Malunggay (Moringa oleifera) Seeds and Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis

miller) as an Effervescent Tablet for Water Purification

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in Practical Research II

ATARA, AL-MAHDI A.
ALBIOS, KIRSTEN ANGEL R.
ALVAREZ, ARIEL JOSE
IBNO, YAZER A.
DONDOYANO, NOELEEN E.
JAWALI, DARYL HANNA C.
ZARAGOZA, CRISTOPER JOSH M.
SAJI, ALJANNA M.
Research Proponents

ADRIEL JAN BRUNO

Research Adviser

DECEMBER 2024
CHAPTER I
 Introduction

Background of the Study

Water pollution is now a global crisis affecting livelihood and health. In a report by the

World Health Organization (2023), Contaminated water and poor sanitation are the main

components of water pollution. Water contamination is caused by several factors, such as plastic

and industrial wastes, contributing to making water toxic thus harming the environment and

humans. Poor sanitation on the other hand is the cause of ineffective waste management,

therefore being also the cause of widespread water contamination. These two are also linked to

transmission of diseases such as cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid and polio.

Further, a study made by Lin, L (2022) shows that the impact of water pollution on human health

is significant with the most common disease caused by water pollution is diarrhea, which is

mainly transmitted by enteroviruses in the aquatic environment. With all these problems, it is

imperative to do more studies tackling this problem, as it is currently rising to be a crisis in the

future. Moreover, in a study made by Pandit, A & Kumar J.K (2015), Efforts to develop

efficient, economical, and technologically sound methods to produce clean water for developing

countries have increased worldwide. Therefore, finding new ways to further the decline of water

pollution is a must and an interesting field of research to work upon.

Water pollution in the Philippines has reached critical heights, accounting 30% out of the

81% of the Asian water bodies’ plastic waste, caused by unlawful dumping of waste from poor

communities (Filipenco, D. 2024). According to the Senate Economic Planning Office in 2021,

56% (13 of 23) of water bodies classified for public water supply exceeded guideline values for
fecal coliform. This is alarming as it affects every aspects of Filipino lives, considering that it

mainly affects agriculture and their liivelihood.

Zamboanga City is known for its ecological diversity, with that, clean water is an

important asset for its sustainable development, but the simultaneous urbanization, unwise waste

disposals and the rapid degradation of its land contribute to the rising crisis of contaminated

water. In a report by Sitata (2020), the water supply in Zamboanga City has been contaminated,

From March through April, an outbreak of gastroenteritis (diarrhoea) has involved more than

1,500 infected people and 9 deaths. Moreover, even agricultural activities further the

contamination with its runoffs as stated in the study by Tendero, E.J. (2023). With that, the study

will utilize a deepwell found in Malagutay, Upper Calarian. This deepwell is crucial to the

baranggay, as such performing a study on it will ensure quality water for the baranggay’s

citizens.

Moringa Oleifera, or more commonly known as “Malunggay” is a fast-growimg and a

drought-resistant tree found in every places in the Philippines. This abundancy and its effective

coagulant properties are what lead to the formulation of this study. According to Morterra, A.

(2017) the use of Moringa O. Seeds as water purifier reduced turbidity and reduced water

pollutants. Further, a study by Amagloh, F.K & Benang, A. (2009) Also concluded that

Malunggay seed kernels possess antimicrobial properties. Moreover Coagulant properties are

also found in the Moringa O. Seed kernels as effective as the convential coagulant, Alum.

(Madsen et al., 1987; Postnote, 2002; Barth et al., 1982; Bhole, 1987; Jahn, 1988; Müller, 1980).
as Moringa O. Seeds possess water soluble cationic proteins. These proteins are effective in

coagulating solid materials in the water, further, Moringa O. Seeds also comprise antimicrobial

properties that can combat bacteria and other pathogens (Ndabigengesere et al. 1995).

Moringa O. Seeds also has the ability to clump together heavy metals found

in polluted waters like Iron, Copper and lead (Olsen, 1987).

Aloe vera is a cactus-like, perennial plant that is commonly grown in tropical climates.

Aloe Vera possess traits of an effective water purifier, as stated by the study by Benalia et al.

(2021), Aloe vera can be successfully used as a natural coagulant for water treatment as the

obtained results show that the turbidity was reduced. Furthermore, in a study by Katubi et al.

(2021), Experimental data showed promising removal values comparable to other materials

reported in the literature (Such as the conventional coagulant, Alum) as Aloe has the enzymes

and more importantly, Carbohydrate Lignins, an effective natural coagulant as it contains

Polysaccharides and Mucelage, properties that effectively reduces turbudity, removes heavy

metals and stabilizes H2OPh levels. Along with that, Aloe vera is also sustainable, antimicrobial,

and an effective coagulant, purifying contaminants, comparable to metal-based coagulants, such

as Aluminum sulfate, Ferrous sulfate, Ferric Chloride, etc. (Benalia et al., 2021). As such, the

study seeks to improve on the effectivity of Moringa O. Seeds as water purifier, utilizing anothe

this known water purifier, Aloe barbadensis miller

 The coagulant will be formed into tablets, this in part is unique as the past researches

used powdered form of the natural coagulants. This tablet form will ensure a portable and

effective usage of the coagulant and will also eliminate the side effect of elevated water turbidity

and unstable Ph levels when using a powdered form, evident in the researches of Benalia et al,

2021; Morterra, A. 2017.

At the present time, no studies have been made on the possible combination and effectivity

of the two natural coagulant, M.O and Aloe vera. Hence this study will be a catalyst of further

studies pertaining to the effectivity of M.O seeds and Aloe vera as natural coagulants.

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to determine the potential of Moringa oleifera seeds and Aloe vera gel as

an effervescent tablet for water purification. Specifically, this seeks to answer the following

questions:

1. Which among the following treatment is the most effective as an effervescent tablet for

purifying water in terms of Turbidity, pH level, and TDS (Total Dissolved Solids):

T1: 70g of Moringa oleifera seeds + 30g of Aloe vera gel

T2: 30g of Moringa oleifera seeds + 70g of Aloe vera gel

 T3: Commercially available Water Purifier

Significance of the Study

The study will be beneficial to the following:

Local Communities. The rural barangays of Zamboanga City, especially areas with limited

access to clean water, will directly benefit from the use of Moringa oleifera seed tablets. The

tablets will provide them with an affordable and easy-to-use water purification solution,

improving the quality of drinking water and reducing the risks of waterborne diseases.

Local Government Units (LGUs). LGUs in Zamboanga City and other water-scarce regions

can use the study’s findings to enhance their water resource management programs. The study

provides a model for sustainable water purification system that can be implemented in rural areas

to promote public health and environmental sustainability.

Schools. This study will provide an affordable and sustainable solution to schools for water

purification, ensuring access to safe drinking water and reducing the risk of waterborne diseases.

Department of Health. Health organizations and agencies like DOH will benefit from the study

by gaining a low-cost tool to reduce the prevalence of waterborne diseases. The research aligns

with public health campaigns focused on preventive health strategies and can be integrated into

local or national initiatives addressing water contamination.

Future Researchers. This research will serve as a reference and guide for future studies in the

field of water purification. It provides valuable insights and documented methods that can be

refined or expanded for further scientific exploration.

Scope and Delimitation.

This study will focus on developing and testing the effectiveness of Malunggay

(Moringa oleifera) Seeds and Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis miller) as an Effervescent Tablet for

Water Purification. The primary aim is to assess the turbidity, ph level and total dissolved solids

(TDS) of water, specifically targeting deepwell in the barangay of Malagutay in Zamboanga

City. The research aims to offer a sustainable, cost-effective, and portable water purification

solution that will be easily accessible to areas with limited access to clean water.

The experiment will be conducted at Science Laboratory of Baliwasan Senior High

School Stand-Alone, Zamboanga City, where the development of the Moringa seed and Aloe

vera gel as tablet will take place. Groundwater samples from the barangay of Malagutay will be

used to test the tablets' performance at two different dosages: 70g of Moringa oleifera seeds +

30g of Aloe vera gel and 30g of Moringa oleifera seeds + 70g of Aloe vera gel per liter of water.

These varying dosages will help determine the most effective treatment for reducing the

turbidity, ph level and total dissolved solids (TDS) in water.

 Given these delimitations, the study aims to develop a portable water purifier that will be

easily accessible to underserved communities, particularly in rural areas of Zamboanga City.

This study also seeks to provide practical insights into the use of Moringa seed and Aloe vera as

tablets for water purification and contribute to the ongoing search for eco-friendly and

sustainable alternatives to chemical-based solutions.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The Philippines has 421 primary rivers and 221 lakes, which supply 50% of the

country’s potable water. The remaining 50% comes from groundwater sources (Koons, E.,

2024). 43% of these rivers and 56% of the main bodies of water are polluted and contaminated,

affecting biodiversity and health. With that, the utilization of various water purification

techniques is now important more than ever. Water pollution is the contamination of bodies of

water, thus making the quality of the water deteriorate and become toxic to humans and nature

(Filipenco, D., 2024). Water pollution in the Philippines is caused by many factors, mainly

plastic pollution and industrial runoffs. This contaminants pose a significant threat as this kind of

pollution causes health risks and various other effects, such as the deteriorating biodiversity in

main bodies of water. According to Schroth & Archis (2024), Water purification is a process by

which undesired pollutants are removed from the water. Coagulation And Flocculation are two

of the most used water purification processes, Coagulation is a water treatment process used to

remove solids from water, by manipulating electrostatic charges of particles suspended in water
(Bradley, E., 2024) and Flocculation is a process in which the suspended hosts are aggregated

and separated through the settling process. The process of flocculation depends on the nature of

cells and ionic constituents of the medium (Basanta, K.B., 2023).

Turbidity is a measure of the cloudiness of water, and has often been used as a proxy for

microbiological contamination. Some studies have found that turbidity was correlated with

microbiological contamination in source water and filtered drinking water (LeChevallier et al.

1991a, 1991b, De roos et al. 2017). Further, Turbidity has been one of the many parameters for

testing coagulants/Flocculants. Investigators from different fields (waste water treatment;

drinking water quality; ecology), use turbidity measurement as a surrogate relative indicator of

some other physical property, typically suspended sediment concentration (SSC) or total

suspended solids (TSS) (Kitchener, n.a).

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) on the other hand, is a parameter that counts all dissolved

minerals in the water (Islam et al. 2016). TDS, comprise inorganic salts and organic matter that

are dissolved in water. The principal constituents are usually the cations calcium, magnesium,

sodium and potassium and the anions carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate and, particularly

in groundwater, nitrate. These originate from agricultural run-offs, sewage and also from natural

sources (Health Canada, 1991). TDS has negatively affected waterways that support

biodiversity, power generation, livelihood, and most of all, health (Adjovu et al. 2023). TDS is

mainly caused by rapid urbanization, industrialization, and climate change (Adjovu et al. 2023).

According to the Environmental Protection Agency secondary drinking water regulations, 500
ppm is the recommended maximum amount of TDS for your drinking water. Any measurement

higher than 1000 ppm is an unsafe level of TDS. If the level exceeds 2000 ppm, then a filtration

system may be unable to properly filter TDS. (Woodard, J., 2024).

The term "pH" is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration, a quantitative measure of the

acidity or alkalinity of a solution. In chemistry, the pH scale usually ranges from 0 to 14.

Aqueous solutions at 25°C with a pH of less than 7 are acidic, while those with a pH greater than

7 are basic or alkaline (Helmentsine, A.M. 2024). pH level is an important parameter to consider

in water purification, mainly because it takes account of water damage from various causes, such

as broken pipes in sewer systems. pH level also takes to account water contamination, such as

when the water becomes too acidic or alkaline (Olsen, N. 2023; Blue-White Industries, The

important role of pH levels in water treatment, 2023).

Moringa Oleifera is widely known as a potential effective natural coagulant (Amagloh

& Benang, 2009; Madsen et al.,1987). Further, according to Delelegn, Sahile & Husen, (2018)

crushed Moringa O. Seeds possess water soluble cationic proteins, an active agent in coagulation

that produce charges, acting like magnets and attracting negatively charged particles such as

clay, dirt, and most of all, bacterias and other toxic particulates, attracting sticking fast to these

particles, effectively reducing 94% of the water turbidity, removing heavy metals such as Iron

and Copper w
On the other hand, Aloe vera is also a promising natural coagulant, its original composition

including enzymes, vitamins, carbohydrate lignin, proteins, and inorganic substances are

beneficial in water purification (Baruah A., Bordoloi, M., Baruah H.P.D., 2016). Carbohydrate

Lignin has been widely proven to possess excellent antioxidant activities

including protecting cells from Ultraviolet (UV) exposure, reducing ferric

ions, Additionally, Carbohydrate lignins in plants has rich content of

polysaccharides that helps with the coagulation process. Aloe vera has been

succesfully used as a natural water coagulant, according to a study by Katubi et al. (2021), Aloe

has the capacity to play the roles of a metal reducing agent, its Glyco-Aloe-Modinanthrone and

tannins are reported to be responsible of the coagulant property similar to other natural

flocculants. (Adugna, A.t, & Gebresilasie, N.M, 2018). Furthermore Aloe vera is comprosed

mainly by polysaccharides, with low lipid and protein content and polysaccharide mucilage,

these are involved in the coagulation/flocculation process (Xie, J.Z.,Chang H-L., Kilbane, J.J.,

1997; Maan et al., 2018)

Effervescent or carbon tablets are tablets which are designed to dissolve in water and

release carbon dioxide, these are produced by compressing effervescence granules that contain

organic acid (citric) and Sodium Bicarbonate (Dash, A., 2024). Effervescent tablets are widely

used in water purification efforts, examples such as Aquatabs and SafeChlor employ effervescent

tablet water purifiers. Moreover, according to Rodhiyana & Fadillah (2022), Effervescent tablets
are effective as it can dissolve quickly and evenly so that all active compound can work

effectively.

Conceptual Framework

The IV-DV model of conceptual framework is presented in figure 1. It consists of two

variables which are dependent variable and independent variable.

IV DV
The Concentration of Moringa O. The Effectiveness of Water
Seeds and Aloe Vera in Water Purification, Measured by
Turbidity, pH Level, and Total
Purification Treatments
Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Figure 1.

Conceptual paradigm showing the interrelationships between the independent and dependent

variables

The figure above illustrates the Conceptual Framework of the study. The concentration

of Moringa O. Seeds and Aloe Vera is the independent variable, while the effectiveness of water

purification is the dependent variable. These two variables are directly related, with treatments in
the Moringa O. Seeds and Aloe Vera concentration expected to impact water purification

efficacy. The specific treatment combination of Moringa O. Seeds and Aloe Vera influences how

the concentration will affect the results.

Definition of Operational Terms

To ease out difficulty of communication, the following terms are defined operationally:

Aloe Vera Gel. Aloe vera gel is used for its natural coagulant properties, including

polysaccharides and enzymes that help remove suspended particles. In this study, the gel is use

to purify water as effervescent tablet.

Moringa Oleifera Seeds. Commonly known as Malunggay, these seeds serve as a natural

coagulant with antimicrobial properties. For this study, the Moringa seeds are use to purify water

as effervescent tablet.

pH Level. This refers to the acidity or alkalinity of water, measured to ensure the treated water

remains within a safe range for consumption. Balanced pH levels indicate the coagulant tablets’

effectiveness without causing adverse effects on water properties.

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS). TDS measures the concentration of dissolved minerals and

substances in water. Lowering TDS is a key goal of this study, as it improves water’s taste,

safety, and suitability for drinking.

Turbidity. A measure of the cloudiness of water due to suspended particles. In this research,

turbidity reduction indicates the effectiveness of the tablets in removing contaminants, which

enhances water clarity and quality.

Water Purification. In this study, water purification refers to the removal of contaminants from

groundwater samples in Zamboanga City barangays. This process is assessed by examining

reductions in turbidity, pH level, and total dissolved solids (TDS), representing the effectiveness

of the Moringa oleifera and Aloe vera tablets.

Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY
Research Design

This study will use a quasi-experimental design to evaluate the effectiveness of Moringa

oleifera seeds and Aloe vera gel as effervescent tablets for water purification. The research will

focus on groundwater samples collected from Barangay Malagutay, Zamboanga City. These

samples will be subjected to three different treatments: Treatment 1 (T1), composed of a 70:30

ratio of Moringa seeds to Aloe vera gel; Treatment 2 (T2), composed of a 30:70 ratio of Moringa

seeds to Aloe vera gel; and Treatment 3 (T3), which will serve as a benchmark to compare the

performance of the formulated tablets. This setup allows the researchers to evaluate and compare

the effectiveness of the different formulations in purifying water.

The parameters to be measured include turbidity, pH level, and total dissolved solids

(TDS), which are critical indicators of water quality. Turbidity will assess the clarity of water by

measuring the amount of suspended particles removed, while pH level will indicate the acidity or

alkalinity of the water after treatment. TDS will measure the concentration of dissolved

substances, such as minerals and salts, to determine the level of impurities reduced. Each

parameter will be assessed once for every treatment applied to the water samples, making the

results straightforward and focused data collection without repetition or replicates.

This research design is structured to provide an accurate evaluation of the potential of

Moringa oleifera seeds and Aloe vera gel as an effervescent tablet for water purification. By

comparing the two formulations (T1 and T2) with a commercial product (T3), the study aims to

identify the most effective and sustainable option for water purification.
Research Locale

This study will be conducted specifically in the Science Laboratory of Baliwasan Senior

High School Stand-Alone, Zamboanga City. Baliwasan Senior High School Stand Alone is

located 1.4 km away from City Proper and it is situated at Jose Road, Baliwasan. Baliwasan

Senior High School is a public, stand-alone senior high institution that started way back 2016.

Data Gathering Tools

The study applied research-designed instruments made for the specific objectives of the

research. Part 1, the water tool kit, includes all tools for measuring specific parameters such as

turbidity, pH, and TDS, which are critical in determining water quality and the before-and-after

effects of treatments with different effervescent tablets. Turbidity is measured using a turbidity

meter to assess water clarity, while pH level is measured using a digital pH meter to determine

the acidity or alkalinity of the sample, and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is measured using a

TDS meter to evaluate the presence of dissolved impurities. Part 2, the experimental

arrangement, serves to systematically compare the different treatments (T1, T2, T3). Each

treatment is evaluated under standardized conditions using identical water samples to ensure

consistency. Part 3, the statistical data sheet, organizes and records numerical data collected from
water quality tests for statistical analysis. This includes the segregation of information for pre-

treatment and post-treatment findings/readings for turbidity, pH, and TDS across all treatments.

Ethical Consideration

In gathering the necessary materials needed for the study, the approval of using

someone's property will be asked and the researchers will state the study's purposes, how the

materials will be used and how they will benefit from the study. The effectiveness of the product

in water purification will be conducted while ensuring the safety of the water used. In

compliance with research ethics protocol, the researchers ensured that all tools used were

calibrated and that the data collected was accurate, reliable, and reported transparently. To ensure

accurate results, all water testing tools, such as the turbidity meter, pH meter, and TDS meter,

were regularly calibrated following the manufacturer's instructions before and during data

collection. This process guaranteed that all measurements were precise and free from technical

errors. The results presented are unbiased, assuring that the findings are based strictly on

gathered evidence. By adhering to these principles, the researchers supported the credibility,

accuracy, and trustworthiness of their work.

Data Gathering Procedure

The researchers will seek and ask for the permission of the admin of BSHS Science

laboratory to use the said laboratory for doing the experimentation. When it is approved,

researchers will prepare the following materials needed for the experimentation. The materials

needed to test the water purification such as Aloe Vera gel and Malunggay seeds are store-

bought and collected. Gelatin and starch will be bought also from a local supermarket and
measured to the desired amount for the experimentation. Water will be also included, and the

necessary equipments to be used such as oven and tablet press for creating the concentrated

tablets, which will be divided into two (2) treatments [T¹(70:30), T²(30:70)] of Malunggay seeds

and Aloe Vera gel.

To create the tablets for water purification, the researchers will bought 100 grams of

Malunggay seeds and 100 grams of Aloe Vera leaves to a local supermarket. Next, it would be

dried and grinded into a fine powder. Researchers will extract the gel from 100 grams of Aloe

Vera leaves, filter, and combine it with the Malunggay powder and excipients. Other materials

such as water, starch and gelatin will be also bought and added to the mixture. Then the mixture

will be granulated, dry, lubricate, and compress it into concentrated tablets using a tablet press.

To evaluate their efficacy, the researchers will collect water samples from the barangay of

Malagutay and analyze them before and after treatment with the tablets. Researchers will

determine the optimal dosage and water quality conditions for effective contaminant removal

using the treatments [T¹(70:30), T²(30:70)] of Malunggay seeds and Aloe Vera gel. Then the best

treatment will be compared to the commercial water purifier (T³) for the best and the most

efficient way of purifying water. Last, all the data from the treatments will be collected, analyzed

and preparing for the interpretation and analysation of data.

Statistical Tool

To facilitate the analysis of data, the following statistical measures will be used:
Mean and Standard Deviation. These will be used to summarize the changes in water quality

parameters, specifically turbidity, pH level, and total dissolved solids (TDS), before and after

treatment with the effervescent tablets.

One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). This will be utilized to determine whether there are

significant differences in the effectiveness of the three treatments (T1, T2, and T3) in terms of

reducing turbidity, balancing pH, and lowering TDS.

Tukey’s HSD Post Hoc Test. If the ANOVA results indicate significant differences, this test

will identify which specific treatments significantly differ from one another.

Paired t-test. This will be employed to compare pre-treatment and post-treatment values for

each parameter within each treatment group, determining the extent of improvement achieved by

each treatment.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adugna, A. T., & Gebresilasie, N. M. (2018). Coagulant properties of aloe-based substances.

Environmental Research Advances, 7(3), 67–79.

Amagloh, F. K., & Benang, A. (2009). The antimicrobial properties of Malunggay seed kernels.

African Journal of Biotechnology, 8(6), 125–133.

Baruah, A., Bordoloi, M., & Baruah, H. P. D. (2016). Aloe vera’s role in water purification

through natural coagulants. Journal of Natural Sciences, 14(2), 89–95.

Benalia, A., et al. (2021). Comparative analysis of aloe vera as a coagulant in water treatment.

Journal of Environmental Engineering, 45(2), 102–113.

Blue-White Industries. (2023). The important role of pH levels in water treatment. Blue-White

Industries. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https://

www.blue-white.com/article/the-important-role-of-ph-levels-in-water-treatment/%23:~:text

%3DThe%2520pH%2520level%2520influences%2520the,effectiveness%2520of

%2520biological%2520treatment

%2520systems.&ved=2ahUKEwjHpo6QjIqKAxUOxzgGHXTkAPUQFnoECBQQBQ&sqi=2&

usg=AOvVaw0eMGGYnFTYHIvpOn6FGkh1

Bradley, E. (2024). Coagulation and its importance in water treatment. Water Science Reports,

18(1), 89–102.

Jahn, S. A. A. (1988). Using Moringa oleifera seeds as coagulant in developing countries. Water

Supply Research and Technology, 14(1), 59–62.

Katubi, K., et al. (2021). Promising removal values of aloe vera for water purification. Journal of

Water Resources, 38(1), 56–65.

Koons, E. (2024). Water supply and contamination in the Philippines. Asian Environmental

Journal, 14(3), 67–81.

Lin, L. (2022). Impact of water pollution on human health. Environmental Health Perspectives,

30(2), 89–96.

Madsen, M., Schlundt, J., & Omer, E. F. (1987). Coagulating properties of Moringa oleifera in

water purification. Water Research, 21(5), 517–522.

Morterra, A. (2017). Effectiveness of Moringa oleifera seed as water coagulants. Journal of

Sustainable Development, 10(4), 112–122.

Olsen, N. (2023). pH levels and their influence on water safety. Journal of Environmental

Chemistry, 15(1), 78–82.

Pandit, A., & Kumar, J. K. (2015). Developing economical water purification methods for

developing countries. International Journal of Environmental Technology, 23(4), 45–56.

Rodhiyana, R., & Fadillah, M. (2022). Efficiency of effervescent tablets in water purification.

International Journal of Chemical Engineering, 25(5), 102–109.

Schroth, S., & Archis, J. (2024). Innovative water purification techniques: A global perspective.

Water Science Advances, 12(2), 45–63.

Sitata. (2020). Water contamination crisis in Zamboanga City. Sitata.

https://www.sitata.com/en/alerts/contaminated-water-supply-in-zamboanga-city-philippines-

causes-9-deaths

Tendero, E. J. (2023). Agricultural run-offs and their contribution to water contamination.

Philippine Journal of Agricultural Research, 15(1), 33–41.

World Health Organization. (2023). Water pollution and its health implications. World Health

Organization. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water