XII Std Physics Formula

Electrostatics

Coulomb’s law E=0 For r < R (Inside points)

𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
1. 𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑟 = K 𝑟12 2 E =K 𝑅2 For r = R ( On the surface)
𝐹 5. E of a solid sphere of uniform charge density
2. 𝐹𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐾
σ and radius R
3. F = 𝑞0 E where 𝑞0 is the test charge 𝑞
E =K 𝑟2 For r > R ( outside points)
𝑞𝑟
Electric field intensity E=K For r < R (Inside points)
𝑞 𝑅2
1. E = K 𝑟2 𝑞
E =K 𝑅2 For r = R ( On the surface)
6. Electric potential (V)
Continuous charge distributions 𝑊
1. V =
Linear charge density (λ) 𝑞
𝑞 2. Electric potential V due to a point charge
λ=𝑙 𝑞
V=K𝑟
Surface charge density (σ)
𝑞
σ=
𝐴
Electric field between two parallel conductors
Volume charge density(ρ) 𝑉
𝑞 E=
ρ=𝑉 𝑑

Electric potential energy of a system of two

Dipole moment
point charges
1. p = q x 2a ( 2a is the length of dipole) 𝑞 𝑞
2𝑝 U=K 1 2
2. 𝐸𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = K 𝑟3 when r >>a 𝑟
𝑝
3. 𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖 = K when r >>a Potential energy of an electric dipole in
𝑟3
4. Relation between 𝐸𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 2 𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖 uniform electric field
5. τ = pE sinθ U = - p E cosθ
Electric flux (ф )
1. ф = E S cosθ Capacitance of conductors
𝑞 Capacitance of spherical conductors
2.ф = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆 = 𝜀
0
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥
C = 4π𝜀0 𝑅
3. Flux density = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑞
C=𝑉
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
Applications of Guass’s theorem 𝜀 𝐴
C= 0
1. E of a long straight wire of uniform linear 𝑑
charge density λ Series combination of capacitors
𝜆 1 1 1 1
E = 2𝜋𝑟𝜖 = 𝐶 + 𝐶 + .....+ 𝐶
𝐶
𝑠 1 2 𝑛
0 𝐶
2. E of an infinite plane sheet of uniform surface For identical capacitors 𝐶𝑠 =
𝑛
charge density σ Parallel combination of capacitors
𝜎
E= 𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + ..... + 𝐶𝑛
2𝜖0
3. E of two equally and oppositely charged For identical capacitors
parallel plates 𝐶𝑝 = nC
E = 0 ( For outside points) Capacitors with dielectrics
𝜎
E = 𝜖 ( For inside points) 1. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor filled
0 with a dielectric of dielectric constant K
4. E of a thin spherical shell of charge density σ
C = K 𝐶0
and radius R
𝑞
E =K 2 For r > R ( outside points)
𝑟
2. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a V = IR
dielectric slab of thickness’t’(<d) in between the 3. Terminal potential difference when current is
plates drawn from cell
𝜀0 𝐴 V=𝜀-Ir
C= 1
𝑑−𝑡 (1− ) 4. Internal resistance of a cell
𝑘
3. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a 𝜀−𝑉
r=R( )
conducting slab of thickness ‘t’( < d) in between 𝑉

its plates
𝜀 0𝐴 Grouping of cells
C = 𝑑−𝑡 1. For n cells in series combination
4. Effect of dielectric with battery disconnected 𝑛𝜀
I =
𝑅+𝑛𝑟
from the capacitor,
𝑉 𝐸 2. For n cells in parallel
Q = 𝑄0 ; V= 0 ; E= 0 ; C = K 𝐶0 𝑛𝜀
𝑘 𝑘 I = 𝑛𝑅 +𝑟
𝑈
U = 𝑘0
5. Effect of dielectric with battery connected Magnetic effect of current
across the capacitor 1. BIOT SAVARAT LAW
Q = K 𝑄0 ; V = 𝑉0 E = 𝐸0 Magnetic field at a point due to infinite long
C = K 𝐶0 U = K 𝑈0 conductor carrying current
𝜇0 2𝐼 𝜇0 𝐼
B = 4𝜋𝑎 or B = 2𝜋𝑎
Current electricity Where a- perpendicular distance of point from the
1. Ohm’s law conductor
V=IR Magnetic field due to current through circular coil
2. Resistance of conductor carrying currnt
𝜌𝑙
R=
𝐴
3. Conductivity (σ ) 1. Magnetic field B at the centre of circular coil
1 𝝁 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝑰
σ =𝜌 B = 𝟎𝟒𝝅𝒓 where n – no of turns; r – radius of the
4. Current density (J) coil
𝐼 2.Magnetic filed at a point on the axis of circular
J=𝐴
coil carrying current
5. Colour code of resistor 𝝁𝟎 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝑰𝒓𝟐
6. Current in terms of drift velocity (𝑣𝑑 ) B= 𝟑 where x – distance of point on the
(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒓𝟐 ) 𝟐
I = n e A 𝑣𝑑
axis of circular coil
7. Resistance (R) and Resistivity (ρ ) in terms of
relaxation time (τ)
𝑚𝑙 𝑚 3. Magnetic field at the centre of an arc of radius r
R = 𝑛𝑒2 𝜏𝐴 ; ρ = 𝑛𝑒2 𝜏 subtending an angle θ carrying current
8. Relation between current density (J) and 𝜇 𝐼𝜃
B = 4𝜋0 𝑟
electric field (E)
J = σ E or E = ρJ
4. Magnetic field at a point inside the long
9. Temperature coefficient of resistance
𝑅 −𝑅 solenoid carrying current
∝ = 𝑅 (𝑡2 1𝑡 ) 𝑁
1 2 − 1 B = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 = 𝜇0 𝑙 I where n – no of turns per unit
10. Resistors in series combination length of solenoid, N – No of turns in the solenoid
Series combination of capacitors 5. Magnetic field at a point at one end on the axis
𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ..... + 𝑅𝑛 of long solenoid carrying current
For identical resistors 𝜇 𝑛𝐼 𝑁
B= 0 = 𝜇0 I
𝑅𝑝 = nR 2 2𝑙
11. Resistors in parallel combination 6. Magnetic field at a point inside toroid carrying
1 1 1 1 current
= 𝑅 + 𝑅 + .....+ 𝑅
𝑅𝑝 1 2 𝑛 B = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
𝑅
For identical resistors 𝑅𝑝 =
𝑛
Motion of charged particle in (i) Electric field
EMF(𝜺), internal resistance(r), terminal
(ii) Magnetic field
potential difference(V)
1. Force on charged particle of charge q in an
1. 𝜀 = V + Ir
electric field
2. Terminal potential difference of a cell
 𝜃 𝑛𝐵𝐴
E = q𝐸⃗ 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉 = 𝑘𝑅
2. Force on charged particle of charge q moving 4. Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter
⃗
with velocity 𝑣 in a magnetic field 𝐵 𝐼 𝐺
Shunt resistance S = (𝐼−𝑔 𝐼 )
F = qvB sin θ 𝑔

3. When magnetic field is perpendicular to the the Where 𝐼𝑔 - Galvanometer current, G –

direction of motion of charged particle (θ = 90̊) Galvanometer resistance, I – Total current
𝑚𝑣2 𝑚𝑣 5. Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter
F = qvB = or r =
𝑟 𝑞𝐵 𝑉
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑚 R = –𝐺
Time period of revolution T = = 𝐼𝑔
𝑣 𝑞𝑏
𝑞𝐵
Frequency of revolution 𝜐 = Magnetic dipole moment and force between
2𝜋𝑚
𝐵2 𝑞 2𝑟0 2 magnetic poles
Kinetic energy maximum 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝑚 1. Magnetic (dipole) moment M = m (2l)
2. Force between two magnetic poles in air,
Force on a current carrying conductor in 𝜇 𝑚 𝑚
F = 4𝜋0 1𝑟2 2
magnetic field
F = B I l sin θ 𝜇0
= 10-7 Wb A-1 m-1
4𝜋
Force between two parallel straight conductors
carrying current Magnetic field due to a bar magnet
1.Force per unit length on each of the two long 1. Magnetic field at a point on axial line
parallel conductors carrying currents 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 placed 𝜇 2𝑀𝑑
B = 4𝜋0 (𝑑2 − 𝑙2 )2
distance ‘r’ apart
𝜇 2𝐼 𝐼 Where M – Magnetic dipole moment
F = 4𝜋0 1𝑟 2
d – distance from the centre of the magnet
2.Force on smaller conductor of length ‘l’ carrying 2l – length of magnet
current 𝐼1 , held parallel to infinite long linear When the magnet is short
conductor carrying current 𝐼2 , placed distance ‘r’ 𝜇 2𝑀
B = 4𝜋0 𝑑3
apart
𝜇 2𝐼 𝐼
F = 4𝜋0 1𝑟 2𝑙
2. Magnetic field at a point on equatorial line
3..Force on a long conductor of length ‘l’ carrying 𝜇 𝑀
B= 0 3
current 𝐼1 , held parallel to infinite small linear 4𝜋
(𝑑2 + 𝑙2 ) 2
conductor carrying current 𝐼2 , placed distance ‘r’ When the magnet is short
apart 𝜇 𝑀
𝜇 2𝐼 𝐼
B = 4𝜋0 𝑑3
F = 4𝜋0 1𝑟 2𝑙
Electro magnetic induction
Torque on a current loop Magnetic flux, Faraday’s laws of EMI
Torque on a current loop is 𝜏 = 𝑀 𝐵 sin 𝛼 1. Magnetic flux ф = NBA cos θ
Where M – Magnetic dipole moment of current N- No of turns in the coil, B- Magnetic field, A-
loop Area of coil, θ – Angle between normal to the coil
n- no of turns in the coil; I – current in the coil; with magnetic field
𝛼 - angle between normal to the coil and plane of
the coil 𝑑ф
2. Induced emf e = - 𝑑𝑡
Moving coil galvanometer
𝑘 Motional emf
1. I = 𝑛𝐵𝐴 𝜃 1. Induced emf e = B l v provided the magnetic
k – restoring torque per unit twist; flux changes during motion
B – Magnetic filed ; A- Area of each turn of coil
θ – deflection in the galvanometer Self induction
1. ф = L I where L – Self inductance
𝑑𝐼
2. e = L 𝑑𝑡
2. Current sensitivity 𝐼𝑠
𝜃 𝑛𝐵𝐴 𝜇 𝑁3 𝐴
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼 = 𝑘 3. In case of long solenoid L = 0 𝑙
3. Voltage sensitivity 𝑉𝑠 Where 𝜇0 = 4 𝜋 x 10-7 Wb A-1 m-1
 1 1
1. At resonance, 𝑋𝐿 =𝑋𝐶 ; ωL = = 𝜔=
𝜔𝐶 √𝐿𝐶
Mutual Inductance 𝜔 1
1. ф = M I where M – Mutual inductance 2. Resonance frequency 𝜈 = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
𝑑𝐼 𝐸𝑣
2. e = M
𝑑𝑡
3. At series resonance frequency, Z = R, 𝐼𝑉 =
𝑅
𝜇0 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝐴 4. At parallel resonance frequency , Iv = 0
3. M = 𝑙
5. Q factor of resonance
1 𝐿
Alternating current Q = 𝑅 √𝐶
Ac circuit with resistance only
𝐸
1. 𝑖 𝑣 = 𝑅𝑣 Energy stored in capacitorm Inductor
2. No phase change, E = 𝐸0 sin ωt ; I = 𝐼0 sin ωt 1. Energy stored in capacitor
1 1 1
𝑈𝑐 = 2𝐶 𝑄2 = 2 𝐶𝑉 2 = 2 QV
AC circuit with inductor
1. Current lags voltage by 90̊ 2. Energy stored in inductor
1
E = 𝐸0 sin ωt ; I = 𝐼0 sin (ωt - 90̊) 𝑈𝐿 = 2 𝐿𝐼 2

2. Inductive reactance 𝑋𝐿 = ω L = 2π𝜈 L 3. Average power consumed per cycle in pure

𝐸
𝐼𝑣 = 𝑋𝑣 inductor is zero.
𝐿
4. Average power consumed per cycle in pure
3. Average power consumed per cycle 𝐸𝑣 𝑖 𝑣 cos
capacitor is zero.
90 = zero
Power associated with AC circuit, power factor
AC circuit with capacitor 1. Average power dissipated per cycle in a non
1. Current leads voltage by 90̊ inductive circuit ( 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 )
E = 𝐸0 sin ωt ; I = 𝐼0 sin (ωt + 90̊)
P = 𝐸𝑉 𝐼𝑉
2. Average power dissipated per cycle in LCR
2. Capacitive reactance 𝑋𝑐𝐿 = 1/ω C = 1/ 2π𝜈𝐶
𝐸 circuit
𝐼𝑣 = 𝑥𝑣 P = 𝐸𝑉 𝐼𝑉 cos ф
𝑐
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅
3. Power factor , cos ф = 𝐴𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑍 =
3. Average power consumed per cycle 1
𝐸𝑣 𝑖 𝑣 cos 90 = zero √𝑅2 +(𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶 ) 2

Ac with R and L Electromagnetic waves

𝑋 𝜔𝐿
1. Tan ф = 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅
1. Speed of em waves in vacuum
1
2, Impedance c= 𝜇 𝜖
√ 0 0
𝐸𝑣
Z = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 = √ 𝑅 2 + 𝜔𝐿2 𝐼𝑉 =
𝑍
2. Speed of em waves in medium
1
AC with R and L c=
𝑋 1 √𝜇𝜖
1. Tan ф = 𝑅𝑐 = 3. For em waves, the magnitude of propagation
𝜔𝐶𝑅
vector k is
2𝜋
2, Impedance k= 𝜆
1 𝐸𝑣
Z = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶 2 = √𝑅 2 + (𝜔𝐶 )2 𝐼𝑉 = 𝑍 Velocity, amplitude and energy density
1. E = h𝜐 where ‘h’ Planck’s constant
AC with L,C,R 𝐸
𝑋 −𝑋 2. c = 0 E0 – Peak value of electric field, B 0 –
𝐵0
1. Tan ф = 𝐿 𝑅 𝐶
max value of magnetic field
2, Impedance 1 1 𝐸 1 2
𝐸𝑣 3.𝑢 𝐸 = 2 𝜀0 𝐸 2 = 2 𝜀0 (√20 )2 = 𝜀 𝐸
Z = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 ; 𝐼𝑉 = 4 0 0
𝑍
𝐵
1 ( 0 )2 1
Electric resonance 𝑢𝐵 = 𝜇 𝐵 2
= √2
= 𝐵0 2
0 2𝜇0 4𝜇0
 1 100
P = 𝑓 where ‘f’ in metre; or P = where ‘f’ in
𝑓
Where 𝑢 𝐸 and 𝑢 𝐵 are average density of electric
cm
and magnetic field
Combination of lenses
E,B rms value of electric field and magnetic field
P = P1 + P2 + ....+Pn
4. Total average energy field density = 𝑢 𝐸 + 𝑢 𝐵 =
1 1
𝜀0 𝐸0 2 = 𝐵0 2 Optical instruments – Magnifying power
2 2𝜇𝑠0
1.Simple microscope
Ray optics 𝐷
Focussed at LDDV = 1+ 𝑓 where ‘D’ = 25
Reflection
(LDDV)
1.No of images of an object held between two 𝐷
plane mirror inclined at an angle θ Focussed at infinity = 𝑓
360 ∙ 360 ∙
n = 𝜃 - 1 if 𝜃 is even integer
360 ∙ 360 ∙ 2. Compound microscope
n= if is odd integer 𝑣 𝐷 𝐿 𝐷
𝜃 𝜃 m = mo x me = | 𝑢𝑜 | (1+ 𝑓 ) = (1+ 𝑓 ) where
2.When plane mirror is turned through an angle θ , 𝑜 𝑓𝑜

the reflected ray turns through an angle 2θ L – distance between objective and eyepiece
3. On reflection, there is no change in frequency
and wave length of light used 3. Astronomical telescope
4, Mirror formula 1. In normal adjustment
1 1 1 𝑓
=𝑣 + 𝑢 m = 𝑜 L = f0 + fe
𝑓 −𝑓𝑒
Linear magnification 2. Focussed at LDDV
−𝑓 𝑓
ℎ′ −𝑣 m = 𝑓 𝑜 (1+ 𝑑𝑒 )
m= = 𝑒
ℎ 𝑢

Refraction 4. Reflecting type telescope

𝑓
Laws of refraction, lateral m = 𝑓𝑜
𝑒
Displacement, real depth and apparent depth, TIR
𝑐
1. 𝜇21 = 𝑣 ( c – velocity of light in vacuum; v- Wave optics
velocity of light in medium) Huygen’s principle, reflection and refraction of
𝜆 light
2. 𝜇21 = 𝜆′ (λ – velocity of light in vacuum ; λ’ –
1. c = 𝜗 𝜆
velocity of light in medium
2. Refractive index of medium
3. When light travels from medium 1 to medium 2 𝑐 ( 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚) 𝜗𝜆 𝜆
sin 𝑖 𝜇= ( = ′= ′
𝜇21 = )
𝑣 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝜗𝜆 𝜆
sin 𝑟
1 3.When light travels from medium 1 to medium 2
4. 𝜇21 = . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
𝜇21 µ21 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
5. Lateral displacement = t sec r sin ( i – r) where
‘t’ is the thickness of glass slab
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ Intensities of maxima and minima
6.μ = 𝑤1 𝑎2 𝐼1
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 1. = =
1 𝑤2 𝑏2 𝐼2
7. μ = sin 𝐶 ( C- Critical angle) Where w- slit width; a,b – amplitude of light
Refraction at spherical surface waves I 1 ,I 2 -Intensities of light waves
1. When refraction is from rarer to denser medium 2. When sources are coherent, interference occurs
𝑛2 𝑛 𝑛 − 𝑛
- 𝑢1 = 2 𝑅 1 𝐼𝑚𝑎 𝑥 (𝑎+𝑏 ) 2
𝑣 = (𝑎− 𝑏)2
𝐼𝑚 𝑖
3. Intensity at any point when phase difference ∅
Lens makers formula
1 1 1 I = I 1 + I 2 + 2 I 1 I 2 √𝐼1 𝐼2 cosф
= (n – 1) ( - )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2 I = a2 + b2 + 2a b cosф
Lens formula ф
1 1 1 I = 4 I 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2
= -
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 Where I 0 is the original intensity
Linear magnification
ℎ′ 𝑣 Young’s double slit experiment(YDSE)
m= ℎ = 𝑢
1. Position of bright fringe
Power of lens
 𝐷 Distance of closest approach
x=nλ𝑑
Distance of closest approach (ro ) is calculated
where D – Distance between coherent sources and
from KE of alpha particle
screen 1 𝑍 𝑒 ( 2𝑒)
d – distance between coherent sources; n – 1,2,.... m𝑣 2 = K where Z – atomic number
2 𝑟0
1
K = 4𝜋𝜀
𝜆𝐸
2. Position of dark fringe x = (2n – 1)2 𝑑 0

3. Width of bright / dark fringe or fringe width 𝛽 Bohr’s atom model, radius of orbit, velocity
𝜆𝐷
= 𝑑 and energy of electron, ionization potential
𝐾𝑍𝑒2 𝑚𝑣2
4. When YDSE apparatus is completely immersed 1. =
𝑟2 𝑟
in a transparent medium of refractive index µ, 𝑛ℎ
2. m v r = 2𝜋
𝛽′
fringe width 𝛽′ = µ
𝛽 𝜆 3. h 𝜐 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1
5. Angular width of interference fringe θ = =
𝐷 𝑑 𝑛2 ℎ2
4. r = 4𝜋2 𝑚 𝐾 𝑍 𝑒2
Diffraction of light at a single slit
1. Condition for diffraction minima is a sin 𝜃 = 2𝜋 𝐾 𝑍𝑒2
5. v =
nλ 𝑛ℎ
𝐾 𝑍 𝑒2
where n = 1,2,3 ... is the 1st, 2nd , 3rd dark fringe 6. KE = 2𝑟
2. Condition for diffraction maximaa is a sin 𝜃 𝐾 𝑍𝑒2
𝜆 7. PE = -
= (2 n + 1) 2 𝑟
13 .6
where n = 1,2,3 ... is the 1st, 2nd , 3rd bright fringe 8. Total energy E = - eV
𝑛2
2𝜆 𝐷 1 1 1
3.Width of central maximum 2x = 9. =R[ − ]
𝑑 𝜆 𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2

4. Angular width of central maximum 2θ =

2𝜆 where R – Rydberg’s constant
𝑎 𝑛(𝑛−1)
where a – slit width 10. No of spectral lines 2
11. Spectral series of hydrogen atom
Dual nature of radiation and matter Lyman series: n1 = 1; n2 = 2,3,4....
Balmer series: n1 = 2; n2 = 3,4....
Photo electric effect Paschen series: n1 = 3; n2 = 4, 5....
1. Work function Brackett series: n1 = 4; n2 = 5,6....
ℎ𝑐 Pfund series: n1 = 5 n2 = 6,7....
ф0 = h 𝜗0 = 𝜆
0 K= 9 x 109 Nm2 C-2
2. Kinetic energy of emitted photo electrons h = 6.6 x 10-34 Js 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
1
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 m 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 = eV 0 = h 𝜗 - ф0 = h 𝜗 - h 𝜗0 8
c = 3 x 10 m/s e = 1.6 x 10-19 J
𝑐 ℎ𝑐
=h𝜆 -𝜆
0 Atomic nucleus, its size and density
1
1.R = R0 𝐴3
Photons 3𝑚
1. Energy of photon 2..𝜌 = 4 𝜋 𝑅 3
𝑐 0
E=h𝜗= h𝜆 3. E = mc2
2.Momentum of photon 4.1 MeV = 1.6 x 10-13 J
p=mv 5. 1 a m u = 931 MeV
p = √ 2𝑚𝐾 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 − 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 Mass defect and nuclear binding energy
1.Mass defect
De Brogleigh wavelength Δ𝑚 = [Z mp + ( A – Z) mn – mN]
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ 12.27 2. Total binding energy = (Δ𝑚)c2
1. 𝜆 = = = = = 𝐴̇
𝑝 𝑚𝑣 √2𝑚𝐾 √3𝑚𝑘𝑇 √𝑉
Where K – kinetic energy, k – Boltzman constant ( Δ𝑚) c2
3. Average Binding energy per nucleon =
V – Applied voltage. 𝐴
where A - mass number
N.D. Sahu
Atom and nuclei PGT – Physics
K.V. No. 1 Raipur Shift -II