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Close analysis of the painting Girl with a Flute, long attributed to the seventeenth-century Dutch
painter Johannes Vermeer, has revealed subtle deviations from the artist’s signature techniques.
These variations suggest that the work may be that of a student under Vermeer’s tutelage—
potentially ______ our understanding of Vermeer as a solitary artist.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. negating

B. prefiguring

C. entrenching

D. substantiating

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Text 1
Because literacy in Nahuatl script, the writing system of the Aztec Empire, was lost after Spain
invaded central Mexico in the 1500s, it is unclear exactly how meaning was encoded in the
script’s symbols. Although many scholars had assumed that the symbols signified entire words,
linguist Alfonso Lacadena theorized in 2008 that they signified units of language smaller than
words: individual syllables.

Text 2
The growing consensus among scholars of Nahuatl script is that many of its symbols could
signify either words or syllables, depending on syntax and content at any given site within a text.
For example, the symbol signifying the word huipil (blouse) in some contexts could signify the
syllable “pil” in others, as in the place name “Chipiltepec.” Thus, for the Aztecs, reading required a
determination of how such symbols functioned each time they appeared in a text.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 2 most likely characterize Lacadena’s theory, as
described in Text 1?

A. By praising the theory for recognizing that the script’s symbols could represent entire words

B. By arguing that the theory is overly influenced by the work of earlier scholars

C. By approving of the theory’s emphasis on how the script changed over time

D. By cautioning that the theory overlooks certain important aspects of how the script
functioned

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Text 1
Microbes are tiny organisms in the soil, water, and air all around us. They thrive even in very
harsh conditions. That’s why Noah Fierer and colleagues were surprised when soil samples they
collected from an extremely cold, dry area in Antarctica didn’t seem to contain any life. The
finding doesn’t prove that there are no microbes in that area, but the team says it does suggest
that the environment severely restricts microbes’ survival.

Text 2
Microbes are found in virtually every environment on Earth. So it’s unlikely they would be
completely absent from Fierer’s team’s study site, no matter how extreme the environment is.
There were probably so few organisms in the samples that current technology couldn’t detect
them. But since a spoonful of typical soil elsewhere might contain billions of microbes, the
presence of so few in the Antarctic soil samples would show how challenging the conditions are.

Based on the texts, Fierer’s team and the author of Text 2 would most likely agree with which
statement about microbes?

A. Most microbes are better able to survive in environments with extremely dry conditions than
in environments with harsh temperatures.

B. A much higher number of microbes would probably be found if another sample of soil were
taken from the Antarctic study site.

C. Microbes are likely difficult to detect in the soil at the Antarctic study site because they tend
to be smaller than microbes found in typical soil elsewhere.

D. Most microbes are probably unable to withstand the soil conditions at the Antarctic study
site.

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According to Indian economist and sociologist Radhakamal Mukerjee (1889–1968), the
Eurocentric concepts that informed early twentieth-century social scientific methods—for
example, the idea that all social relations are reducible to struggles between individuals—had
little relevance for India. Making the social sciences more responsive to Indians’ needs, Mukerjee
argued, required constructing analytical categories informed by India’s cultural and ecological
circumstances. Mukerjee thus proposed the communalist “Indian village” as the ideal model on
which to base Indian economic and social policy.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. The text recounts Mukerjee’s early training in the social scientific disciplines and then lists
social policies whose implementation Mukerjee oversaw.

B. The text mentions some of Mukerjee’s economic theories and then traces their impact on
other Indian social scientists of the twentieth century.

C. The text presents Mukerjee’s critique of the social sciences and then provides an example of
his attempts to address issues he identified in his critique.

D. The text explains an influential economic theory and then demonstrates how that theory was
more important to Mukerjee’s work than other social scientists have acknowledged.

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The following text is from Charlotte Brontë’s 1847 novel Jane Eyre. Jane, the narrator, works as a
governess at Thornfield Hall.
I went on with my day’s business tranquilly; but ever and anon vague suggestions kept
wandering across my brain of reasons why I should quit Thornfield; and I kept involuntarily
framing advertisements and pondering conjectures about new situations: these thoughts I did
not think to check; they might germinate and bear fruit if they could.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. To convey a contrast between Jane’s outward calmness and internal restlessness

B. To emphasize Jane’s loyalty to the people she works for at Thornfield Hall

C. To demonstrate that Jane finds her situation both challenging and deeply fulfilling

D. To describe Jane’s determination to secure employment outside of Thornfield Hall

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The güiro, a musical instrument traditionally made from a dried and hollowed gourd, is thought to
have originated with the Taíno people of Puerto Rico. Players use a wooden stick to scrape along
ridges cut into the side of the gourd, creating sounds that are highly ______: the sounds produced
by güiros can differ based on the distance between the ridges, the types of strokes the player
uses, and the thickness of the gourd.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. overlooked

B. powerful

C. routine

D. variable

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The following text is adapted from Zora Neale Hurston’s 1921 short story “John Redding Goes to
Sea.” John wants to travel far beyond the village where he lives near his mother, Matty.

[John] had on several occasions attempted to reconcile his mother to the notion, but found
it a difficult task. Matty always took refuge in self-pity and tears. Her son’s desires were
incomprehensible to her, that was all.

As used in the text, what does the phrase “reconcile his mother to” most nearly mean?

A. Get his mother to accept

B. Get his mother to apologize for

C. Get his mother to match

D. Get his mother to reunite with

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Text 1
In 2007, a team led by Alice Storey analyzed a chicken bone found in El Arenal, Chile, dating it to
1321–1407 CE—over a century before Europeans invaded the region, bringing their own
chickens. Storey also found that the El Arenal chicken shared a unique genetic mutation with the
ancient chicken breeds of the Polynesian Islands in the Pacific. Thus, Polynesian peoples, not
later Europeans, probably first introduced chickens to South America.

Text 2
An Australian research team weakened the case for a Polynesian origin for the El Arenal chicken
by confirming that the mutation identified by Storey has occurred in breeds from around the
world. More recently, though, a team led by Agusto Luzuriaga-Neira found that South American
chicken breeds and Polynesian breeds share other genetic markers that European breeds lack.
Thus, the preponderance of evidence now favors a Polynesian origin.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 2 most likely respond to the underlined claim in
Text 1?

A. By broadly agreeing with the claim but objecting that the timeline it presupposes conflicts
with the findings of the genetic analysis conducted by Storey’s team

B. By faulting the claim for implying that domestic animals couldn’t have been transferred from
South America to the Polynesian Islands as well

C. By critiquing the claim for being based on an assumption that before the European invasion
of South America, the chickens of Europe were genetically uniform

D. By noting that while the claim is persuasive, the findings of Luzuriaga-Neira’s team provide
stronger evidence for it than the findings of the genetic analysis conducted by Storey do

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It is by no means ______ to recognize the influence of Dutch painter Hieronymus Bosch on Ali
Banisadr’s paintings; indeed, Banisadr himself cites Bosch as an inspiration. However, some
scholars have suggested that the ancient Mesopotamian poem Epic of Gilgamesh may have had
a far greater impact on Banisadr’s work.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. substantial

B. satisfying

C. unimportant

D. appropriate

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Some scientists have suggested that mammals in the Mesozoic era were not a very ______
group, but paleontologist Zhe-Xi Luo’s research suggests that early mammals living in the
shadow of dinosaurs weren’t all ground-dwelling insectivores. Fossils of various plant-eating
mammals have been found in China, including species like Vilevolodon diplomylos, which Luo
says could glide like a flying squirrel.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. predatory

B. obscure

C. diverse

D. localized

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Within baleen whale species, some individuals develop an accessory spleen—a seemingly
functionless formation of splenetic tissue outside the normal spleen. Given the formation’s
greater prevalence among whales known to make deeper dives, some researchers hypothesize
that its role isn’t ______; rather, the accessory spleen may actively support diving mechanisms.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. replicable

B. predetermined

C. operative

D. latent

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The mimosa tree evolved in East Asia, where the beetle Bruchidius terrenus preys on its seeds. In
1785, mimosa trees were introduced to North America, far from any B. terrenus. But evolutionary
links between predators and their prey can persist across centuries and continents. Around
2001, B. terrenus was introduced in southeastern North America near where botanist Shu-Mei
Chang and colleagues had been monitoring mimosa trees. Within a year, 93 percent of the trees
had been attacked by the beetles.

Which choice best describes the function of the third sentence in the overall structure of the
text?

A. It states the hypothesis that Chang and colleagues had set out to investigate using mimosa
trees and B. terrenus.

B. It presents a generalization that is exemplified by the discussion of the mimosa trees and B.
terrenus.

C. It provides context that clarifies why the species mentioned spread to new locations.

D. It offers an alternative explanation for the findings of Chang and colleagues.

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Bicycle sharing systems allow users to rent a bicycle at one location within a city and return it to
any other designated location in that city, which can cause serious problems of bicycle supply
and user demand within the city’s system. Tohru Ikeguchi uses open-source data and statistical
modeling to identify when a high number of users making one-way trips is likely to leave some
locations within the system ______ bicycles and other areas with insufficient supply.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. susceptible to

B. contingent on

C. saturated with

D. depleted of

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Text 1
Soy sauce, made from fermented soybeans, is noted for its umami flavor. Umami—one of the five
basic tastes along with sweet, bitter, salty, and sour—was formally classified when its taste
receptors were discovered in the 2000s. In 2007, to define the pure umami flavor scientists Rie
Ishii and Michael O’Mahony used broths made from shiitake mushrooms and kombu seaweed,
and two panels of Japanese and US judges closely agreed on a description of the taste.

Text 2
A 2022 experiment by Manon Jünger et al. led to a greater understanding of soy sauce’s flavor
profile. The team initially presented a mixture of compounds with low molecular weights to taste
testers who found it was not as salty or bitter as real soy sauce. Further analysis of soy sauce
identified proteins, including dipeptides, that enhanced umami flavor and also contributed to
saltiness. The team then made a mix of 50 chemical compounds that re-created soy sauce’s
flavor.

Based on the texts, if Ishii and O’Mahony (Text 1) and Jünger et al. (Text 2) were aware of the
findings of both experiments, they would most likely agree with which statement?

A. On average, the diets of people in the United States tend to have fewer foods that contain
certain dipeptides than the diets of people in Japan have.

B. Chemical compounds that activate both the umami and salty taste receptors tend to have a
higher molecular weight than those that only activate umami taste receptors.

C. Fermentation introduces proteins responsible for the increase of umami flavor in soy sauce,
and those proteins also increase the perception of saltiness.

D. The broths in the 2007 experiment most likely did not have a substantial amount of the
dipeptides that played a key part in the 2022 experiment.

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Studying late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century artifacts from an agricultural and domestic
site in Texas, archaeologist Ayana O. Flewellen found that Black women employed as farm
workers utilized hook-and-eye closures to fasten their clothes at the waist, giving themselves a
silhouette similar to the one that was popular in contemporary fashion and typically achieved
through more restrictive garments such as corsets. Flewellen argues that this sartorial practice
shows that these women balanced hegemonic ideals of femininity with the requirements of their
physically demanding occupation.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. To describe an unexpected discovery that altered a researcher’s view of how rapidly fashions
among Black female farmworkers in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Texas
changed during the period

B. To discuss research that investigated the ways in which Black female farmworkers in late
nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Texas used fashion practices to resist traditional
gender ideals

C. To evaluate a scholarly work that offers explanations for the impact of urban fashion ideals
on Black female farmworkers in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Texas

D. To summarize the findings of a study that explored factors influencing a fashion practice
among Black female farmworkers in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Texas

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Text 1
Growth in the use of novel nanohybrids—materials created from the conjugation of multiple
distinct nanomaterials, such as iron oxide and gold nanomaterials conjugated for use in
magnetic imaging—has outpaced studies of nanohybrids’ environmental risks. Unfortunately, risk
evaluations based on nanohybrids’ constituents are not reliable: conjugation may alter
constituents’ physiochemical properties such that innocuous nanomaterials form a nanohybrid
that is anything but.
Text 2
The potential for enhanced toxicity of nanohybrids relative to the toxicity of constituent
nanomaterials has drawn deserved attention, but the effects of nanomaterial conjugation vary by
case. For instance, it was recently shown that a nanohybrid of silicon dioxide and zinc oxide
preserved the desired optical transparency of zinc oxide nanoparticles while mitigating the
nanoparticles’ potential to damage DNA.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 2 most likely respond to the assertion in the
underlined portion of Text 1?

A. By concurring that the risk described in Text 1 should be evaluated but emphasizing that the
risk is more than offset by the potential benefits of nanomaterial conjugation

B. By arguing that the situation described in Text 1 may not be representative but conceding
that the effects of nanomaterial conjugation are harder to predict than researchers had
expected

C. By denying that the circumstance described in Text 1 is likely to occur but acknowledging
that many aspects of nanomaterial conjugation are still poorly understood

D. By agreeing that the possibility described in Text 1 is a cause for concern but pointing out
that nanomaterial conjugation does not inevitably produce that result

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The following text is from the 1923 poem “Black Finger” by Angelina Weld Grimké, a Black
American writer. A cypress is a type of evergreen tree.
I have just seen a most beautiful thing,
Slim and still,
Against a gold, gold sky,
A straight black cypress,
Sensitive,
Exquisite,
A black finger
Pointing upwards.
Why, beautiful still finger, are you black?
And why are you pointing upwards?

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. The speaker assesses a natural phenomenon, then questions the accuracy of her
assessment.

B. The speaker describes a distinctive sight in nature, then ponders what meaning to attribute to
that sight.

C. The speaker presents an outdoor scene, then considers a human behavior occurring within
that scene.

D. The speaker examines her surroundings, then speculates about their influence on her
emotional state.

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As an undergraduate researcher in anthropology, Jennifer C. Chen contributed to a
groundbreaking study challenging the accepted view that among prehistoric peoples, female
participation in hunting was ______. The research team’s review of data from late Pleistocene and
early Holocene burials in the Americas revealed that, in fact, as many as half of the hunters in
those populations were female.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. inevitable

B. satisfactory

C. negligible

D. commonplace

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Investigating whether shared false visual memories—specific but inaccurate and widely held
recollections of images such as product logos—are caused by people’s previous ______ incorrect
renditions of the images, researchers Deepasri Prasad and Wilma Bainbridge found that, in fact,
such memories are often not explained by familiarity with erroneous versions of the images.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. compliance with

B. exposure to

C. criteria for

D. forfeiture of

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Text 1
Ecologists have long wondered how thousands of microscopic phytoplankton species can live
together near ocean surfaces competing for the same resources. According to conventional
wisdom, one species should emerge after outcompeting the rest. So why do so many species
remain? Ecologists’ many efforts to explain this phenomenon still haven’t uncovered a
satisfactory explanation.

Text 2
Ecologist Michael Behrenfeld and colleagues have connected phytoplankton’s diversity to their
microscopic size. Because these organisms are so tiny, they are spaced relatively far apart from
each other in ocean water and, moreover, experience that water as a relatively dense substance.
This in turn makes it hard for them to move around and interact with one another. Therefore,
says Behrenfeld’s team, direct competition among phytoplankton probably happens much less
than previously thought.

Based on the texts, how would Behrenfeld and colleagues (Text 2) most likely respond to the
“conventional wisdom” discussed in Text 1?

A. By arguing that it is based on a misconception about phytoplankton species competing with

one another

B. By asserting that it fails to recognize that routine replenishment of ocean nutrients prevents
competition between phytoplankton species

C. By suggesting that their own findings help clarify how phytoplankton species are able to
compete with larger organisms

D. By recommending that more ecologists focus their research on how competition among
phytoplankton species is increased with water density

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Text 1
Films and television shows commonly include a long list of credits naming the people involved in
a production. Credit sequences may not be exciting, but they generally ensure that everyone’s
contributions are duly acknowledged. Because they are highly standardized, film and television
credits are also valuable to anyone researching the careers of pioneering cast and crew
members who have worked in the mediums.

Text 2
Video game scholars face a major challenge in the industry’s failure to consistently credit the
artists, designers, and other contributors involved in making video games. Without a reliable
record of which people worked on which games, questions about the medium’s development can
be difficult to answer, and the accomplishments of all but its best-known innovators can be
difficult to trace.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 1 most likely respond to the discussion in Text
2?

A. By recommending that the scholars mentioned in Text 2 consider employing the methods
regularly used by film and television researchers

B. By pointing out that credits have a different intended purpose in film and television than in
the medium addressed by the scholars mentioned in Text 2

C. By suggesting that the scholars mentioned in Text 2 rely more heavily on credits as a source
of information than film and television researchers do

D. By observing that a widespread practice in film and television largely prevents the kind of
problem faced by the scholars mentioned in Text 2

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A number of Indigenous politicians have been elected to the United States Congress since 2000
as members of the country’s two established political parties. In Canada and several Latin
American countries, on the other hand, Indigenous people have formed their own political parties
to advance candidates who will advocate for the interests of their communities. This movement
has been particularly successful in Ecuador, where Guadalupe Llori, a member of the Indigenous
party known as Pachakutik, was elected president of the National Assembly in 2021.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. To trace the history of an Indigenous political movement and speculate about its future
development

B. To argue that Indigenous politicians in the United States should form their own political party

C. To highlight two approaches to achieving political representation for Indigenous people

D. To consider how Indigenous politicians in the United States have influenced Indigenous
politicians in Canada and Latin America

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Raymond Antrobus, an accomplished poet and writer of prose, recently released his debut
spoken word poetry album, The First Time I Wore Hearing Aids, in collaboration with producer Ian
Brennan. The album contains both autobiographical and reflective pieces combining Antrobus’s
spoken words with Brennan’s fragmented audio elements and pieces of music to convey how
people who are deaf may experience sound, both its presence and absence. Some critics
suggest that the album questions the function of sound in the world, highlighting that the
experience of sound is multifaceted.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. It introduces a collaborative spoken word poetry project, details the approach taken to
produce the work, and then provides an example of critique the album received upon release.

B. It mentions a collection of spoken word poems, distinguishes one poem as being an

exemplar on the album, and then offers a summary of the subject matter of the whole
collection.

C. It summarizes the efforts to produce a collection of spoken word poems, presents

biographies of two people who worked on the album, and speculates about the meaning
behind the poetry.

D. It connects two artists to the same spoken word poetry project, explains the extent of their
collaboration on each poem, and then provides an overview of the technique used to produce
the work.

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Text 1
Africa’s Sahara region—once a lush ecosystem—began to dry out about 8,000 years ago. A
change in Earth’s orbit that affected climate has been posited as a cause of desertification, but
archaeologist David Wright also attributes the shift to Neolithic peoples. He cites their adoption
of pastoralism as a factor in the region drying out: the pastoralists’ livestock depleted vegetation,
prompting the events that created the Sahara Desert.
Text 2
Research by Chris Brierley et al. challenges the idea that Neolithic peoples contributed to the
Sahara’s desertification. Using a climate-vegetation model, the team concluded that the end of
the region’s humid period occurred 500 years earlier than previously assumed. The timing
suggests that Neolithic peoples didn’t exacerbate aridity in the region but, in fact, may have
helped delay environmental changes with practices (e.g., selective grazing) that preserved
vegetation.

Based on the texts, how would Chris Brierley (Text 2) most likely respond to the discussion in
Text 1?

A. By pointing out that given the revised timeline for the end of the Sahara’s humid period, the
Neolithic peoples’ mode of subsistence likely didn’t cause the region’s desertification

B. By claiming that pastoralism was only one of many behaviors the Neolithic peoples took part
in that may have contributed to the Sahara’s changing climate

C. By insisting that pastoralism can have both beneficial and deleterious effects on a region’s
vegetation and climate

D. By asserting that more research needs to be conducted into factors that likely contributed to
the desertification of the Sahara region

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Text 1
Most animals can regenerate some parts of their bodies, such as skin. But when a three-banded
panther worm is cut into three pieces, each piece grows into a new worm. Researchers are
investigating this feat partly to learn more about humans’ comparatively limited abilities to
regenerate, and they’re making exciting progress. An especially promising discovery is that both
humans and panther worms have a gene for early growth response (EGR) linked to regeneration.

Text 2
When Mansi Srivastava and her team reported that panther worms, like humans, possess a gene
for EGR, it caused excitement. However, as the team pointed out, the gene likely functions very
differently in humans than it does in panther worms. Srivastava has likened EGR to a switch that
activates other genes involved in regeneration in panther worms, but how this switch operates in
humans remains unclear.

Based on the texts, what would the author of Text 2 most likely say about Text 1’s
characterization of the discovery involving EGR?

A. It is reasonable given that Srivastava and her team have identified how EGR functions in both
humans and panther worms.

B. It is overly optimistic given additional observations from Srivastava and her team.

C. It is unexpected given that Srivastava and her team’s findings were generally met with
enthusiasm.

D. It is unfairly dismissive given the progress that Srivastava and her team have reported.

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The field of study called affective neuroscience seeks instinctive, physiological causes for
feelings such as pleasure or displeasure. Because these sensations are linked to a chemical
component (for example, the release of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain when one
receives or expects a reward), they can be said to have a partly physiological basis. These
processes have been described in mammals, but Jingnan Huang and his colleagues have
recently observed that some behaviors of honeybees (such as foraging) are also motivated by a
dopamine-based signaling process.

What choice best describes the main purpose of the text?

A. It describes an experimental method of measuring the strength of physiological responses in

humans.

B. It illustrates processes by which certain insects can express how they are feeling.

C. It summarizes a finding suggesting that some mechanisms in the brains of certain insects
resemble mechanisms in mammalian brains.

D. It presents research showing that certain insects and mammals behave similarly when there
is a possibility of a reward for their actions.

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Researcher Haesung Jung led a 2020 study showing that individual acts of kindness can ______
prosocial behavior across a larger group. Jung and her team found that bystanders who witness
a helpful act become more likely to offer help to someone else, and in doing so, can inspire still
others to act.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. require

B. remember

C. foster

D. discourage

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According to a US tax policy expert, state taxes are ______ other factors when considering an
interstate move. Even significant differences in state taxation have almost no effect on most
people’s decisions, while differences in employment opportunities, housing availability, and
climate are strong influences.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. consistent with

B. representative of

C. overshadowed by

D. irrelevant to

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New and interesting research conducted by Suleiman A. Al-Sweedan and Moath Alhaj is inspired
by their observation that though there have been many studies of the effect of high altitude on
blood chemistry, there is a ______ studies of the effect on blood chemistry of living in locations
below sea level, such as the California towns of Salton City and Seeley.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. quarrel about

B. paucity of

C. profusion of

D. verisimilitude in

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Works of moral philosophy, such as Plato’s Republic or Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, are partly
concerned with how to live a morally good life. But philosopher Jonathan Barnes argues that
works that present a method of living such a life without also supplying a motive are inherently
useful only to those already wishing to be morally good—those with no desire for moral
goodness will not choose to follow their rules. However, some works of moral philosophy
attempt to describe what constitutes a morally good life while also proposing reasons for living
one.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. It provides a characterization about a field of thought by noting two works in it and then
details a way in which some works in that field are more comprehensive than others.

B. It mentions two renowned works and then claims that despite their popularity it is impossible
for these works to serve the purpose their authors intended.

C. It summarizes the history of a field of thought by discussing two works and then proposes a
topic of further research for specialists in that field.

D. It describes two influential works and then explains why one is more widely read than the
other.

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Text 1
Philosopher G.E. Moore’s most influential work entails the concept of common sense. He
asserts that there are certain beliefs that all people, including philosophers, know instinctively to
be true, whether or not they profess otherwise: among them, that they have bodies, or that they
exist in a world with other objects that have three dimensions. Moore’s careful work on common
sense may seem obvious but was in fact groundbreaking.

Text 2
External world skepticism is a philosophical stance supposing that we cannot be sure of the
existence of anything outside our own minds. During a lecture, G.E. Moore once offered a proof
refuting this stance by holding out his hands and saying, “Here is one hand, and here is another.”
Many philosophers reflexively reject this proof (Annalisa Coliva called it “an obviously annoying
failure”) but have found it a challenge to articulate exactly why the proof fails.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 1 most likely respond to proponents of the
philosophical stance outlined in Text 2?

A. By agreeing with those proponents that Moore’s treatment of positions that contradict his
own is fundamentally unserious

B. By suggesting that an instinctive distaste for Moore’s position is preventing external world
skeptics from constructing a sufficiently rigorous refutation of Moore

C. By arguing that if it is valid to assert that some facts are true based on instinct, it is also valid
to assert that some proofs are inadequate based on instinct

D. By pointing out that Moore would assert that external world skepticism is at odds with other
beliefs those proponents must unavoidably hold

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Text 1
A tiny, unusual fossil in a piece of 99-million-year-old amber is of the extinct species
Oculudentavis khaungraae. The O. khaungraae fossil consists of a rounded skull with a thin snout
and a large eye socket. Because these features look like they are avian, or related to birds,
researchers initially thought that the fossil might be the smallest avian dinosaur ever found.

Text 2
Paleontologists were excited to discover a second small fossil that is similar to the strange O.
khaungraae fossil but has part of the lower body along with a birdlike skull. Detailed studies of
both fossils revealed several traits that are found in lizards but not in dinosaurs or birds.
Therefore, paleontologists think the two creatures were probably unusual lizards, even though
the skulls looked avian at first.

Based on the texts, what would the paleontologists in Text 2 most likely say about the
researchers’ initial thought in Text 1?

A. It is understandable because the fossil does look like it could be related to birds, even though
O. khaungraae is probably a lizard.

B. It is confusing because it isn’t clear what caused the researchers to think that O. khaungraae
might be related to birds.

C. It is flawed because the researchers mistakenly assumed that O. khaungraae must be a

lizard.

D. It is reasonable because the O. khaungraae skull is about the same size as the skull of the
second fossil but is shaped differently.

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Whether the reign of a French monarch such as Hugh Capet or Henry I was historically
consequential or relatively uneventful, its trajectory was shaped by questions of legitimacy and
therefore cannot be understood without a corollary understanding of the factors that allowed the
monarch to ______ his right to hold the throne.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. disengage

B. annotate

C. buttress

D. reciprocate

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Astronomers are confident that the star Betelgeuse will eventually consume all the helium in its
core and explode in a supernova. They are much less confident, however, about when this will
happen, since that depends on internal characteristics of Betelgeuse that are largely unknown.
Astrophysicist Sarafina El-Badry Nance and colleagues recently investigated whether acoustic
waves in the star could be used to determine internal stellar states but concluded that this
method could not sufficiently reveal Betelgeuse’s internal characteristics to allow its evolutionary
state to be firmly fixed.

Which choice best describes the function of the second sentence in the overall structure of the
text?

A. It describes a serious limitation of the method used by Nance and colleagues.

B. It presents the central finding reported by Nance and colleagues.

C. It identifies the problem that Nance and colleagues attempted to solve but did not.

D. It explains how the work of Nance and colleagues was received by others in the field.

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Text 1
What factors influence the abundance of species in a given ecological community? Some
theorists have argued that historical diversity is a major driver of how diverse an ecological
community eventually becomes: differences in community diversity across otherwise similar
habitats, in this view, are strongly affected by the number of species living in those habitats at
earlier times.
Text 2
In 2010, a group of researchers including biologist Carla Cáceres created artificial pools in a New
York forest. They stocked some pools with a diverse mix of zooplankton species and others with
a single zooplankton species and allowed the pool communities to develop naturally thereafter.
Over the course of four years, Cáceres and colleagues periodically measured the species
diversity of the pools, finding—contrary to their expectations—that by the end of the study there
was little to no difference in the pools’ species diversity.

Based on the texts, how would Cáceres and colleagues (Text 2) most likely describe the view of
the theorists presented in Text 1?

A. It is largely correct, but it requires a minor refinement in light of the research team’s results.

B. It is not compelling as a theory regardless of any experimental data collected by the research
team.

C. It may seem plausible, but it is not supported by the research team’s findings.

D. It probably holds true only in conditions like those in the research team’s study.

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While scholars believe many Mesoamerican cities influenced each other, direct evidence of such
influence is difficult to ascertain. However, recent excavations in a sector of Tikal (Guatemala)
unearthed a citadel that shows ______ Teotihuacán (Mexico) architecture—including a near
replica of a famed Teotihuacán temple—providing tangible evidence of outside influence in
portions of Tikal.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. refinements of

B. precursors of

C. commonalities with

D. animosities toward

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While most animals are incapable of passing somatic mutations—genetic alterations that arise
in an organism’s nonreproductive cells—on to their offspring, elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata)
presents an intriguing ______: in a 2022 study, researchers found that elkhorn coral produced
offspring that inherited somatic mutations from a parent.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. hypothesis

B. affinity

C. anomaly

D. corroboration

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The following text is adapted from Zora Neale Hurston’s 1921 short story “John Redding Goes to
Sea.” John is a child who lives in a town in the woods.
Perhaps ten-year-old John was puzzling to the folk there in the Florida woods for he was an
imaginative child and fond of day-dreams. The St. John River flowed a scarce three hundred
feet from his back door. On its banks at this point grow numerous palms, luxuriant magnolias
and bay trees. On the bosom of the stream float millions of delicately colored hyacinths. [John
Redding] loved to wander down to the water’s edge, and, casting in dry twigs, watch them sail
away down stream to Jacksonville, the sea, the wide world and [he] wanted to follow them.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined sentence in the text as a whole?

A. It provides an extended description of a location that John likes to visit.

B. It reveals that some residents of John’s town are confused by his behavior.

C. It illustrates the uniqueness of John’s imagination compared to the imaginations of other

children.

D. It suggests that John longs to experience a larger life outside the Florida woods.

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Interruptions in the supply chain for microchips used in personal electronics have challenged an
economist’s assertion that retailers can expect robust growth in sales of those devices in the
coming months. The delays are unlikely to ______ her projection entirely but will almost certainly
extend its time frame.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. dispute

B. withdraw

C. underscore

D. invalidate

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The 1967 release of Harold Cruse’s book The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual isolated him from
almost all other scholars and activists of the American Civil Rights Movement—though many of
those thinkers disagreed with each other, he nonetheless found ways to disagree with them all.
He thought that activists who believed that Black people such as himself should culturally
assimilate were naïve. But he also sharply criticized Black nationalists such as Marcus Garvey
who wanted to establish independent, self-contained Black economies and societies, even
though Cruse himself identified as a Black nationalist.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined sentence in the text as a whole?

A. It describes a direction that Cruse felt the Civil Rights Movement ought to take.

B. It indicates that Cruse’s reputation as a persistent antagonist of other scholars is

undeserved.

C. It describes a controversy that Cruse’s work caused within the Black nationalist movement.

D. It helps explain Cruse’s position with respect to the community of civil rights thinkers.

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Text 1
The fossil record suggests that mammoths went extinct around 11 thousand years (kyr) ago. In
a 2021 study of environmental DNA (eDNA)—genetic material shed into the environment by
organisms—in the Arctic, Yucheng Wang and colleagues found mammoth eDNA in sedimentary
layers formed millennia later, around 4 kyr ago. To account for this discrepancy, Joshua H. Miller
and Carl Simpson proposed that arctic temperatures could preserve a mammoth carcass on the
surface, allowing it to leach DNA into the environment, for several thousand years.
Text 2
Wang and colleagues concede that eDNA contains DNA from both living organisms and
carcasses, but for DNA to leach from remains over several millennia requires that the remains be
perpetually on the surface. Scavengers and weathering in the Arctic, however, are likely to break
down surface remains well before a thousand years have passed.

Which choice best describes how Text 1 and Text 2 relate to each other?

A. Text 1 discusses two approaches to studying mammoth extinction without advocating for
either, whereas Text 2 advocates for one approach over the other.

B. Text 1 presents findings by Wang and colleagues and gives another research team’s attempt
to explain those findings, whereas Text 2 provides additional detail that calls that explanation
into question.

C. Text 1 describes Wang and colleagues’ study and a critique of their methodology, whereas
Text 2 offers additional details showing that methodology to be sound.

D. Text 1 argues that new research has undermined the standard view of when mammoths went
extinct, whereas Text 2 suggests a way to reconcile the standard view with that new
research.

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In addition to being an accomplished psychologist himself, Francis Cecil Sumner was a ______
increasing the opportunity for Black students to study psychology, helping to found the
psychology department at Howard University, a historically Black university, in 1930.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. proponent of

B. supplement to

C. beneficiary of

D. distraction for

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The following text is adapted from Indian Boyhood, a 1902 memoir by Ohiyesa (Charles A.
Eastman), a Santee Dakota writer. In the text, Ohiyesa recalls how the women in his tribe
harvested maple syrup during his childhood.
Now the women began to test the trees—moving leisurely among them, axe in hand, and
striking a single quick blow, to see if the sap would appear. The trees, like people, have their
individual characters; some were ready to yield up their life-blood, while others were more
reluctant. Now one of the birchen basins was set under each tree, and a hardwood chip driven
deep into the cut which the axe had made. From the corners of this chip—at first drop by drop,
then more freely—the sap trickled into the little dishes.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined sentence in the text as a whole?

A. It portrays the range of personality traits displayed by the women as they work.

B. It foregrounds the beneficial relationship between humans and maple trees.

C. It demonstrates how human behavior can be influenced by the natural environment.

D. It elaborates on an aspect of the maple trees that the women evaluate.

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The following text is adapted from Herman Melville’s 1857 novel The Confidence-Man. Humphry
Davy was a prominent British chemist and inventor.

Years ago, a grave American savant, being in London, observed at an evening party there, a
certain coxcombical fellow, as he thought, an absurd ribbon in his lapel, and full of smart
[banter], whisking about to the admiration of as many as were disposed to admire. Great
was the savant’s disdain; but, chancing ere long to find himself in a corner with the
jackanapes, got into conversation with him, when he was somewhat ill-prepared for the
good sense of the jackanapes, but was altogether thrown aback, upon subsequently being
[informed that he was] no less a personage than Sir Humphry Davy.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. It portrays the thoughts of a character who is embarrassed about his own behavior.

B. It presents an account of a misunderstanding.

C. It offers a short history of how a person came to be famous.

D. It explains why one character dislikes another.

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Early in the Great Migration of 1910–1970, which involved the mass migration of Black people
from the southern to the northern United States, political activist and Chicago Defender writer
Fannie Barrier Williams was instrumental in helping other Black women establish themselves in
the North. Many women hoped for better employment opportunities in the North because, in the
South, they faced much competition for domestic employment and men tended to get
agricultural work. To aid with this transition, Barrier Williams helped secure job placement in the
North for many women before they even began their journey.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. To introduce and illustrate Barrier Williams’s integral role in supporting other Black women as
their circumstances changed during part of the Great Migration

B. To establish that Barrier Williams used her professional connections to arrange employment
for other Black women, including jobs with the Chicago Defender

C. To demonstrate that the factors that motivated the start of the Great Migration were different
for Black women than they were for Black men

D. To provide an overview of the employment challenges faced by Black women in the

agricultural and domestic spheres in the southern United States

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Stephen Hannock’s luminous landscape paintings are appealing to viewers but have elicited little
commentary from contemporary critics, a phenomenon that may be due to the very fact that the
paintings seem so ______. Many critics focus their attention on art that is cryptic or overtly
challenging.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. innovative

B. subversive

C. profound

D. accessible

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The author’s claim about the relationship between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens is ______, as
it fails to account for several recent archaeological discoveries. To be convincing, his argument
would need to address recent finds of additional hominid fossils, such as the latest Denisovan
specimens and Homo longi.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. disorienting

B. tenuous

C. nuanced

D. unoriginal

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In Jane Austen’s novel Mansfield Park, an almost imperceptible smile from potential suitor Henry
Crawford causes the protagonist Fanny Price to blush; her embarrassment grows when she
suspects that he is aware of it. This moment—in which Fanny not only infers Henry’s mental
state through his gestures, but also infers that he is drawing inferences about her mental state—
illustrates what literary scholar George Butte calls “deep intersubjectivity,” a technique for
representing interactions between consciousnesses through which Austen’s novels derive much
of their social and psychological drama.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined sentence in the text as a whole?

A. It states a claim about Austen’s skill at representing psychological complexity that is

reinforced by an example presented in the following sentence.

B. It advances an interpretation of an Austen protagonist who is contrasted with protagonists

from other Austen novels cited in the following sentence.

C. It describes a recurring theme in Austen’s novels that is the focus of a literary scholar’s
analysis summarized in the following sentence.

D. It provides a synopsis of an interaction in an Austen novel that illustrates a literary concept

discussed in the following sentence.

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Text 1
The idea that time moves in only one direction is instinctively understood, yet it puzzles
physicists. According to the second law of thermodynamics, at a macroscopic level some
processes of heat transfer are irreversible due to the production of entropy—after a transfer we
cannot rewind time and place molecules back exactly where they were before, just as we cannot
unbreak dropped eggs. But laws of physics at a microscopic or quantum level hold that those
processes should be reversible.

Text 2
In 2015, physicists Tiago Batalhão et al. performed an experiment in which they confirmed the
irreversibility of thermodynamic processes at a quantum level, producing entropy by applying a
rapidly oscillating magnetic field to a system of carbon-13 atoms in liquid chloroform. But the
experiment “does not pinpoint ... what causes [irreversibility] at the microscopic level,” coauthor
Mauro Paternostro said.

Based on the texts, what would the author of Text 1 most likely say about the experiment
described in Text 2?

A. It would suggest an interesting direction for future research were it not the case that two of
the physicists who conducted the experiment disagree on the significance of its findings.

B. It provides empirical evidence that the current understanding of an aspect of physics at a

microscopic level must be incomplete.

C. It is consistent with the current understanding of physics at a microscopic level but not at a
macroscopic level.

D. It supports a claim about an isolated system of atoms in a laboratory, but that claim should
not be extrapolated to a general claim about the universe.

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Text 1
Despite its beautiful prose, The Guns of August, Barbara Tuchman’s 1962 analysis of the start of
World War I, has certain weaknesses as a work of history. It fails to address events in Eastern
Europe just before the outbreak of hostilities, thereby giving the impression that Germany was
the war’s principal instigator. Had Tuchman consulted secondary works available to her by
scholars such as Luigi Albertini, she would not have neglected the influence of events in Eastern
Europe on Germany’s actions.

Text 2
Barbara Tuchman’s The Guns of August is an engrossing if dated introduction to World War I.
Tuchman’s analysis of primary documents is laudable, but her main thesis that European powers
committed themselves to a catastrophic outcome by refusing to deviate from military plans
developed prior to the conflict is implausibly reductive.

Which choice best describes a difference in how the authors of Text 1 and Text 2 view Barbara
Tuchman’s The Guns of August?

A. The author of Text 1 argues that Tuchman should have relied more on the work of other
historians, while the author of Text 2 implies that Tuchman’s most interesting claims result
from her original research.

B. The author of Text 1 believes that the scope of Tuchman’s research led her to an incorrect
interpretation, while the author of Text 2 believes that Tuchman’s central argument is overly
simplistic.

C. The author of Text 1 asserts that the writing style of The Guns of August makes it worthwhile
to read despite any perceived deficiency in Tuchman’s research, while the author of Text 2
focuses exclusively on the weakness of Tuchman’s interpretation of events.

D. The author of Text 1 claims that Tuchman would agree that World War I was largely due to
events in Eastern Europe, while the author of Text 2 maintains that Tuchman would say that
Eastern European leaders were not committed to military plans in the same way that other
leaders were.

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Mathematician Claude Shannon is widely regarded as a foundational figure in information theory.
His most important paper, “A Mathematical Theory of Communication,” published in 1948 when
he was employed at Bell Labs, utilized a concept called a “binary digit” (shortened to “bit”) to
measure the amount of information in any signal and determine the fastest rate at which
information could be transmitted while still being reliably decipherable. Robert Gallagher, one of
Shannon’s colleagues, said that the bit was “[Shannon’s] discovery, and from it the whole
communications revolution has sprung.”

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. It presents a theoretical concept, illustrates how the name of the concept has changed, and
shows how the name has entered common usage.

B. It introduces a respected researcher, describes an aspect of his work, and suggests why the
work is historically significant.

C. It names the company where an important mathematician worked, details the

mathematician’s career at the company, and provides an example of the recognition he
received there.

D. It mentions a paper, offers a summary of the paper’s findings, and presents a researcher’s
commentary on the paper.

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Musician Joni Mitchell, who is also a painter, uses images she creates for her album covers to
emphasize ideas expressed in her music. For the cover of her album Turbulent Indigo (1994),
Mitchell painted a striking self-portrait that closely resembles Vincent van Gogh’s Self-Portrait
with Bandaged Ear (1889). The image calls attention to the album’s title song, in which Mitchell
sings about the legacy of the postimpressionist painter. In that song, Mitchell also hints that she
feels a strong artistic connection to Van Gogh—an idea that is reinforced by her imagery on the
cover.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. It presents a claim about Mitchell, then gives an example supporting that claim.

B. It discusses Van Gogh’s influence on Mitchell, then considers Mitchell’s influence on other
artists.

C. It describes a similarity between two artists, then notes a difference between them.

D. It describes the songs on Turbulent Indigo, then explains how they relate to the album’s cover.

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Text 1
When companies in the same industry propose merging with one another, they often claim that
the merger will benefit consumers by increasing efficiency and therefore lowering prices.
Economist Ying Fan investigated this notion in the context of the United States newspaper
market. She modeled a hypothetical merger of Minneapolis-area newspapers and found that
subscription prices would rise following a merger.
Text 2
Economists Dario Focarelli and Fabio Panetta have argued that research on the effect of
mergers on prices has focused excessively on short-term effects, which tend to be adverse for
consumers. Using the case of consumer banking in Italy, they show that over the long term
(several years, in their study), the efficiency gains realized by merged companies do result in
economic benefits for consumers.

Based on the texts, how would Focarelli and Panetta (Text 2) most likely respond to Fan’s
findings (Text 1)?

A. They would recommend that Fan compare the near-term effect of a merger on subscription
prices in the Minneapolis area with the effect of a merger in another newspaper market.

B. They would argue that over the long term the expenses incurred by the merged newspaper
company will also increase.

C. They would encourage Fan to investigate whether the projected effect on subscription prices
persists over an extended period.

D. They would claim that mergers have a different effect on consumer prices in the newspaper
industry than in most other industries.

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The following text is adapted from George Eliot’s 1871–72 novel Middlemarch.

[Mr. Brooke] had travelled in his younger years, and was held in this part of the country to
have contracted a too rambling habit of mind. Mr. Brooke’s conclusions were as difficult to
predict as the weather.

As used in the text, what does the word “contracted” most nearly mean?

A. Restricted

B. Described

C. Developed

D. Settled

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Text 1
In a study of the benefits of having free time, Marissa Sharif found that the reported sense of life
satisfaction tended to plateau when participants had two hours of free time per day and actually
began to fall when they had five hours of free time per day. After further research, Sharif
concluded that this dip in life satisfaction mainly occurred when individuals spent all their free
time unproductively, such as by watching TV or playing games.

Text 2
Psychologist James Maddux cautions against suggesting an ideal amount of free time. The
human desire for both free time and productivity is universal, but Maddux asserts that
individuals have unique needs for life satisfaction. Furthermore, he points out that there is no
objective definition for what constitutes productivity; reading a book might be considered a
productive activity by some, but idleness by others.

Based on the texts, how would Maddux (Text 2) most likely respond to the conclusion Sharif
(Text 1) reached after her further research?

A. By acknowledging that free time is more likely to enhance life satisfaction when it is spent
productively than when it is spent unproductively

B. By challenging the reasoning in Text 1, as it has not been proved that productivity commonly
contributes to individuals’ life satisfaction

C. By warning against making an overly broad assumption, as there is no clear consensus in

distinguishing between productive and unproductive activities

D. By claiming that the specific activities named in Text 1 are actually examples of productive
activities rather than unproductive ones

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The following text is from Edith Wharton’s 1905 novel The House of Mirth. Lily Bart and a
companion are walking through a park.
Lily had no real intimacy with nature, but she had a passion for the appropriate and could be
keenly sensitive to a scene which was the fitting background of her own sensations. The
landscape outspread below her seemed an enlargement of her present mood, and she found
something of herself in its calmness, its breadth, its long free reaches. On the nearer slopes
the sugar-maples wavered like pyres of light; lower down was a massing of grey orchards, and
here and there the lingering green of an oak-grove.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined sentence in the text as a whole?

A. It creates a detailed image of the physical setting of the scene.

B. It establishes that a character is experiencing an internal conflict.

C. It makes an assertion that the next sentence then expands on.

D. It illustrates an idea that is introduced in the previous sentence.

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The province of Xoconochco was situated on the Pacific coast, hundreds of kilometers
southeast of Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire. Because Xoconochco’s location
within the empire was so ______, cacao and other trade goods produced there could reach the
capital only after a long overland journey.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. unobtrusive

B. concealed

C. approximate

D. peripheral

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The work of Kiowa painter T.C. Cannon derives its power in part from the tension among his
______ influences: classic European portraiture, with its realistic treatment of faces; the American
pop art movement, with its vivid colors; and flatstyle, the intertribal painting style that rejects the
effect of depth typically achieved through shading and perspective.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. complementary

B. unknown

C. disparate

D. interchangeable

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Space scientists Anna-Lisa Paul, Stephen M. Elardo, and Robert Ferl planted seeds of
Arabidopsis thaliana in samples of lunar regolith—the surface material of the Moon—and, serving
as a control group, in terrestrial soil. They found that while all the seeds germinated, the roots of
the regolith-grown plants were stunted compared with those in the control group. Moreover,
unlike the plants in the control group, the regolith-grown plants exhibited red pigmentation,
reduced leaf size, and inhibited growth rates—indicators of stress that were corroborated by
postharvest molecular analysis.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. It describes an experiment that addressed an unresolved question about the extent to which
lunar regolith resembles terrestrial soils.

B. It compares two distinct methods of assessing indicators of stress in plants grown in a

simulated lunar environment.

C. It presents evidence in support of the hypothesis that seed germination in lunar habitats is an
unattainable goal.

D. It discusses the findings of a study that evaluated the effects of exposing a plant species to
lunar soil conditions.

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Michelene Pesantubbee, a historian and citizen of the Choctaw Nation, has identified a dilemma
inherent to research on the status of women in her tribe during the 1600s and 1700s: the primary
sources from that era, travel narratives and other accounts by male European colonizers,
underestimate the degree of power conferred on Choctaw women by their traditional roles in
political, civic, and ceremonial life. Pesantubbee argues that the Choctaw oral tradition and
findings from archaeological sites in the tribe’s homeland supplement the written record by
providing crucial insights into those roles.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. It details the shortcomings of certain historical sources, then argues that research should
avoid those sources altogether.

B. It describes a problem that arises in research on a particular topic, then sketches a historian’s
approach to addressing that problem.

C. It lists the advantages of a particular research method, then acknowledges a historian’s

criticism of that method.

D. It characterizes a particular topic as especially challenging to research, then suggests a

related topic for historians to pursue instead.

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The artisans of the Igun Eronmwon guild in Benin City, Nigeria, typically ______ the bronze- and
brass-casting techniques that have been passed down through their families since the thirteenth
century, but they don’t strictly observe every tradition; for example, guild members now use air-
conditioning motors instead of handheld bellows to help heat their forges.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. experiment with

B. adhere to

C. improve on

D. grapple with

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The following text is adapted from Oscar Wilde’s 1895 play The Importance of Being Earnest.
CECILY: Have we got to part?
ALGERNON: I am afraid so. It’s a very painful parting.
CECILY: It is always painful to part from people whom one has known for a very brief space of
time. The absence of old friends one can endure with equanimity. But even a momentary
separation from anyone to whom one has just been introduced is almost unbearable.

As used in the text, what does the word “endure” most nearly mean?

A. Regret

B. Persist

C. Tolerate

D. Encourage

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Horizontal gene transfer occurs when an organism of one species acquires genetic material
from an organism of another species through nonreproductive means. The genetic material can
then be transferred “vertically” in the second species—that is, through reproductive inheritance.
Scientist Atma Ivancevic and her team have hypothesized infection by invertebrate parasites as
a mechanism of horizontal gene transfer between vertebrate species: while feeding, a parasite
could acquire a gene from one host, then relocate to a host from a different vertebrate species
and transfer the gene to it in turn.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined portion in the text as a whole?

A. It explains why parasites are less susceptible to horizontal gene transfer than their hosts are.

B. It clarifies why some genes are more likely to be transferred horizontally than others are.

C. It contrasts how horizontal gene transfer occurs among vertebrates with how it occurs
among invertebrates.

D. It describes a means by which horizontal gene transfer might occur among vertebrates.

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During a 2014 archaeological dig in Spain, Vicente Lull and his team uncovered the skeleton of a
woman from El Algar, an Early Bronze Age society, buried with valuable objects signaling a high
position of power. This finding may persuade researchers who have argued that Bronze Age
societies were ruled by men to ______ that women may have also held leadership roles.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. waive

B. concede

C. refute

D. require

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Set in a world where science fiction tropes exist as everyday realities, Charles Yu’s 2010 novel
How to Live Safely in a Science Fictional Universe traces a time traveler’s quest to find his father.
Because the journey at the novel’s center is so ______, with the protagonist ricocheting
chaotically across time, the reader often wonders whether the pair will ever be reunited.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. haphazard

B. premeditated

C. inspirational

D. fruitless

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“How lifelike are they?” Many computer animators prioritize this question as they strive to create
ever more realistic environments and lighting. Generally, while characters in computer-animated
films appear highly exaggerated, environments and lighting are carefully engineered to mimic
reality. But some animators, such as Pixar’s Sanjay Patel, are focused on a different question.
Rather than asking first whether the environments and lighting they’re creating are convincingly
lifelike, Patel and others are asking whether these elements reflect their films’ unique stories.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined question in the text as a whole?

A. It reflects a primary goal that many computer animators have for certain components of the
animations they produce.

B. It represents a concern of computer animators who are more interested in creating unique
backgrounds and lighting effects than realistic ones.

C. It conveys the uncertainty among many computer animators about how to create realistic
animations using current technology.

D. It illustrates a reaction that audiences typically have to the appearance of characters created
by computer animators.

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Text 1
Fossils of the hominin Australopithecus africanus have been found in the Sterkfontein Caves of
South Africa, but assigning an age to the fossils is challenging because of the unreliability of
dating methods in this context. The geology of Sterkfontein has caused soil layers from different
periods to mix, impeding stratigraphic dating, and dates cannot be reliably imputed from those of
nearby animal bones since the bones may have been relocated by flooding.
Text 2
Archaeologists used new cosmogenic nuclide dating techniques to reevaluate the ages of A.
africanus fossils found in the Sterkfontein Caves. This technique involves analyzing the
cosmogenic nucleotides in the breccia—the matrix of rock fragments immediately surrounding
the fossils. The researchers assert that this approach avoids the potential for misdating
associated with assigning ages based on Sterkfontein’s soil layers or animal bones.

Based on the texts, how would the researchers in Text 2 most likely respond to the underlined
portion in Text 1?

A. They would emphasize the fact that the A. africanus fossils found in the Sterkfontein Caves
may have been corrupted in some way over the years.

B. They would contend that if analyses of surrounding layers and bones in the Sterkfontein
Caves were combined, then the dating of the fossils there would be more accurate.

C. They would argue that their techniques are better suited than other methods to the unique
challenges posed by the Sterkfontein Caves.

D. They would claim that cosmogenic nuclide dating is reliable in the context of the Sterkfontein
Caves because it is applied to the fossils directly.

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According to historian Vicki L. Ruiz, Mexican American women made crucial contributions to the
labor movement during World War II. At the time, food processing companies entered into
contracts to supply United States armed forces with canned goods. Increased production quotas
conferred greater bargaining power on the companies’ employees, many of whom were Mexican
American women: employees insisted on more favorable benefits, and employers, who were
anxious to fulfill the contracts, complied. Thus, labor activism became a platform for Mexican
American women to assert their agency.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined portion in the text as a whole?

A. It elaborates on a claim about labor relations in a particular industry made earlier in the text.

B. It offers an example of a trend in the World War II–era economy discussed earlier in the text.

C. It notes a possible exception to the historical narrative of labor activism sketched earlier in
the text.

D. It provides further details about the identities of the workers discussed earlier in the text.

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Given that the conditions in binary star systems should make planetary formation nearly
impossible, it’s not surprising that the existence of planets in such systems has lacked ______
explanation. Roman Rafikov and Kedron Silsbee shed light on the subject when they used
modeling to determine a complex set of factors that could support planets’ development.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. a discernible

B. a straightforward

C. an inconclusive

D. an unbiased

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Text 1
Conventional wisdom long held that human social systems evolved in stages, beginning with
hunter-gatherers forming small bands of members with roughly equal status. The shift to
agriculture about 12,000 years ago sparked population growth that led to the emergence of
groups with hierarchical structures: associations of clans first, then chiefdoms, and finally,
bureaucratic states.

Text 2
In a 2021 book, anthropologist David Graeber and archaeologist David Wengrow maintain that
humans have always been socially flexible, alternately forming systems based on hierarchy and
collective ones with decentralized leadership. The authors point to evidence that as far back as
50,000 years ago some hunter-gatherers adjusted their social structures seasonally, at times
dispersing in small groups but also assembling into communities that included esteemed
individuals.

Based on the texts, how would Graeber and Wengrow (Text 2) most likely respond to the
“conventional wisdom” presented in Text 1?

A. By conceding the importance of hierarchical systems but asserting the greater significance
of decentralized collective societies

B. By disputing the idea that developments in social structures have followed a linear
progression through distinct stages

C. By acknowledging that hierarchical roles likely weren’t a part of social systems before the
rise of agriculture

D. By challenging the assumption that groupings of hunter-gatherers were among the earliest
forms of social structure

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Text 1
Dominique Potvin and colleagues captured five Australian magpies (Gymnorhina tibicen) to test a
new design for attaching tracking devices to birds. As the researchers fitted each magpie with a
tracker attached by a small harness, they noticed some magpies without trackers pecking at
another magpie’s tracker until it broke off. The researchers suggest that this behavior could be
evidence of magpies attempting to help another magpie without benefiting themselves.

Text 2
It can be tempting to think that animals are deliberately providing help when we see them
removing trackers and other equipment from one another, especially when a species is known to
exhibit other cooperative behaviors. At the same time, it can be difficult to exclude the possibility
that individuals are simply interested in the equipment because of its novelty, curiously pawing or
pecking at it until it detaches.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 2 most likely respond to the researchers’
perspective in Text 1 on the behavior of the magpies without trackers?

A. That behavior might have been due to the novelty of the magpies’ captive setting rather than
to the novelty of the tracker.

B. That behavior likely indicates that the magpies were deliberately attempting to benefit
themselves by obtaining the tracker.

C. That behavior may not be evidence of selflessness in Gymnorhina tibicen because not all the
captured magpies demonstrated it.

D. That behavior might be adequately explained without suggesting that the magpies were
attempting to assist the other magpie.

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Economist Marco Castillo and colleagues showed that nuisance costs—the time and effort
people must spend to make donations—reduce charitable giving. Charities can mitigate this
effect by compensating donors for nuisance costs, but those costs, though variable, are largely
______ donation size, so charities that compensate donors will likely favor attracting a few large
donors over many small donors.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. supplemental to

B. predictive of

C. independent of

D. subsumed in

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Some studies have suggested that posture can influence cognition, but we should not overstate
this phenomenon. A case in point: In a 2014 study, Megan O’Brien and Alaa Ahmed had subjects
stand or sit while making risky simulated economic decisions. Standing is more physically
unstable and cognitively demanding than sitting; accordingly, O’Brien and Ahmed hypothesized
that standing subjects would display more risk aversion during the decision-making tasks than
sitting subjects did, since they would want to avoid further feelings of discomfort and
complicated risk evaluations. But O’Brien and Ahmed actually found no difference in the groups’
performance.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. It argues that research findings about the effects of posture on cognition are often
misunderstood, as in the case of O’Brien and Ahmed’s study.

B. It presents the study by O’Brien and Ahmed to critique the methods and results reported in
previous studies of the effects of posture on cognition.

C. It explains a significant problem in the emerging understanding of posture’s effects on

cognition and how O’Brien and Ahmed tried to solve that problem.

D. It discusses the study by O’Brien and Ahmed to illustrate why caution is needed when making
claims about the effects of posture on cognition.

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The following text is from Charlotte Forten Grimké’s 1888 poem “At Newport.”
Oh, deep delight to watch the gladsome waves
Exultant leap upon the rugged rocks;
Ever repulsed, yet ever rushing on—
Filled with a life that will not know defeat;
To see the glorious hues of sky and sea.
The distant snowy sails, glide spirit like,
Into an unknown world, to feel the sweet
Enchantment of the sea thrill all the soul,
Clearing the clouded brain, making the heart
Leap joyous as it own bright, singing waves!

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined portion in the text as a whole?

A. It portrays the surroundings as an imposing and intimidating scene.

B. It characterizes the sea’s waves as a relentless and enduring force.

C. It conveys the speaker’s ambivalence about the natural world.

D. It draws a contrast between the sea’s waves and the speaker’s thoughts.

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The following text is from Joseph Conrad’s 1907 novel The Secret Agent: A Simple Tale. Mr.
Verloc is navigating the London streets on his way to a meeting.
Before reaching Knightsbridge, Mr. Verloc took a turn to the left out of the busy main
thoroughfare, uproarious with the traffic of swaying omnibuses and trotting vans, in the almost
silent, swift flow of hansoms [horse-drawn carriages]. Under his hat, worn with a slight backward
tilt, his hair had been carefully brushed into respectful sleekness; for his business was with an
Embassy. And Mr. Verloc, steady like a rock—a soft kind of rock—marched now along a street
which could with every propriety be described as private.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined phrase in the text as a whole?

A. It qualifies an earlier description of Mr. Verloc.

B. It emphasizes an internal struggle Mr. Verloc experiences.

C. It contrasts Mr. Verloc with his surroundings.

D. It reveals a private opinion Mr. Verloc holds.

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Text 1
Virginia Woolf’s 1928 novel Orlando is an oddity within her body of work. Her other major novels
consist mainly of scenes of everyday life and describe their characters’ interior states in great
detail, whereas Orlando propels itself through a series of fantastical events and considers its
characters’ psychology more superficially. Woolf herself sometimes regarded the novel as a
minor work, even admitting once that she “began it as a joke.”

Text 2
Like Woolf’s other great novels, Orlando portrays how people’s memories inform their experience
of the present. Like those works, it examines how people navigate social interactions shaped by
gender and social class. Though it is lighter in tone—more entertaining, even—this literary “joke”
nonetheless engages seriously with the themes that motivated the four or five other novels by
Woolf that have achieved the status of literary classics.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 2 most likely respond to the assessment of
Orlando presented in Text 1?

A. By conceding that Woolf’s talents were best suited to serious novels but asserting that the
humor in Orlando is often effective

B. By agreeing that Orlando is less impressive than certain other novels by Woolf but arguing
that it should still be regarded as a classic

C. By acknowledging that Orlando clearly differs from Woolf’s other major novels but insisting
on its centrality to her body of work nonetheless

D. By concurring that the reputation of Orlando as a minor work has led readers to overlook this
novel but maintaining that the reputation is unearned

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Rejecting the premise that the literary magazine Ebony and Topaz (1927) should present a
unified vision of Black American identity, editor Charles S. Johnson fostered his contributors’
diverse perspectives by promoting their authorial autonomy. Johnson’s self-effacement diverged
from the editorial stances of W.E.B. Du Bois and Alain Locke, whose decisions for their
publications were more ______.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. proficient

B. dogmatic

C. ambiguous

D. unpretentious

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Text 1
In 2021, a team led by Amir Siraj hypothesized that the Chicxulub impactor—the object that
struck the Yucatán Peninsula sixty-six million years ago, precipitating the mass extinction of the
dinosaurs—was likely a member of the class of long-period comets. As evidence, Siraj cited the
carbonaceous chondritic composition of samples from the Chicxulub impact crater as well as of
samples obtained from long-period comet Wild 2 in 2006.

Text 2
Although long-period comets contain carbonaceous chondrites, asteroids are similarly rich in
these materials. Furthermore, some asteroids are rich in iridium, as Natalia Artemieva points out,
whereas long-period comets are not. Given the prevalence of iridium at the crater and, more
broadly, in geological layers deposited worldwide following the impact, Artemieva argues that an
asteroid is a more plausible candidate for the Chicxulub impactor.

Based on the texts, how would Artemieva likely respond to Siraj’s hypothesis, as presented in
Text 1?

A. By insisting that it overestimates how representative Wild 2 is of long-period comets as a

class

B. By arguing that it does not account for the amount of iridium found in geological layers
dating to the Chicxulub impact

C. By praising it for connecting the composition of Chicxulub crater samples to the composition
of certain asteroids

D. By concurring that carbonaceous chondrites are prevalent in soil samples from sites distant
from the Chicxulub crater

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Seminole/Muscogee director Sterlin Harjo ______ television’s tendency to situate Native
characters in the distant past: this rejection is evident in his series Reservation Dogs, which
revolves around teenagers who dress in contemporary styles and whose dialogue is laced with
current slang.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. repudiates

B. proclaims

C. foretells

D. recants

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Critics have asserted that fine art and fashion rarely ______ in a world where artists create
timeless works for exhibition and designers periodically produce new styles for the public to buy.
Luiseño/Shoshone-Bannock beadwork artist and designer Jamie Okuma challenges this view:
her work can be seen in the Metropolitan Museum of Art and purchased through her online
boutique.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. prevail

B. succumb

C. diverge

D. intersect

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The following text is from Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s 1910 poem “The Earth’s Entail.”
No matter how we cultivate the land,
Taming the forest and the prairie free;
No matter how we irrigate the sand,
Making the desert blossom at command,
We must always leave the borders of the sea;
The immeasureable reaches
Of the windy wave-wet beaches,
The million-mile-long margin of the sea.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. The speaker argues against interfering with nature and then gives evidence supporting this
interference.

B. The speaker presents an account of efforts to dominate nature and then cautions that such
efforts are only temporary.

C. The speaker provides examples of an admirable way of approaching nature and then
challenges that approach.

D. The speaker describes attempts to control nature and then offers a reminder that not all
nature is controllable.

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Some foraging models predict that the distance bees travel when foraging will decline as floral
density increases, but biologists Shalene Jha and Claire Kremen showed that bees’ behavior is
inconsistent with this prediction if flowers in dense patches are ______: bees will forage beyond
patches of low species richness to acquire multiple resource types.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. depleted

B. homogeneous

C. immature

D. dispersed

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For her 2021 art installation Anthem, Wu Tsang joined forces with singer and composer Beverly
Glenn-Copeland to produce a piece that critics found truly ______: they praised Tsang for
creatively transforming a museum rotunda into a dynamic exhibit by projecting filmed images of
Glenn-Copeland onto a massive 84-foot curtain and filling the space with the sounds of his and
other voices singing.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. restrained

B. inventive

C. inexplicable

D. mystifying

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Scholarly discussions of gender in Shakespeare’s comedies often celebrate the rebellion of the
playwright’s characters against the rigid expectations ______ by Elizabethan society. Most of the
comedies end in marriage, with characters returning to their socially dictated gender roles after
previously defying them, but there are some notable exceptions.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. interjected

B. committed

C. illustrated

D. prescribed

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Industrial activity is often assumed to be a threat to wildlife, but that isn’t always so. Consider the
silver-studded blue butterfly (Plebejus argus): as forest growth has reduced grasslands in
northern Germany, many of these butterflies have left meadow habitats and are now thriving in
active limestone quarries. In a survey of multiple active quarries and patches of maintained
grassland, an ecologist found silver-studded blue butterflies in 100% of the quarries but only 57%
of the grassland patches. Moreover, butterfly populations in the quarries were four times larger
than those in the meadows.

Which choice best describes the function of the underlined portion in the text as a whole?

A. It challenges a common assumption about the species under investigation in the research
referred to in the text.

B. It introduces discussion of a specific example that supports the general claim made in the
previous sentence.

C. It suggests that a certain species should be included in additional studies like the one
mentioned later in the text.

D. It provides a definition for an unfamiliar term that is central to the main argument in the text.

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Some economic historians ______ that late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century households in
the United States experienced an economy of scale when it came to food purchases—they
assumed that large households spent less on food per person than did small households.
Economist Trevon Logan showed, however, that a close look at the available data disproves this
supposition.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. surmised

B. contrived

C. questioned

D. regretted

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Text 1
In 1916, H. Dugdale Sykes disputed claims that The Two Noble Kinsmen was coauthored by
William Shakespeare and John Fletcher. Sykes felt Fletcher’s contributions to the play were
obvious—Fletcher had a distinct style in his other plays, so much so that lines with that style
were considered sufficient evidence of Fletcher’s authorship. But for the lines not deemed to be
by Fletcher, Sykes felt that their depiction of women indicated that their author was not
Shakespeare but Philip Massinger.
Text 2
Scholars have accepted The Two Noble Kinsmen as coauthored by Shakespeare since the 1970s:
it appears in all major one-volume editions of Shakespeare’s complete works. Though scholars
disagree about who wrote what exactly, it is generally held that on the basis of style,
Shakespeare wrote all of the first act and most of the last, while John Fletcher authored most of
the three middle acts.

Based on the texts, both Sykes in Text 1 and the scholars in Text 2 would most likely agree with
which statement?

A. John Fletcher’s writing has a unique, readily identifiable style.

B. The women characters in John Fletcher’s plays are similar to the women characters in Philip
Massinger’s plays.

C. The Two Noble Kinsmen belongs in one-volume compilations of Shakespeare’s complete

plays.

D. Philip Massinger’s style in the first and last acts of The Two Noble Kinsmen is an homage to
Shakespeare’s style.

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The following text is adapted from Jane Austen’s 1814 novel Mansfield Park. The speaker, Tom,
is considering staging a play at home with a group of his friends and family.
We mean nothing but a little amusement among ourselves, just to vary the scene, and exercise
our powers in something new. We want no audience, no publicity. We may be trusted, I think, in
choosing some play most perfectly unexceptionable; and I can conceive no greater harm or
danger to any of us in conversing in the elegant written language of some respectable author
than in chattering in words of our own.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. To offer Tom’s assurance that the play will be inoffensive and involve only a small number of
people

B. To clarify that the play will not be performed in the manner Tom had originally intended

C. To elaborate on the idea that the people around Tom lack the skills to successfully stage a
play

D. To assert that Tom believes the group performing the play will be able to successfully
promote it

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A study by a team including finance professor Madhu Veeraraghavan suggests that exposure to
sunshine during the workday can lead to overly optimistic behavior. Using data spanning from
1994 to 2010 for a set of US companies, the team compared over 29,000 annual earnings
forecasts to the actual earnings later reported by those companies. The team found that the
greater the exposure to sunshine at work in the two weeks before a manager submitted an
earnings forecast, the more the manager’s forecast exceeded what the company actually earned
that year.

Which choice best states the function of the underlined sentence in the overall structure of the
text?

A. To summarize the results of the team’s analysis

B. To present a specific example that illustrates the study’s findings

C. To explain part of the methodology used in the team’s study

D. To call out a challenge the team faced in conducting its analysis

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The following text is adapted from Aphra Behn’s 1689 novel The Lucky Mistake. Atlante and
Rinaldo are neighbors who have been secretly exchanging letters through Charlot, Atlante’s
sister.
[Atlante] gave this letter to Charlot; who immediately ran into the balcony with it, where she still
found Rinaldo in a melancholy posture, leaning his head on his hand: She showed him the
letter, but was afraid to toss it to him, for fear it might fall to the ground; so he ran and fetched
a long cane, which he cleft at one end, and held it while she put the letter into the cleft, and
stayed not to hear what he said to it. But never was man so transported with joy, as he was at
the reading of this letter; it gives him new wounds; for to the generous, nothing obliges love so
much as love.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. It describes the delivery of a letter, and then portrays a character’s happiness at reading that
letter.

B. It establishes that a character is desperate to receive a letter, and then explains why another
character has not yet written that letter.

C. It presents a character’s concerns about delivering a letter, and then details the contents of
that letter.

D. It reveals the inspiration behind a character’s letter, and then emphasizes the excitement that
another character feels upon receiving that letter.

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The following text is adapted from Karel Čapek’s 1920 play R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots),
translated by Paul Selver and Nigel Playfair in 1923. Fabry and Busman are telling Miss Glory
why their company manufactures robots.
FABRY: One Robot can replace two and a half workmen. The human machine, Miss Glory, was
terribly imperfect. It had to be removed sooner or later.
BUSMAN: It was too expensive.
FABRY: It was not effective. It no longer answers the requirements of modern engineering.
Nature has no idea of keeping pace with modern labor.

As used in the text, what does the word “answers” most nearly mean?

A. Explains

B. Rebuts

C. Defends

D. Fulfills

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The following text is from Walt Whitman’s 1860 poem “Calamus 24.”
I HEAR it is charged against me that I seek to destroy institutions;
But really I am neither for nor against institutions
(What indeed have I in common with them?—Or what with the destruction of them?),
Only I will establish in the Mannahatta [Manhattan] and in every city of These States, inland
and seaboard,
And in the fields and woods, and above every keel [ship] little or large, that dents the water,
Without edifices, or rules, or trustees, or any argument,
The institution of the dear love of comrades.

Which choice best describes the overall structure of the text?

A. The speaker questions an increasingly prevalent attitude, then summarizes his worldview.

B. The speaker regrets his isolation from others, then predicts a profound change in society.

C. The speaker concedes his personal shortcomings, then boasts of his many achievements.

D. The speaker addresses a criticism leveled against him, then announces a grand ambition of
his.

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In studying the use of external stimuli to reduce the itching sensation caused by an allergic
histamine response, Louise Ward and colleagues found that while harmless applications of
vibration or warming can provide a temporary distraction, such ______ stimuli actually offer less
relief than a stimulus that seems less benign, like a mild electric shock.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. deceptive

B. innocuous

C. novel

D. impractical

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In Nature Poem (2017), Kumeyaay poet Tommy Pico portrays his ______ the natural world by
honoring the centrality of nature within his tribe’s traditional beliefs while simultaneously
expressing his distaste for being in wilderness settings himself.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. responsiveness to

B. ambivalence toward

C. renunciation of

D. mastery over

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Business researcher Melanie Brucks and colleagues found that remote video conference
meetings may be less conducive to brainstorming than in-person meetings are. The researchers
suspect that video meeting participants are focused on staring at the speaker on the screen and
don’t allow their eyes or mind to wander as much, which may ultimately ______ creativity.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. recommend

B. criticize

C. impede

D. construct

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Mineralogical differences are detectable in samples collected from two locations on the near-
Earth asteroid Ryugu, but such differences may not indicate substantial compositional variations
in the asteroid. Cosmochemist Kazuhide Nagashima and colleagues note that at the small scale
of the samples, the distribution of minerals is unlikely to be ______.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. neglected

B. redundant

C. ongoing

D. uniform

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Text 1
Like the work of Ralph Ellison before her, Toni Morrison’s novels feature scenes in which
characters deliver sermons of such length and verbal dexterity that for a time, the text exchanges
the formal parameters of fiction for those of oral literature. Given the many other echoes of
Ellison in Morrison’s novels, both in structure and prose style, these scenes suggest Ellison’s
direct influence on Morrison.
Text 2
In their destabilizing effect on literary form, the sermons in Morrison’s works recall those in
Ellison’s. Yet literature by Black Americans abounds in moments where interpolated speech
erodes the division between oral and written forms that literature in English has traditionally
observed. Morrison’s use of the sermon is attributable not only to the influence of Ellison but
also to a community-wide strategy of resistance to externally imposed literary conventions.

Based on the texts, how would the author of Text 2 most likely characterize the underlined claim
in Text 1?

A. As failing to consider Ellison’s and Morrison’s equivalent uses of the sermon within the wider
cultural context in which they wrote

B. As misunderstanding the function of sermons in novels by Black American writers other than
Ellison and Morrison

C. As disregarding points of structural and stylistic divergence between the works of Ellison and
those of Morrison

D. As being indebted to the tradition of resisting literary conventions that privilege written forms,
such as novels, over sermons and other oral forms

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Text 1
Astronomer Mark Holland and colleagues examined four white dwarfs—small, dense remnants
of past stars—in order to determine the composition of exoplanets that used to orbit those stars.
Studying wavelengths of light in the white dwarf atmospheres, the team reported that traces of
elements such as lithium and sodium support the presence of exoplanets with continental crusts
similar to Earth’s.

Text 2
Past studies of white dwarf atmospheres have concluded that certain exoplanets had
continental crusts. Geologist Keith Putirka and astronomer Siyi Xu argue that those studies
unduly emphasize atmospheric traces of lithium and other individual elements as signifiers of
the types of rock found on Earth. The studies don’t adequately account for different minerals
made up of various ratios of those elements, and the possibility of rock types not found on Earth
that contain those minerals.

Based on the texts, how would Putirka and Xu (Text 2) most likely characterize the conclusion
presented in Text 1?

A. As unexpected, because it was widely believed at the time that white dwarf exoplanets lack
continental crusts

B. As premature, because researchers have only just begun trying to determine what kinds of
crusts white dwarf exoplanets had

C. As questionable, because it rests on an incomplete consideration of potential sources of the

elements detected in white dwarf atmospheres

D. As puzzling, because it’s unusual to successfully detect lithium and sodium when analyzing
wavelengths of light in white dwarf atmospheres

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Text 1
The Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) mass extinction event is usually attributed solely to an
asteroid impact near Chicxulub, Mexico. Some scientists argue that volcanic activity was the
true cause, as the K-Pg event occurred relatively early in a long period of eruption of the Deccan
Traps range that initially produced huge amounts of climate-altering gases. These dissenters
note that other mass extinctions have coincided with large volcanic eruptions, while only the K-
Pg event lines up with an asteroid strike.

Text 2
In a 2020 study, Pincelli Hull and her colleagues analyzed ocean core samples and modeled
climate changes around the K-Pg event. The team concluded that Deccan Traps gases did affect
global conditions prior to the event, but that the climate returned to normal well before the
extinctions began—extinctions that instead closely align with the Chicxulub impact.

Based on the texts, how would Hull’s team (Text 2) most likely respond to the argument in the
underlined portion of Text 1?

A. By agreeing that the Chicxulub impact changed the climate and that the Deccan Traps
eruption caused the K-Pg event

B. By declaring that the changes in climate caused by the Deccan Traps eruption weren’t the
main cause of the K-Pg event

C. By questioning why those scientists assume that the Chicxulub impact caused the Deccan
Traps eruption

D. By asserting that the Deccan Traps eruption had a more significant effect on global
conditions than those scientists claim

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In a 2019 study, Jeremy Gunawardena and colleagues found that the single-celled protozoan
Stentor roeseli not only uses strategies to escape irritating stimuli but also switches strategies
when one fails. This evidence of protozoans sophisticatedly “changing their minds”
demonstrates that single-celled organisms may not be limited to ______ behaviors.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. aggressive

B. rudimentary

C. evolving

D. advantageous

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The work of molecular biophysicist Enrique M. De La Cruz is known for ______ traditional
boundaries between academic disciplines. The university laboratory that De La Cruz runs
includes engineers, biologists, chemists, and physicists, and the research the lab produces
makes use of insights and techniques from all those fields.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. epitomizing

B. transcending

C. anticipating

D. reinforcing

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