social settings, revealing that social and cultural beliefs often permeate classroom discussions. This
approach created dynamic interactions by merging scientific inquiry with cultural beliefs, leading to more
engaging and interactive learning environments compared to traditional rote memorization methods. The
study found that the narrative approach significantly increased student engagement, encouraging deeper
discussions and explorations of scientific concepts within their cultural contexts. However, it also noted a
paradox: while students found the learning process effortless and engaging, they felt anxious about not
being taught science in the traditional sense, worrying about course completion. Overall, Bajarcharya's
study highlighted both the advantages and challenges of integrating a narrative approach in science
teaching. It emphasized the importance of cultural contexts in education and suggested that narrative
techniques can make learning more interactive and meaningful. However, it also stressed the need to
balance innovative methods with students' expectations and concerns about academic progress.
In 1997, Joshi conducted a comprehensive study titled “Determinants of Mathematics Achievement Using
Structural Equation Modelling.” This research aimed to identify and analyze the various factors influencing
the success of students in mathematics. Among the many determinants, the study particularly highlighted
the significant impact of teacher availability and competence on student achievement. Joshi found that the
lack of trained and skilled teachers was a critical issue, especially in rural areas. This shortage of qualified
educators was identified as a major barrier to effective mathematics education, impeding student progress
and performance. In contrast, while urban areas had better access to trained and skilled teachers, these
regions faced their own challenges. The study pointed out that the scarcity of adequate teaching materials
in urban classrooms also hindered the teaching and learning process. This shortage of resources, despite
the presence of competent teachers, created obstacles that affected the quality of education and student

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outcomes in mathematics. Furthermore, Joshi’s research delved into the role of peer involvement in the
learning process. The study found that there were generally low levels of peer interaction and collaborative
learning among students, both within and outside the school environment. This lack of peer engagement
was identified as a significant factor influencing the learning atmosphere. The study suggested that
increased peer involvement could potentially enhance the achievement of mathematics students by
providing a more supportive and interactive learning environment. Overall, Joshi’s 1997 study provided a
detailed examination of the multifaceted factors affecting mathematics achievement. It underscored the
importance of having trained and skilled teachers, particularly in rural areas, and highlighted the need for
adequate teaching materials in urban settings. Additionally, it emphasized the potential benefits of
fostering greater peer involvement in the learning process to create a more conducive environment for
student success in mathematics.
In his 2006 Ph.D. study titled "Curriculum Standards: Implications of the Desired and Current Standards
for the Reform of Mathematics Education in Nepal," Sharma investigated the discrepancies between the
desired curriculum standards and the current practices in secondary education. Sharma identified a need
for a pedagogical shift, recommending the incorporation of new content into the secondary level
curriculum. His study proposed six innovative teaching methods: demonstration, response to questions,
inquiry, practical application, inductive reasoning, and problem-solving. However, Sharma found that
teachers predominantly adhered to traditional teaching practices, showing a reluctance to adopt innovative
methods. This conservative approach was largely attributed to the backwash effect of the existing
examination system, which emphasized rote memorization and repetitive drilling. Consequently,
classroom instruction remained focused on memorization and reproduction of information to align with
the examination requirements.
Aboard studies on learner centred teaching
Research studies exploring LCT have employed both positivist and interpretive/qualitative methods.
Garret and Shortall (2002) conducted a survey with 103 college students in Brazil to evaluate their
experiences with learner-centered versus teacher-centered activities. The survey utilized a questionnaire
that included items measuring affective reactions (such as enjoyment and anxiety) and perceived learning
value (learning outcomes) on a 5-point scale. In addition to providing ratings, participants were asked to
articulate the reasons behind their responses. The findings revealed that students perceived learner-
centered activities as more enjoyable, fun, and relaxing. However, in terms of perceived learning value,
students rated teacher-centered activities more favorably. This suggests that while students find learner-
centered activities more engaging and enjoyable, they are uncertain about the effectiveness of these
activities for their language development.
In Vietnam, Van Dang (2006) employed observation as the primary research method, supplemented by
interviews, to investigate the implementation of learner-centered approaches in an EFL teacher training
college. The study revealed that the learner-centered approach significantly enhanced classroom
interaction, with activities such as publishing bulletins and conducting mini-conferences being particularly
effective. The EFL teachers involved were noted for their high proficiency and strong motivation. However,
Van Dang observed that the success of the learner-centered approach was heavily dependent on factors
such as class structure, physical environment, and classroom culture. These factors can be challenging to
manage, particularly in large classroom settings. It is important to note that all of the studies mentioned
were conducted in secondary schools or adult language teaching contexts, with none focusing on primary
schools.
Rahman (1987) conducted a comprehensive case study to examine the implementation of a learner-
centered curriculum in primary education across four schools in Malaysia. The primary objective of this
study was to assess the extent to which the principles of learner-centered education were being practiced
by primary school teachers. Despite the curriculum being in place for four years, Rahman found that the
conceptual understanding and practical application of learner-centered education principles were
significantly lacking in the observed schools. The study revealed that the teachers predominantly adhered

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to the traditional English Language Teaching (ELT) methodology known as Present-Practice-Produce
(PPP).
This approach involves presenting new language material, practicing it through controlled activities, and
producing it in more communicative contexts. Rahman's observations indicated that the teachers were not
effectively integrating the principles of learner-centered education, which emphasizes student autonomy,
active learning, and a focus on individual learner needs and interests. The findings suggest that despite the
formal adoption of a learner-centered curriculum, the entrenched teaching practices and possibly
insufficient teacher training or support resulted in limited practical changes in classroom instruction.
Rahman's study underscores the challenges in shifting from traditional teaching paradigms to more
progressive, learner-centered approaches, particularly in contexts where established practices are deeply
rooted. This highlights the need for ongoing professional development and structural support to facilitate
meaningful implementation of learner-centered education principles.
Methods and Procedures
Given the nature of the research questions in this study, a general qualitative research tradition was
employed without adhering to a specific qualitative method. Qualitative research focuses on understanding
and explaining issues through their social significance, making it useful for exploring complex or evolving
topics. This approach provides a comprehensive interpretation of participants' perspectives and actions
within the context of their overall lives (Ritchie et al., 2013). A key feature of this tradition is sense-making.
In the present study, the researcher aimed to understand how educators, learners, and administrators
perceive and experience learner - centered teaching.
Sampling procedures
In the present study, a purposive sampling technique was employed. This method relies on the researcher’s
judgment to select specific units for investigation based on their relevance to the research objectives. Unlike
probability sampling techniques, which involve random selection and typically yield larger samples,
purposive sampling results in a relatively small sample size. This approach is chosen for its focus on
obtaining detailed and contextually rich data from targeted participants who are deemed particularly
relevant to the study.
Respondents
In this study, the sample comprised twelve teachers and twelve students from four basic schools in
Dhangadhi Sub-Metropolitan Municipality, Kailali District. Additionally, two administrators from the
Education Section of Dhangadhi Sub-Metropolitan were included. The schools involved were: (i) Parbati
Basic School, Purano Airport, (ii) Janata Basic School, Chatakpur, (iii) Rastriya Basic School, Taranagar, and
(iv) Saraswoti Basic School, Bangarakatan. Each school contributed three teachers, with a total of eight
female and four male teachers, aged between 20 and 55, and with teaching experience ranging from 2 to
40 years. The student participants, five boys and seven girls, were aged 8 to 14. All participants consented
to take part after being briefed on the study's objectives.
Instruments
The present study employed two research tools: in-depth interviews and classroom observations. In-depth
interviews provided detailed insights into participants' perspectives and experiences, while classroom
observations allowed for the direct assessment of teaching practices and student interactions. Together,
these methods offered a comprehensive understanding of the educational environment and its dynamics.
Procedure
In this study, trial observations and in-depth interviews were initially conducted at Parbati Basic School,
Purano Airport, Dhangadhi. Feedback from a member of the Dhangadhi Sub-Metropolitan City Education
Section led to adjustments to ensure cultural sensitivity in the questions. Subsequently, three interviews
and three observations were carried out at each of the four schools. Each interview lasted approximately

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one hour, and each observation covered a single 35-minute class period. A focus group was held at each
school, taking about 45 minutes. The research team, comprising three student researchers, visited the
schools over three days, typically conducting observations on the first day and interviews and focus groups
on the second and third days. A contact person from the Education Section accompanied the team during
these visits. After completing the school visits, the team interviewed two Education Section employees at
the Dhangadhi Sub-Metropolitan City office. To ensure data reliability and validity, observations were
conducted in pairs, and the first two school interviews, as well as those at the Education Section office, were
also conducted in pairs. Subsequent interviews and focus groups were conducted individually due to time
constraints. All interviews and focus groups were recorded with formal consent from the participants. The
researchers used a consistent topic list and reviewed each other’s recordings to enhance internal validity
and reliability.
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed using qualitative methods with an inductive approach. Transcriptions were coded
with labels to enhance transparency and verifiability, thereby improving reliability. To ensure internal
validity, labels were closely matched to respondents' answers. The analysis involved three phases: open
labeling and encrypting, defining and organizing labels into categories, and integrating and relating these
categories. This process led to the development of core labels that addressed the research questions. The
study's reliability is strengthened by the method’s repeatability. Initial analyses of interviews and
observations were conducted in pairs, while subsequent analyses were done individually. All data were
processed carefully, anonymously, and not shared with third parties.
Findings
This section addresses the key findings related to each research question, incorporating observational
notes as well as interviews with teachers, informants, and focus groups with students. Each quotation is
labeled to identify whether it is from a teacher (T), student (S), or administrator (A). Unless otherwise
noted, the number of participants in each group is not specified. The results reveal four major themes,
which are detailed in the following sections.
Perceptions on learner centred teaching
The main actor of the teaching learning process is the teacher. By implementing the curriculum, the teacher
is doing the work of developing the knowledge, skills and attitudes of the students. Teachers are doing the
work of bringing changes in the students during the school period. Therefore, teachers' perception and
practice also play an important role in teaching learning process. In this section, the perceptions of teachers,
students and administrators on LCT:
Teachers' perceptions on LCT
Teachers pointed out that that every learner is different and learners have to be self-centered to succeed
in life. Thus, almost all teachers agreed that empowering individuality was necessary in LCT. They all
mentioned that there is something every person excels at. They also often made a distinction between skills
and abilities when doing this. 'Some learners are not academically gifted, but in skills or imagination' (9T). It
was primarily about improving the academically underperforming pupils while reflecting on the value of
acquiring practical skills. 'He couldn't understand much, but he was able to acquire something when you took
him outside in the field, the yard' (4T). In order to become autonomous, teachers want learners to learn
abilities and skills are built as learner practically do things.
Teachers suggested that LCT indicates that the teacher presents and provides examples, but most tasks are
done by the child. 'Teachers are expected to supervise, encourage and assist students' (8T). In this way, the
role of a guide is for teachers. Teachers will teach what life is all about, helping children build a view of life
and become great people in life. Children should use creativity of their own. 'Students should not copy, but
do it on their own' (11T). Children can, in addition, express themselves. 'Students should learn about jumping
and laughing' (7T). Teachers also pointed out that often children are too quiet. Pupils also presume that the

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tutor knows best. A supportive learning environment is important in order to let pupils express themselves.
'It is the teacher's job to build a free school environment in which students respected' (9T). There are also
many items learned by children because children need to be interested to understand. One participant
mentioned that free expression is more important than discipline. Nevertheless, all teacher stated
discipline is very important, because there is no way an undisciplined child can pass school and too much
freedom will not help the pupils. This does not always cohere with the learner-centered attitudes most
teachers have: ‘Children should not talk all the time’ (2T), and ‘some children are undisciplined without use of
gain’ (8T). However, most of the time disciplining happens by guiding and counselling: caning can do
disservice to children, and being too strict makes pupils resistant.
Learners' perception on LCT
The learners also find it important that there is discipline in the class. ‘I like discipline to remind us not to
joke around’ (2S). It became clear during the focus groups with the pupils that they did not really know
what learner-centered education means or what the advantages are. The learners seemed unfamiliar with
critical questions about their education, responding by describing the current situation automatically. A
learner said after a brief explanation, ‘this is not in our school' (1S). It is interesting to note that most
students seem to prefer aspects that suit a more teacher-centered education. A student stated that he
preferred listening to independent work. During class, another pupil liked to make a few notes and read at
home what the teacher had said. A boy also gave an example of his old school: 'A teacher focused more on
pupils in my old school than the exams, which caused the pupils to fail and not pass' (3S). The students also
pointed out that their teachers are humble people who might ask questions about them. Some kids also
preferred to work independently than to listen.
Administrator's perception on LCT
It seems that the secondary level curriculum has absorbed LCT principles. But for teachers, LCT is very
challenging. 'Teachers are not able to implement this teaching method effectively' (A2). They have not been
trained enough about it. It has not been possible to sensitize all the teachers across the country about the
teaching learning strategies included in the curriculum. On the one hand, there is a lack of skilled teachers,
on the other hand, there is also a lack of suitable environment for student-centered teaching in schools.
Conventional teacher-centered teaching is prevalent in all schools in Nepal (A1). It seems that the teachers
are also teaching through the traditional lecture method. Teachers read the lessons given in the books and
narrate them to the students and then explain them. It is very difficult to immediately change this kind of
educational situation. Teachers are not skilled in teaching through activity method. 'There is not much space
in the classroom for activities' (A1). Due to the large number of students, it is very difficult to implement the
LCT in the classroom.
Prevailing pedagogical practices in Nepal
Pedagogical practices is the most important aspect of the educational process. If teachers are able to make
their class delivery effective, the purpose of education can be easily accomplished. But still teachers'
teaching is based on traditional thought and archaic thinking. Schools in Nepal are still based on teacher-
centered teaching. Teachers and textbooks are the fundamental aspects of the pedagogical practices.
Perceptions of teachers, students, and administrators regarding the pedagogical practices are presented in
the following sections:
Teachers' perceptions on LCT
The teachers gave explanations of what they practically do in class during the interviews. There were
different things going forward. The goal of teachers was to use multiple teaching methods. They listed
elements that suit a learner-centered way of education on the one hand. Teachers believed that instead of
classes, they could challenge citizens. Let children function in class independently: without being
instructed, pupils will do things. 'If you just talk, children sleep' (5T). Teachers have said that real-life
resources are used in the curriculum and confirmed that they use group work. In informal groups, children
will discuss issues. The children have stated that they work in groups often and support each other in class.

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On the other hand, certain teacher-centered elements were also stated by teachers. For instance, ‘one
teacher said that during class he doesn't talk to children in class, you just teach and offer information' (4T).
Learners' perception on LCT
The students affirm this, ‘the teacher sometimes comes and talks the entire class' (S) and ‘our teacher
sometimes sends us several notes but no clarification’ (2S). The findings didn't fit the teachers' learner-
centered expectations much of the time. LCT were often identified in the class, but the central role was
performed most of the time by the teacher. This lecture was about listening and replying to the chorus.
Children did not ask questions at all and occasionally took notes. Teachers also asked to check if the
children were still adopting 'we are together.' The students then respond with a 'yes' chorus, even though
some could not have heard or were not listening. The teacher called for a recitation of the material most of
the time. This was often demanded by the class as a whole, sometimes even by individual children. There
were just a few questions noted by teachers challenging kids to consider or reason logically. There was
active use of textbooks in a few classes, but there were ample books for all the children only once. The class
went outdoors in a few observations, for example to make a windmill or to practice counting through the
use of stones. Pupils' seating arrangements were often in rows, but most frequently in clusters. Often the
teacher proposed options for community work. There were only a few students directly involved in these
programs. There was hardly any interaction with the students, only a handful did the job. The bulk of social
events were held in secrecy. Overall, the most striking finding was that there were no questions posed by
children in class.
Administrator's perception on LCT
It is not possible to bring about change in classroom delivery unless serious discourse is done on the
process of transforming the knowledge gained in teacher education curriculum, teaching and training in
the classroom to produce teachers. Training is provided to teachers every year. But teachers are rarely
trained in the innovative teaching learning methods. The knowledge and skills learned in the training are not
reaching the classroom and the students (1A). There is not serious thinking about how to bring the
knowledge and skills acquired in the training to the classroom. No matter how much knowledge and skills
teachers acquire, they insist on rote learning (2A). Because the traditional teacher-centered method is easier
than other methods and teachers do not want to work hard. The teachers make the students read the
textbook and make them memorize what is written in it. It does not develop critical thinking of the learners.
On the contrary, it destroys their critical thinking.
Societal influence on classroom delivery
Society establishes schools. Schools are necessary for society and schools are also very necessary for
society. Schools or teachers have an important role in social change. Only the children of the community
study in school. There is unique relationship between schools and society. Therefore, school and society
complement each other. The following paragraphs present the opinions of teachers, students and
administrators about the impact of society and the family on education.
Teachers' perceptions on LCT
Social influences often put pressure on the teachers in the teachers' perceptions. Many teachers pointed
out that the government is result-oriented, there is an exam-oriented structure that only requires children
to comply and graduate. The government insists on the curriculum, and the government wants all lessons
to be taught. 'Government forces kids to force teachers' (8T). The government would like to reform the
structure of education to make education more realistic. Multiple teachers state that ‘earlier education was
more teacher-centered and the government, however often promotes something verbally, but not realistic'
(6T). By wanting to see academic results, parents often placed pressure on the teacher's position.
Nevertheless, parents also transfer duties to educators. Teachers have found out that the situation at home
is often different from the situation at school: teachers communicate more with the kids, and at home there
is no complete speech. 'Critical thinking is hard for kids because they are not used to it at home' (2T).
Teachers thought that the school can be a safeguard for a poor home situation: teachers can give kids a

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picture that some do not see at home. In this the students were less evident, sometimes they said parents
were more-strict, sometimes it was the school. Teachers can get parents' social support as well. Teachers
suggested that the child should feel comfortable performing in class at home. As a team, parents and
teachers should work. 'A house with books can't be compared with one without' (8T). Apart from social
influences, the experienced self-efficacy is also important for the perceptions of teachers. Teachers
mentioned they were able to teach but also that it is difficult to teach. Most of the teachers mentioned that
motivation of the teacher was also very important. Thereby, teacher preparation is important. Most
teachers mentioned ‘we have these skills’. When talking about the consideration of the difficulty, teachers
stated that teaching can be challenging in a large class, and focus on syllabus makes practical teaching hard.
One teacher stated he missed skills such as creativity and problem solving (5T).
Learners' perception on LCT
Children studying in school also spend a lot of time at home and in society. Although it seems that the school
teaches all the learning to the children, the learning taught by the home and the society is very effective.
Therefore, compared to learning at school, learning at home and society is lifelong learning. It is very
important for children to be disciplined according to the values of our society and family (7T). We cannot
openly discuss any topic with our parents. Arguing openly with parents is against home and family
discipline. Children should follow what their parents say silently.
Administrator's perception on LCT
Nepali society is still in the archaic way of thinking. Democratic values, recognition, culture are not given
priority in the family. In a family, children should obey what their parents say. Children cannot refute the
opinion of their parents. Whatever is right or wrong, children have to follow it. It is not enough to practice
democracy only in schools. In this context, one administrator comment:
Even if the teachers in the school openly discuss and interact with the students, that behavior cannot be
practiced in the family. Because in the family, children can't talk to their parents about things they don't
understand.
In LCT, children actively learn by themselves. They learn by interacting and discussing with their peers.
Children lead their own learning. But on the contrary, in the home, family and society, children should
accept the leadership of their parents. They cannot go against the decision of their parents. Thus, in this
way, there is a contradiction in the approach of schools and society towards democracy (1A). Even in Nepali
society, democracy has not been properly practiced. Even though Nepali society has theoretically adopted
democratic values, beliefs, and norms, in practice, hegemony still persists. There is still a huge gap between
different classes of people in the society. There is a difference between rich people and the poor, backward
and uneducated people. This has affected their children. Its effect has reached even the school classrooms.
Blockades in learner-centered teaching
Teachers' perceptions on LCT
Many things are needed to implement LCT. But there are many hurdles and obstacles to successfully
implementing it in the secondary school classroom. First of all, the school environment is not suitable for
implementing LCT. Our school classroom are small where activities are not possible (7T). Forty to sixty
students have to be taught in one classroom (3T). The school lacks essential materials for teaching such as
playgrounds, open spaces, desks and benches. There is a huge shortage of teaching materials and libraries
in schools. There is a lack of reading materials for teachers and students to understand LCT (1T). If these
materials were available in the library, teachers and students would benefit from it. It is very important to
arrange books related to teaching methods in the library. There are several considerations that make the
use of LCT difficult in context of Nepal. First of all, some children are very vulnerable in class. Many children
are orphans, some pupils are hungry, and in the upper classes there are menstruation problems. Some
pupils also have issues with the language of the English, which affects the quality of the education. The fact
that all teachers point out that there are not enough teaching materials in school is a big barrier. ‘We're

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forced to teach teacher-centered 'without teaching aids’ (8T). Because of a lack of finance, the buildings are
often in bad conditions. The use of LCT is made difficult by overcrowded classes. During the observations,
the researchers also noticed these difficult elements in the environment. In the Nepalese context, there are
fewer factors that ease the use of LCT. Teachers indicated that in the school, the community could play a
protective role. The teachers have also stated that their strength is that the teachers work together and
support each other.
Learners' perception on LCT
For effective teaching in the classroom, it is necessary for teachers to be trained and well versed in research.
The teachers who teach us try to explain the lessons in our textbooks. There is no such thing as bringing
them out of the classroom and doing activities. We are not able to understand many topics (6S). I am very
afraid to ask sirs (11S). The teachers teach through the traditional lecture method. Teaching in this way
does not require much effort and it is easy to control the students. It is necessary for the government to
provide continuous training to teachers in pedagogical practices and to provide authentic books about LCT
in libraries. It is also very important to arrange information and communication technology for teachers to
learn pedagogical knowledge and skills.
Administrator's perception on LCT
There are also many people who criticize LCT as a travelling policy. This concept has been developed in
western countries and now it has reached the undeveloped countries of the east like Nepal. Nepali society
is based on traditional values, beliefs, customs and culture. Nepalese society has not yet assimilated the
culture of western countries (2A). Therefore, it is challenging to implement LCT developed in western
countries in Nepali society. Many teaching materials of LCT are written in English language. At the school
level, children are studying in Nepali language and teachers are also teaching in Nepali language. Therefore,
the medium of teaching is also a major problem. All our educational policies are formulated in centre (1A).
The lower-level institutions (schools) have to follow the policy rules imposed by the center. The center has
decided to implement LCT. But local level schools are not able to implement it professionally. At the same
time, there is lack physical infrastructures in the most of the schools in Nepal.
Discussion
The first research question focused on perception towards LCT. The teachers pointed out that LCT is
essential. Their views were very optimistic about LCT. In a collectivist society, individualistic ideals have
been promoted to a greater degree than anticipated. Teachers focused more on the value of empowering of
autonomy than on topics as tradition and authority. In any case, social beauty can still be taken into
consideration. The teachers pointed out in accordance with the assumption, the value of discipline,
something associated with a collectivist society. In line with expectations, the contradiction in the position
of supposed external pressures with respect to LCT was also something the teachers pointed out. With
regards to the use of LCT, there appeared to be more pressure than support from the government and
parents. This suits the hypothesis that the emphasis still lies on mastery of factual facts instead of practical
and analytical skills owing to the exam-oriented education system (Metto & Maweka, 2014). It is important
to realize that a few decades ago, Nepal's education was still focused on TCT. In the Western world, the
Western opinion that infancy should be happy and a time to play as opposed to discipline is comparatively
new (Ansell, 2005). The home condition does not lead absolutely to LCT either. Parents promote activities
that are different from the elements applicable to this form of school.
While some teachers claimed that without further explanation, they had the requisite skills for LCT, the
teachers in this sample did not seem to be thoroughly accustomed to kind of questions about experienced
self-efficacy. As a teacher, reflection of their own competencies seemed new to them. This is in line with the
literature that teacher preparation does not sufficiently concentrate on reflection, imagination or ingenuity
(Metto & Maweko, 2014). The expectation that teachers have a low self-efficacy with respect to the use of
LCT seems to be supported on the basis of these studies, even though it is found indirectly. The discovery
that behaviors are not self-related or serious enough in some African countries is not recent (Evans et al.,

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2008). In a report in Malawi, due to the lack of self-relatedness, it was found that teachers viewed improving
education as a job beyond their responsibility (Van Straten, 2015). In this analysis, the same occurred.
Teachers could not come up with their own behaviour but with problems in social situations while
reflecting on the difficulty of the requisite skills for LCT. The role of the teacher is of great importance in
the development of the child, especially because LCT coincides with the ideas of constructivism (Vygotksy,
1978).
The learner had as predicted, little perceptions regarding LCT. In comparison to the assumption, according
to the teachers, the perception of the pupils appeared less optimistic towards. They primarily discussed
teacher-centered activities when asked about the behaviors in class. The students' reported standards at
school are often different from what they are accustomed to at home, according to the teachers. The culture
of home does not fully cohere with the culture of education. The supporting position of teachers for most
children is new, believing the view of the teachers. This also explains why LCT are not so positive: obviously
because they are not used to it. During the experiments as well, the passive position was clear. In line with
the philosophy of Freire (1970), students were not expected to challenge or be revolutionary. This leads to
student injustice and a 'code of silence'. It seems that in schooling and education, pupils are not totally
accustomed to learner-centered education. Otherwise with a critical reflection on their curriculum and
what they deem important, the pupils will actually have less trouble.
Secondly, apart from the perceptions, this study tried to show the experienced environmental conditions
of teachers with regard to LCT. In accordance with goals, the teachers pointed out the numerous
environmental obstacles that make it impossible to use LCT curriculum. Protective factors were more
difficult to find, but focused mainly on the role of colleagues and school management. For the improvement
of the education in the schools, the school management could play a bigger role in the accomplishment of
LCT. This study sought to explain, in addition to the expectations, the experienced external factors of
teachers with respect to LCT. In accordance with goals, the teachers pointed out the numerous
environmental obstacles that make it impossible to use learner-centered curriculum. It was more difficult
to identify protective variables, but they concentrated largely on the role of peers and school
administration. It is found that school administration should play a greater role in the achievement of LCT
in order to enhance education in classrooms.
Thirdly, this article has concentrated on teacher and student activities with respect to LCT. Teacher-
centered elements played a key role in teaching, in accordance with standards. This suits the perception
that in Third World countries, LCT is not often used or interpreted in the best manner, and teachers often
prefer to teach in the same way they did with their own teachers (Edukans, 2014). Teachers said they were
using LCT to a greater degree than they really did. In the expectations of teachers, for instance, it was
suggested that pupils should articulate themselves in class, but this is not what the findings revealed. In
accordance with the theory of Metto and Maweka (2014) classes included a lot of listening and taking notes.
There were also some child-centered elements observed during the observations. The way the children
were seated in groups was different from the literature in certain classes than expected. It always seemed,
anyway that the teacher-centered techniques were not necessarily used or interpreted in the correct
manner. Teachers were able to use LCT because for example, they provided opportunities for group work,
but instead of finding children talking in groups with each other, only one or two pupils were doing the job,
whilst the majority of the pupils were not motivated to be involved.
In nutshell, it can be concluded that teachers' perceptions towards LCT is very positive. Although social
desirability undoubtedly played a part, the teachers gave the impression that the LCT was to be used. In
spite of these optimistic attitudes, the action in practice is also still different: in the classrooms studied,
teaching learning process is still TCT. In line with results in an earlier study, teachers proceed with teacher-
centered teaching approaches (Metto & Maweka, 2014). The purpose of individual actions is affected by
expectations, although this is not necessarily the same as actual action. This is one of the study's most
notable findings: the teachers' expectations do not quite align with the classroom activities. The continuity
of teacher-centered schooling affects the qualitative education and LCT (Metto & Maweka, 2014). In terms
of LCT, how can the disparity between perceptions and activities be explained? The government and

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parents could further stimulate LCT. Their position is still inconsistent, and it seems like they still partially
have different opinions on the standard of education. Another potential reason for why LCT in class is not
entirely noticeable has to do with the conditions. Any situations in the community find it impossible for
teachers to practice it unless teachers seem able to use the techniques. They are child-centered in their
perceptions, but the situations find it impossible to do it. Teachers only speak about external aspects while
learning about challenges, although they should also learn to see the advancement of education as their
own responsibility. In addition, with respect to LCT, teachers should develop their ability. The teachers may
potentially be a better counterweight to the government and parents afterward.
Conclusion
While a majority of basic school teachers express support for the principles of LCT, their actual classroom
practices tend to remain predominantly teacher-centered. LCT, emphasizes active student engagement,
critical thinking, and the development of problem-solving skills, placing the learner at the center of the
educational process. Despite teachers recognizing the importance of these methods, their classroom
practices often reflect traditional teacher-centered approaches. In these environments, the teacher is the
primary source of knowledge and controls the flow of instruction, while students passively receive
information. This contrast between belief and practice points to deeper structural and contextual
challenges.
One of the significant obstacles contributing to the persistence of teacher-centered practices is the poor
state of physical facilities in many schools. LCT requires a flexible, resource-rich environment where
students can engage in hands-on activities, collaborate in groups, and use various learning materials.
However, in schools with inadequate infrastructure, such as poorly equipped classrooms, limited access to
modern technology, and insufficient space for group work, implementing learner-centered strategies
becomes difficult. Teachers, faced with these limitations, often resort to more rigid, lecture-based methods
that do not align with learner-centered ideals.
Another major challenge is overcrowded classrooms. In many basic schools, class sizes are large, making it
challenging for teachers to give individualized attention to students or manage activities that promote
active participation and collaboration. In a crowded classroom, teachers often face difficulties maintaining
order and ensuring that every student is engaged. As a result, they tend to adopt teacher-centered
approaches, which are more manageable in such contexts but fail to foster the personalized learning that
learner-centered teaching encourages. Insufficient parental support is another key barrier to the effective
implementation of LCT. Parents play a crucial role in reinforcing the values of active learning, curiosity, and
independent thinking at home. However, when parents are not actively involved in their children's
education, it limits the opportunities for students to practice these skills outside the classroom. Without
consistent support from home, teachers find it harder to sustain learner-centered approaches, which rely
on collaboration between the school and the family to foster holistic development.
In addition to these structural issues, social influences can also impede the adoption of learner-centered
teaching. In some communities, there may be a cultural preference for traditional, authoritative teaching
methods, where the teacher is viewed as the ultimate authority. These social norms can create pressure on
teachers to conform to expectations that prioritize discipline and control over interactive, student-driven
learning. This societal expectation reinforces teacher-centered practices, even when teachers themselves
may prefer more progressive methods.
To overcome these challenges and enhance the implementation of learner-centered teaching, various
adjustments are necessary. One of the most critical changes involves increasing community involvement in
the educational process. By fostering stronger partnerships between schools, parents, and local
organizations, it becomes easier to create a supportive environment for learner-centered practices.
Community members can contribute resources, participate in school activities, and help shift cultural
attitudes towards more collaborative, student-focused learning. This greater involvement would not only
provide the material and emotional support needed for learner-centered teaching but also create a shared
commitment to transforming the educational experience.

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Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors have disclosed that there are no potential conflicts of interest concerning the research,
authorship, or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors did not receive any financial support for the research, authorship, or publication of this article.
ORCID iD
Rajendra Kumar Shah https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0533-1338
Samjhana Basnyat https://orcid.org/0009-0009-1328-2717
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Author’s bio-sketch
Rajendra Kumar Shah, PhD is currently serving as an Associate Professor at Tribhuvan University,
Sanothimi Campus. He also holds the position of Head of the Department (HOD) of Foundations of
Education. With over two decades of experience, Shah has been teaching at both undergraduate and
postgraduate levels across various campuses. Additionally, scholars pursuing MPhil and PhD degrees have
been conducting research under Shah's supervision.
Samjhana Basnyat is currently serving as an Assistant Professor at Tribhuvan University, Sanothimi
Campus. She has previously held the position of Head of the Department of Education Planning and
Management (EPM). At present, she is pursuing her doctoral studies.

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