AIDS,

St. Peter’s Engineering College (Autonomous) Dept. : CSM,CSG,

Dullapally (P), Medchal, Hyderabad – 500100. CSE,EEE
QUESTION BANK Academic Year
2024-25
Subject Code : AS22-04OE11 Subject : Basics of Communication Systems
Class/Section : B. Tech Year : III Semester : I

UNIT - V
1) 1 MARK

a) List out different Zigbee network topologies

Ans:The ZigBee standard supports three topologies. Those are star, mesh,
and cluster tree topologies. Out of the three topologies, the most
commonly used are the star and mesh topologies

b) What is Base Station?

Ans: It is a fixed station in cellular systems used for radio communication
with mobile stations. It consists of channels, receivers and transmitters
Hence it is also known as Base Transceiver Station(BTS).Base station will
be located at the center of a coverage region.

c) What are the two popular Wireless PAN technologies?

Ans: The two popular Wireless PAN technologies are Bluetooth and
ZigBee technologies.

d ) Define Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum(DSSS)

Ans:DSSS is a transmission technology used in wireless communication.
This method involves spreading the signal over a larger bandwidth than
what is required for simple transmission. The original data signal is
combined with a higher rate bit sequence, also known as a chipping code,
to increase the signal’s bandwidth.

e ) What is frequency reuse?

Ans: Frequency reuse is the process in which the same set of frequencies
(channels) can be allocated to more than one cell, provided the cells are
separated by sufficient distance.
3 MARKS:

a) List the Advantages and Disadvantages of UWB?

Ans:
Advantages of UWB:

UWB offers many benefits to radar, imaging, and communication

applications:
1. Superior resolution in radar and imaging.
2. Immunity to multipath propagation effects.
3. License-free operation.
4. No interference to other signals using the same frequency band. UWB
signals appear as random noise to conventional radios.
5. Power-efficient, extremely low-power operation. Peak power levels
are in the milliwatt region, and average power is in microwatts.
6. Simple circuitry, most of which can be integrated in standard CMOS.
7. Potentially low cost.

Disadvantage of UWB:

1)The primary disadvantage, which is also an advantage, is low power. It

severely limits the range of operation. The range can be extended in
military radar with higher power levels, but the power level in
commercial and consumer applications is severely restricted
by the FCC. Typical ranges are from a few inches up to no more than
about 100 ft.
2) Low support coverage on mobile devices.

b ) List the operating frequency ranges of ZigBee and the maximum

data rates for each?
Ans: The operating frequency ranges of ZigBee and the maximum data rates
for each is shown in table below:
c)Define personal-area network (PAN) and wireless local area network
(WLAN)?
Ans: A personal-area network (PAN) is a very small wireless network that is
created informally or on an ad hoc basis. It typically involves only two or
three nodes, but some systems permit many nodes to be connected in a small
area.
A wireless LAN(WLAN) is a wireless network that links two or more
devices using radio waves to form a local area network(LAN) instead of
using cables.

d ) What are services offered by GSM?

Ans: GSM offers three basic types of services:
1.Telephony services or teleservices
2.Data services or bearer services
3.Supplementary services

Data services or bearer services:

A variety of data services are offered by GSM.
1)GSM users can send and receive data at rate upto 9600bps
2)GSM supports FAX services.
3)Bidirectional SMS service, the messages are transported in a store and
forward fashion.SMS can be sent on point to point and cell broadcast
mode(traffic and news updates)

Telephony services or teleservices:

The most basic teleservice supported by GSM is telephony. As with all other
comunications, speech is digitally encoded and transmitted through the GSM
network as a digital stream. There is also an emergency service, where the
nearest emergency service provider is notified by dialing three digits 911.
GSM teleservice also provides video text and tele text transmission.

Supplementary Services:
Supplementary services are additional services that are provided in addition
to teleservices and bearer services. These services include
1.Call hold
2.Call waiting
3.Call forwarding
4.Call barring: Call Barring is useful to restrict certain types of outgoing calls
such as ISD or stop incoming calls from undesired numbers.
5.Calling Line Identification: This service displays the telephone number of
the calling party on the screen.
6.Connected Line Identification: This service is provided to give the calling
party the telephone number of the person to whom they are connected.
7.Multiparty communications:The multiparty service allows a mobile
subscriber to establish a multiparty conversation.that is, a simultaneous
conversation between three or more subscribers to setup a conference call.
8.Closed user group: This service is provided on GSM to enable groups of
subscribers to only call each other. This type of services are being offered
with special discount and is limited only to those members who wish to talk
to each other.
9.Advice of Charge: This service was designed to give the subscriber an
indication of the cost of the services as they are used.
10.Operator determined call barring: Restriction of certain features from
individual subscribers by operator.

e ) Discuss about infrared wireless technology?

Ans: Infrared radiation (IR), sometimes referred to simply as infrared, is a
region of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum where wavelengths range
from about 700 nanometers (nm) to 1 millimeter (mm).Like visible light,
infrared light can be focused, reflected and polarized.Infrared is commonly
separated into near-, mid- and far-infrared.
Infrared is commonly separated into near-, mid- and far-infrared.
Near-IR: The near-IR band contains the range of wavelengths closest to the
red end of the visible light spectrum. Near-IR consists of wavelengths that
range from 700 nanometers (nm) to 1,300 nm, or 0.7 microns to 1.3 microns.
Its frequency ranges from about 215 THz to 400 THz. This group consists of
the shortest wavelengths and longest frequencies, and it produces the least
heat.

Mid-IR: The intermediate IR band, also called the mid-IR band, covers
wavelengths that range from 1,300 nm to 3,000 nm, or 1.3 microns to 3
microns. Frequencies range from 20 THz to 215 THz.

Far-IR: Wavelengths in the far-IR band, which are closest to microwaves,

extend from 3,000 nm to 1 mm, or 3 microns to 1,000 microns. Frequencies
range from 0.3 THz to 20 THz. This group consists of the longest
wavelengths and shortest frequencies, and it produces the most heat.

The advantages of Infrared wireless technology are as follows:

1.It has low power consumption.

2.Infrared components are less expensive.
3.It is more secure than radio-frequency signals.
4.Direct line of sight requirement of Infrared enhances its security and
minimizes interference, making it suitable for short-range, point-to-point
communication.

The disadvantages of Infrared wireless technology are as follows:

1.It has limited range of approx 5 meters and it cannot penetrate walls or
other obstacles.
2.It works only in direct line of sight between the transmitter and receiver.
Even the smallest obstruction will disrupt communication.
3.Infrared communication can take place only between two devices at a time
limiting its use to control multiple devices.
4.It has relatively low data transfer speeds compared to technologies like
Bluetooth or Wi-Fi.
5.Bright ambient light, including sunlight and strong artificial lighting, can
interfere with infrared signals and degrade the quality of communication.

3) 5 MARKS

A) Write short notes on RFID communication?

Ans: Another growing wireless technique is radio-frequency
identification (RFID).This technology uses thin, inexpensive tags or
labels containing passive radio circuits that can be read by a remote
wireless interrogation (tag reader) unit.The tags are attached to any item
that is to be monitored, tracked, accessed, located, or otherwise identified.
RFID tags are widely used in inventory control, container and parcel
shipping, baggage handling . They are also widely used for automatic toll
collection and parking access for vehicles. Other applications for RFID
tags are personnel security checking and access, animal tracking, and
theft prevention.
The basic concept of RFID is illustrated in fig below.
RFID systems operate over the full radio spectrum. Commercial systems
have been built to operate from 50 kHz to 2.4 GHz. The most popular
ranges are 125 kHz, 13.56 MHz, 902 to 928 MHz, and 2.45 GHz. The
125-kHz and 13.56-MHz units operate only over short distances up to
several feet, whereas the 902- to 928-MHz and 2.45-GHz units can
operate up to about 100 ft. Most of the tags are passive; i.e., they have no
power source of their own. They rely upon the interrogator unit to supply
a large enough RF signal to rectify for dc power. However, some active
tags containing small flat batteries are available, and they can operate
over a much larger range.

The tag is a very thin label like device into which is embedded a simple
passive single-chip radio transceiver and antenna.The chip also contains a
memory that stores a digital ID code unique to the tagged item. For the
item to be identified, it must pass by the interrogation or reader unit, or
the reader unit must physically go to a location near the item. Longer-
range systems cover a complete building or area. The reader unit sends
out a radio signal that may travel from a few inches up to no more than
100 ft or so. The radio signal is strong enough to activate the tag. The tag
rectifies and filters the RF signal into direct current that operates the
transceiver. This activates a low-power transmitter that sends a signal
back to the interrogator unit along with its embedded ID code. The reader
then checks its attached computer, where it notes the presence of the item
and may perform other processing tasks associated with the application.

B) Write short notes on UWB?

Ans: The newest and most unusual form of wireless is known as
Ultrawideband (UWB) wireless. There are two basic forms of UWB, the
original version based on very narrow impulses and the newer kind based
on OFDM. Both spread the signal over a very wide range of spectrum but
at a very low signal level, so it does not interfere with other signals
operating over those frequencies.
The following figure shows a UWB signal spectrum compared to a
standard 30-kHz cell phone channel and a 5-MHz wideband CDMA
(spread spectrum) cell phone channel.
The original UWB discovered in the 1960s is known as impulse,
baseband, or carrierless wireless. This form of UWB transmits data in the
form of very short pulses, typically less than 1 ns. The pulses are then
Gaussian-filtered and differentiated to produce the final pulses to be
transmitted as shown in fig below.The pulses are applied directly to the
antenna.The serial data to be transmitted is then encoded with a unique
pseudorandom code like that used in CDMA. This method effectively
“channelizes” the system so that multiple users can share the spectrum
but still be individually identified. The coded signal then modulates
the pulse train by either PPM or BPSK.

The newest form of UWB is called multiband OFDM or MB-OFDM

UWB. The term multiband is derived from the fact that many OFDM
carriers make up the signal. This form of UWB divides the spectrum
3.168 to 4.952 GHz into three 528-MHz-wide channels, as shown in fig
below:
Each band is designed to hold an OFDM data signal. There are 128
carriers per band, and each carrier has a bandwidth of 4.125 MHz.
Of the bands 100 actually carry the data while 12 are used as pilot carriers
to aid in establishing communications with nearby nodes. The remaining
carriers serve as guard bands on either side to prevent interference
between the three portions of spectrum.
The system is designed to permit a wide range of data rates from about 53
to 480 Mbps. The most often mentioned speed is 110 Mbps at a range up
to 10 m. A speed of up to 480 Mbps is possible but only at a range of 2 to
3 m. Implementation of an OFDM UWB transceiver is just like that of
any OFDM device. DSP chips are used to create the transmit carriers with
the inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT), and a DSP chip in the receiver
uses the FFT for recovery of the data. MB-OFDM UWB radios are
usually a single-chip IC containing all functions.

c ) Discuss about Wireless Mesh networks?

Ans: ZigBee is the commercial name for another PAN network

technology based on the IEEE 802.15.4 wireless standard. Like Bluetooth,
it is a short-range technology with networking capability. It was designed
primarily for commercial, industrial, and home monitoring and control
applications.The ZigBee Alliance, an organization of chip, software, and
equipment vendors of ZigBee products, specifies additional higher levels
of layers including networking and security.ZigBee is designed to operate
in the license-free spectrum available in the world.There are three basic
bands and versions shown in table below:
The ZigBee standard supports three topologies: star, mesh, and cluster
tree. The ZigBee wireless mesh network is illustrated in fig below

These network topology is made up of three types of ZigBee

nodes: a ZigBee coordinator (ZC), a ZigBee router (ZR), and ZigBee end
device (ZED).
ZigBee Coordinator(ZC):

Each ZigBee wireless mesh network must have one coordinator. A

coordinator has the following characteristics:
1.It selects the channel and PAN ID (both 64-bit and 16-bit) to start the
network.
2.It can allow routers and end devices to join the network.
3.It can assist in routing data.
4.It can not sleep. It has to be always awake.

ZigBeeRouter(ZR):
A router has the following characteristics:
1.It must join a ZigBee network before it can transmit, receive or route
data.
2.After joining, it can allow routers and end devices to join the network.
3.After joining, it can route data.
4.It ca not sleep. It has to be always awake.

ZigBee End Device(ZED):

An End Device has the following characteristics:
1.It must join a ZigBee network before it can transmit or receive data.
2.It can not allow devices to join the network.
3.It must always transmit and receive RF data through its parent.
4.It cannot route data.It can sleep.

In the mesh topology, most of the nodes are ZRs, which can serve as
monitor and control points but also can repeat or route data to and from
other nodes. The value of the mesh topology is that it can greatly extend
the range of the network. If a node lacks the power or position to reach
the desired node, it can transmit its data through adjacent nodes that pass
along the data until the desired location is reached. While the maximum
range between nodes may be only 30 m or less, the range is multiplied by
passing data from node to node over a much longer range and wider area.

An additional feature of the mesh topology is network reliability or

robustness. If one node is disabled, data can still be routed through other
nodes over alternate paths. With redundant paths back to the ZC, a
ZigBee mesh ensures that data reaches its destination regardless of
unfavorable conditions. Many critical applications require this level
of reliability.

d ) Explain IEEE 802.11 WLAN standards?

Ans:Over the years, a number of wireless LAN methods have been
developed, tested, and abandoned. One standard has emerged as the most
flexible, affordable, and reliable. Known as the IEEE 802.11 standard, it
is available in multiple forms for different needs.
The different versions of IEEE 802.11 standard is
1)IEEE 802.11a
2)IEEE 802.11b
3)IEEE 802.11g
4)IEEE 802.11n
5)IEEE 802.11ac
6)IEEE 802.11ad
1) IEEE 802.11b:
The earliest useful and most widely adopted version of the 802.11
standard is 802.11b. It operates in 11 channels in the 2.4-GHz unlicensed
ISM band. This band extends from 2.4 to 2.4835 GHz for a total
bandwidth of 83.5 MHz. However, each channel is 22 MHz wide so that
the channels overlap.
The 802.11b standard specifies a maximum data rate to 11 Mbps upto a
maximum range of 100ft.The access method is direct sequence spread
spectrum (DSSS) so that multiple signals may share the same band.
Increasing range or noise causes the rate to automatically drop off to 5.5,
2, or 1 Mbps.To achieve its faster rates of 5.5 and 11 Mbps, a different
form of coding called complementary code keying (CCK) is used. For
modulation, 1 Mbps is achieved with DBPSK. For 2 Mbps, the
modulation is DQPSK.

2) IEEE 802.11a:
The 802.11a standard was developed next. It uses the unlicensed 5-GHz
band. There are three authorized segments: 5.15 to 5.25 GHz with 50-
mW maximum power, 5.25 to 5.35 GHz with 250-mW maximum power,
and 5.725 to 5.825 GHz at a maximum of 1 W of power. Each of these
bands is divided into multiple nonoverlapping 20-MHz-wide channels.
Each channel is designed to carry an OFDM signal made up of 52
subcarriers, 48 for data and the other 4 for error correction codes. Each of
the subcarriers is about 300 kHz wide.

As with the 802.11b standard, the 802.11a version supports a wide range
of data rates. The fastest is 54 Mbps upto a range of 50ft. Other backoff
rates usually include 48, 36, 24, 18, 12, 9, and 6 Mbps. Each uses a
different modulation scheme. For 6 Mbps, BPSK is used. For 12 Mbps,
QPSK is used. For the higher rates, QAM is used; 16-QAM gives 24
Mbps, while 64-QAM is used to achieve 54 Mbps. The standard provides
for backoff data rates as the link conditions deteriorate due to increased
range, noise, or multipath interference.

3) IEEE 802.11g
The 802.11g standard was an attempt to extend the data rate within the
popular 2.4-GHz band. Using OFDM, this standard provides for a
maximum data rate of 54 Mbps at 100 ft indoors. As with the 802.11a
standard, there are lower backoff rates of 48, 36, 24,18,12,11,9,6,5.5,2
and 1Mbps as the communications path degrades. The 802.11g standard
also accommodates the 802.11b standards and so is fully backward-
compatible. An 802.11b transceiver can talk to an 802.11g AP but at the
lower data rate. An 802.11g transceiver can also talk to an 802.11b AP
but also at the lower data rate.

Data Transmission type Modulation scheme

Rate(Mbps)
54 OFDM 64 QAM
48 OFDM 64 QAM
36 OFDM 16 QAM
24 OFDM 16 QAM
18 OFDM QPSK
12 OFDM QPSK
11 DSSS CCK
9 OFDM BPSK
6 OFDM BPSK
5.5 DSSS CCK
2 DSSS QPSK
1 DSSS BPSK

4) IEEE 802.11n
The 802.11n version was developed to further increase the data rate. It
also uses both the 2.4-GHz and 5-GHz bands and OFDM. A primary
feature of this standard is the use of multiple-input multiple-output
(MIMO) antenna systems to improve reliability of the link. APs for
802.11n use two or more transmit antennas and three or more receive
antennas. The wireless nodes use a similar arrangement. In each case,
multiple transceivers are required for the AP and the node. This
arrangement permits a data rate in the 100- to 600-Mbps range at a
distance up to 100 ft.

5) IEEE 802.11ac:
One of the newest versions of the standard is 802.11ac. 11ac uses the 5-
GHz ISM band only, for minimum interference and maximum available
bandwidth. Furthermore, it continues the use of MIMO and OFDM.
However, some key changes boost the theoretical data rate above 3 Gbps
depending on modulation, channel bandwidth, and MIMO configuration.

The primary changes are 80- and 160-MHz-wide channels in addition to

the usual 40-MHz channel. As the bandwidth increases, so do the number
of OFDM subcarriers, to a maximum of 512 at 160-MHz bandwidth.
OFDM also adds 256QAM, which further boosts data rate. Finally, it
defines a greater number of MIMO versions with a maximum of an 8x8
configuration. The standard also supports coexistence and compatibility
with previous 11a and 11n devices.

6)IEEE 802.11ad
The 11ad version is also known by its trade name WiGig.
WiGi uses the unlicensed ISM 60-GHz band from 57 to 64 GHz. The
technology divides this into four 2.16-GHz-wide bands. The primary
modulation scheme is OFDM, which can support a data rate up to 7 Gbps,
making it one of the fastest wireless technologies available. The standard
also defines a single-carrier mode that uses less power; this is a better fit
for some portable handheld devices. The single-carrier mode can deliver
a data rate up to 4.6 Gbps. Both speeds permit transmission of
uncompressed video.

The WiGig specification also provides security in the form of the

Advanced Encryption Standard (AES).Because of the small antenna size
at 60 GHz, gain antennas are normally used to boost signal power and
range. The maximum typical range is 10 meters. WiGig products
use on-chip phased array antennas that can provide beamforming.

e ) Discuss WCDMA in detail?

Ans: Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) is a type of
cellular technology that was developed as a third-generation (3G) mobile
communications standard. It is based on the Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA) technologies that were developed in the 1980s, but it
uses a wider frequency band and provides higher data rates than previous
versions of CDMA.WCDMA was developed by the Third Generation
Partnership Project (3GPP), a collaboration between several
telecommunications standards organizations. The first version of the
WCDMA standard was released in 1998, and it was later adopted by
many mobile network operators around the world as a way to provide
high-speed data services to their customers.
The block diagram of WCDMA is shown in fig below:
Input signal: The input signal consists of various forms of digital data,
including voice, text, and video.

Encoder/ Decoder: For encoding and decoding purposes WCDMA uses

same techniques as that are used in CDMA i.e., Convolution or Turbo
encoding and decoding techniques.

Spreader/ Despreader: WCDMA uses spreading techniques such as

OVSF (Orthogonal variable spreading factor) codes and scrambling codes
and the Despreader works the same as that in CDMA
.
Modulator/ Demodulator: Advanced modulation techniques used in
WCDMA are QPSK, 16- QAM(Quadrature Amplitude Modulation), 64-
QAM and demodulation techniques used are enhanced rake receiver.

Pulse Shaper: At transmitter, it uses root-raised cosine filter to determine

signal bandwidth and to minimize their ISI(Inter Symbol Interference),
ensures the signal is undistorted during transmission. At receiver it uses
same filter to reduce ISI.

Comparator: The comparator synchronizes the received and decoded

signal with the transmitted signal leads to identifying errors and assessing
the transmitter’s accuracy.

Error Counter: It Increments the counter for each error identified by the
comparator by providing a measure for signal transmission quality and
accuracy.

Bit Error Rate (BER): The BER is calculated as

BER = Number of erroneous bits received / Total number of bits
transmitted

It is used to measure the effectiveness of the communication system and

helps to maintain low error rates for higher data integrity.

Advantages of WCDMA

1)Higher data rates and capacity due to wider bandwidth channels and
advanced modulation techniques.
2)Spectral efficiency and network performance is enhanced for better
utilization of resources.
3)Support for multimedia applications such as video streaming and online
gaming with improved quality.
4)Seamless handover between cells for uninterrupted connectivity during
mobility.
5)Global standard for 3G networks which ensures interoperability and
roaming across different regions.

Disadvantages of WCDMA

1)Higher deployment and maintenance costs compared to older

technologies.
2)Limited compatibility with devices designed for other cellular
technologies.
3)Spectral efficiency still may lag behind newer technologies like LTE or
5G.
4)Vulnerable to interference that impacts the performance in crowded
spectrum environments.
5)Data speeds may not match those of technologies that are optimized for
high-speed data.

Applications of WCDMA

1)Used in Mobile telephony for providing voice and data services with
faster speeds and better quality.
2)It Supports video streaming, online gaming, and mobile internet
browsing.
3)Used in IoT devices for wide coverage and remote monitoring.
4)Essential for public safety and emergency services which ensures
reliable communication during crises.
5)Facilitating machine to machine connections for various purposes such
as asset tracking and telemetry.

4) 10 MARKS

a ) List out the types of Multiple Access Systems. Explain the working
of CDMA scheme
Ans:The types of Multiple Access Systems are
1. Frequency Division Multiple Access(FDMA)
2. Time Division Multiple Access(TDMA)
3. Code Division Multiple Access(CDMA)

Code Division Multiple Access(CDMA):

CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access and serves as a
wireless standard applied in the telecommunication industry. It enables
several people to work on a single channel by assigning every channel a
code. In contrast to FDMA and TDMA, CDMA doesn’t divide the
accessible frequencies into a number of channels or time slots
respectively, but all users can send signals at once on the same frequency.
CDMA uses spread spectrum, lower level modulation of signals, due to
this data signal occupies more bandwidth than necessary for transmission.
CDMA technology was used in most of the wireless communication
systems including the 2G. (eg:-IS-95), 3G (eg:- cdma2000).

Two commonly used techniques for spreading the spectrum are frequency
hopping and direct sequencing.

Frequency hopping(FH):
Frequency-hopping spread spectrum was first used by the military to
ensure reliable antijam and to secure communications in a battlefield
environment. The fundamental concept of frequency hopping is to break
a message into fixed-size blocks of data with each block transmitted in
sequence except on a different carrier frequency. With frequency hopping,
a pseudorandom code is used to generate a unique frequency-hopping
sequence. The sequence in which the frequencies are selected must be
known by both the transmitter and the receiver prior to the beginning of
the transmission. The transmitter sends one block on a radio-frequency
carrier and then switches (hops) to the next frequency in the sequence and
so on. After reception of a block of data on one frequency, the receiver
switches to the next frequency in the sequence. Each transmitter in the
system has a different hopping sequence to prevent one subscriber from
interfering with transmissions from other subscribers using the same
radio channel frequency.

Direct sequence spread spectrum(DSSS):

In direct-sequence systems, a high bit rate pseudorandom code is added to
a low-bit-rate information signal to generate a high bit rate pseudorandom
signal closely resembling noise that contains both the original data signal
and the pseudo random code. Again, before successful transmission, the
pseudo random code must be known to both the transmitter and the
intended receiver. When a receiver detects a direct-sequence transmission,
it simply subtracts the pseudo random signal from the composite receive
signal to extract the information data. In CDMA cellular telephone
systems, the total radio-frequency bandwidth is divided into a few
broadband radio channels that have a much higher bandwidth than the
digitized voice signal. The digitized voice signal is added to the generated
high-bit-rate signal and transmitted in such a way that it occupies the
entire broadband radio channel. Adding a high-bit-rate pseudorandom
signal to the voice information makes the signal more dominant and less
susceptible to interference, allowing lower- power transmission and,
hence, a lower number of transmitters and less expensive receivers.

Principles of CDMA:

1)CDMA systems allow many data signals to be multiplexed and

transmitted over a wireless channel at the same time and in same
frequency band without interfering with each other. It is done by
deliberately spreading the spectrum occupied by user with high speed
code word unique to that user. The spectrum spreading is done by
multiplying the user data by unique code and modulating a carrier with
resultant waveform (spread spectrum).At the receiver original data is
recovered by correlating the demodulated signal.

2)The spread spectrum technique used in CDMA is of direct sequence

type. The data signals to be transmitted are modified through the use of
pseudo-noise code (PN code). In time division systems, channels are
separated by time slot they occupy but in code division systems, channels
are distinguished according to which PN code they use.

3) The PN codes used in a system are orthogonal means the codes should
not correlate among themselves nor they be time shifted version of each
other. Therefore, each signal with a unique PN code can be detected from
other signals. When a PN code is auto-correlated, the result is high (1) but
when cross-correlated with other PN code in the same set, the result is
zero (0). PN coded sequence are generated by using one or more shift
registers with specific feedback connections. This PN spreading code is
often called as chipping code. An important characteristic of spread
spectrum system is its processing gain Gp, which is proportional to the
ratio of spreading code rate to the data rate.
𝑅𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑝
𝑝 =𝑅
𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎

In a direct sequence CDMA system, the chip rate(Rchip) is 1.2288 × 106

chips per second or 1.2288Mcps.Each bit in PN code is defined as a chip.
The data rate(Rdata) is measured in Kbps

PN Codes Used in CDMA:

• CDMA system uses three types of PN code.
1. Walsh code
2. Long PN code
3. Short PN code
Walsh code:Walsh codes are set of orthogonal codes which are made up
of +1 or-1 which allows multiple users share the same frequency channel
without causing interference.The length of Walsh code is typically a
power of 2 corresponding to the number of users that can be
accommodated. In CDMA systems, Walsh codes are used for spreading
the signals of different users in which each user is assigned a unique
Walsh code .The users data signal is multiplied by this code spreading the
signal over a wide bandwidth.The spreading signal is then transmitted
over the channel. Since the codes are orthogonal, receivers can
distinguish between different users. At the receiver end, the received
signal is multiplied by the same Walsh code that was used for
spreading.This operation is called despreading.These codes are simple to
generate and implement in hardware or software. In IS-95 CDMA, 64
Walsh codes are used per base station. This enables to create 64 separate
channels per base stations (i.e. a base station can handle maximum 64
unique users at a given time).Actually in IS-95, out of the 64 available
Walsh codes, Walsh code 0 is reserved for pilot channel, 1 to 7 are
assigned for synch channel and paging channels and the remaining 8-63
are assigned for users (traffic channel) in the downlink(forward channel).

Long PN Code:
Long codes run at 1.2288 Mb/s and are 242-1 bits long (created using a
42 bits Linear Feedback Shift Register). It takes approx 41.2 days to
repeat a long code at this rate. It is used for both encryption and spreading.
Encryption is achieved by using a mask called Long Code mask which is
a created using a 64-bit authentication key called A-key (assigned by
CAVE protocol) and Electronic Serial Number ( ESN – assigned each
user based on the mobile number). The Long code changes each time a
new connection is created

Short PN Code:
The Short code is PN sequence that is 215-1 bits in length.This code is
used for final spreading of the signal and is transmitted as a reference
known as the Pilot Carrier by the base station. The same short code is
used by all the base stations.Base stations are differentiated from one
another by offsetting their transmission of this code in time.This time
offset is called as a PN Offset.Mobile units initially search until they
synchronize with a pilot code transmitted by a base station.The base
station then conveys timing information to the mobile.

CDMA Channel and Frequency Allocations

Forward CDMA Channel

CDMA forward channel uses same frequency spectrum as AMPS i.e.

869-894 MHz. Each IS-95 channel is allocated a 1.25-MHz frequency
spectrum for each one-way CDMA communications channel. A single
CDMA radio channel takes up the same bandwidth as approximately 42
30-kHz AMPS voice channels.Each CDMA channel is 1.23 MHz wide
with a 1.25 MHz frequency separation between adjacent carriers,
producing a 200-kHz guard band between CDMA channels

The following PN Codes are used in forward CDMA channel

1)Walsh codes for differentiating users
2)Long PN Codes for identifying Base Stations
3)Short PN Codes for data scrambling

Forward CDMA channel is divided into 64 code channels using 64 Walsh

codes as the chip sequence. The forward code channels are grouped into
paging(1...7), Forward traffic (1...55), Pilot (1) and Sync(1) channel. Any
unused forward channel is used as traffic channels.

Pilot Channel − It is a reference channel which the mobile station uses for
synchronization and provides phase reference for coherent demodulation.
It is transmitted at all times by each base station on each active CDMA
frequency. Each mobile station tracks this signal continuously and uses
the pilot signal to monitor and adjust the power needed in order to
transmit back to the base station. CDMA system relies heavily on power
control.The users which are closer to the base station must transmit at
lower power, those at far away must use a higher power. This has to be
decided by some kind of a control channel and pilot channel is used to do
that.

Synchronization(Sync) Channel- Sync Channel carries a single, repeating

message that conveys the timing and system configuration information to
the mobile station in the CDMA system.The BTS constantly transmits
over the sync channel so that the mobile can synchronize with the base
station. Synchronization is of most importance, it provides the mobile
with the system time and the identification number of the cell site so it’s
primarily used for time synchronization. The mobile ignores the sync
channel after it is synchronized.

Paging Channel(PCH)- The primary purpose is to send out pages, that is,
notifications of incoming calls, to the mobile stations. The base station
uses them to transmit system overhead information and mobile station-
specific messages. CDMA uses up to 7 paging channels. The paging
channel transmits overhead information such as commands and
pages to the mobile. The paging channel also sends commands and traffic
channel assignment during call setup. It may also be used to inform a
mobile, which is already involved in a call to get ready to switch to a
traffic channel owned by neighbouring cell,whose coverage area this
mobile has entered. Such handoff direction messages are always
conveyed using the paging channel. These channels are also used to
initiate outgoing calls.

Traffic Channels(TCH)-These channels are used to pass incoming voice

traffic from the base station to the mobiles. CDMA uses between 55 and
61 forward traffic channels to send both voice and overhead control data
during a call. Additionally commands to the mobile about whether to
increase or decrease its transmitted power are embedded within the
voice traffic and are retrieved and executed by the mobile.Power control
measures are sent by base station every 1.25ms.If the received signal is
low, 0 is sent over power control subchannel instructing the mobile
station to increase its mean output power level. If mobile’s power level is
high, 1 is sent to indicate that the mobile station should decrease the
power level. A minimum of 55 Forward Traffic Channels are generally
supported by a cell or sector.

Reverse CDMA Channel:

The Reverse CDMA channel is the mobile-to-cell direction of
communication or the uplink path. The reverse link uses two types of
channels to transmit voice and control data to the base station. The types
of reverse link channels are Access channel and Traffic channel.
The following PN Codes are used in reverse CDMA channel
1)Walsh codes for modulation( spreading)
2)Long PN Codes for identifying Mobile Stations
3)Short PN Codes for signal robustness

Access Channel
The mobile uses the access channel when not assigned to a traffic channel.
The mobile uses the access channels to originate calls, to determine what
paging channels it should monitor, respond to pages and to re register
with a new network or system when the mobile has roamed outside its
parent network

Traffic Channel:
The reverse link traffic channel is used only when there is a call. The
reverse traffic channel transmits voice data to the BTS, it also transmits
the overhead control information during the call.The mobile goes to
access mode if there is a call initiated; go to the traffic mode and then go
back to the idle mode once the voice communication is over. The
maximum data rate per channel is 14.4 kbps.

b) Draw and explain GSM architecture in detail

Ans:GSM or Global System for Mobile Communications is the most
popular wireless cellular communication technique, used for public
communication. The GSM standard was developed for setting protocols
for second generation (2G) digital cellular networks.

In the Europe and Asia, the GSM operates in 900 to 1800 MHz frequency
range, whereas in United States and other American countries, it operates
in the 850 to 1900 MHz frequency range. It uses the digital air interface
wherein the analog signals are converted to digital signals before
transmission. The transmission speed is 270 Kbps.

The GSM architecture consists of three major interconnected subsystems

that interact with themselves and with users through certain network
interface. The subsystems are Base Station Subsystem (BSS), Network
Switching Subsystem (NSS) and Operational Support Subsystem (OSS).
Mobile Station (MS) is also a subsystem but it is considered as a part of
BSS.

Interfaces:
1.Um Interface: The air interface between the mobile station (MS) and
the BTS.
2.Abis Interface: Connects the BTS and the BSC, allowing for
communication and control between these components.
3.A Interface: Connects the BSC to the Mobile Switching Center (MSC),
facilitating communication between the BSS and the core network.
Network Switching Subsystem:

The NSS is responsible for performing call processing and subscriber

related functions. The switching system includes the following functional
units:

Home location register (HLR):

 It is a database used for storage and management of subscriptions. HLR
stores permanent data about subscribers, including a subscribers
service profile, location information and activity status. When an
individual buys a subscription from the service provider, he or she is
registered in the HLR of that operator.

Visitor location register (VLR):

It is a database that contains temporary information about subscribers that
is needed by the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. VLR
is always integrated with the MSC. When a MS roams into a new MSC
area, the VLR connected to that MSC will request data about the mobile
station from the HLR. Later if the mobile station needs to make a call,
VLR will be having all the information needed for call setup.

Authentication center (AUC): A unit called the AUC provides

authentication and encryption parameters that verify the users identity
and ensure the confidentiality of each call.

Equipment Identify Register (EIR):

EIR is a database that stores the IMEI numbers for all registered mobile
equipment(ME) units.The IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity)
is a unique 17 or 15 digit code used to identify an individual mobile
station to a GSM network. The IMEI number provides an important
function; it uniquely identifies a specific mobile phone being used on a
mobile network. The IMEI is a useful tool to prevent a stolen handset
from accessing a network and being used to place calls. Mobile phone
owners who have their phones stolen can contact their mobile network
provider and ask them disable a phone using its IMEI number. The EIR
uniquely identifies all the registered MEs.
There are three classes of ME that are stored in the database and
each group has different characteristics.
• White List: contains those IMEIs that are known to have been assigned
to valid MS’s. This is the category of genuine equipment.
• Black List: contains IMEIs of mobiles that have been reported stolen.
• Gray List: contains IMEIs of mobiles that have problems (for example,
faulty software and wrong make of the equipment).

Mobile Switching Center(MSC):

A Mobile Switching Center (MSC) is a core part of the GSM/CDMA
network system. It acts as a control center of a Network Switching
Subsystem (NSS). The MSC connects calls between subscribers by
switching the digital voice packets between network paths.The MSC is
stationed between the base station and the Public Switched Telephone
Network (PTSN). All mobile communications are routed from the base
station through the MSC. The MSC is responsible for handling voice calls
and SMS including other services like FAX. The MSC initiates call setup
between subscribers and is also responsible for real time prepaid billing
and account monitoring. The MSC is responsible for inter BSC
handovers between Base Station Controllers and inter MSC handover
between mobile switching centers.

Base Station Subsystem(BSS):

The GSM Base Station Subsystem (BSS) is a crucial component of the
GSM architecture. It is responsible for communication between mobile
devices and the network.BSS manages voice and data traffic between the
mobile devices and the network.It handles signaling for call setup,
maintenance, and termination.It locates and alerts mobile devices for
incoming calls or messages.It ensures that all components of the network
are synchronized for efficient communication.

The BSS consists of two main parts:BTS(Base Transceive Station) and

BSC(Base Station Controller)

Base Transceiver Station (BTS):

The BTS is the equipment that handles the radio communication with
mobile devices. A BTS is a network component that serves one cell and is
controlled by a BSC. BTS is typically able to handle three to five radio
carries, carrying between 24 to 40 simultaneous communications.
Reducing the BTS volume is important to keeping down the cost of the
cell sites. The primary responsibility of the BTS is to transmit and receive
radio signals from a mobile unit over the air interface. To perform this
function effectively, the signals are encoded, encrypted, multiplexed,
modulated, and then fed to the antenna system at the cell site. In order to
keep the mobile station synchronized, BTS broadcasts frequency and time
synchronization signals. Similarly, the received signal from the mobile is
decoded, decrypted, and equalized for channel impairments. Uplink radio
channel(reverse channel) measurement is made by the BTS and
corresponding downlink measurements(forward channel) made by MS.

Base Station Controller (BSC):

The BSC is connected to the MSC on one side and to the BTS on the
other. The BSC performs the Radio Resource (RR) management for
the cells under its control. It assigns and release frequencies and time
slots for all MSs in its own area through the BTSs. The BSC performs the
inter cell handover for MSs moving among the BTSs in its control. The
BSC controls the power transmission of both BTSs and MSs in its area.
The BSC provides the time and frequency synchronization reference
signals which is further broadcast by its BTSs. The BSC also measures
the time delay of received MS signals relative to the BTS clock. If the
received MS signal is not centered in its assigned time slot at the BTS,
The BSC can direct the BTS to notify the MS to advance the timing such
that proper synchronization takes place.

MOBILE STATION(MS):
The wireless mobile telephone used by the subscriber is called the MS
(Mobile Station). MS includes radio equipment and the man machine
interface that a user needs, in order to access the services provided by the
GSM MS can be installed in vehicles or can be portable or hand-held.
The MS may include provisions for data communication as well as voice.

The primary functions of MS are to transmit and receive voice and data
over the air interface of the GSM system. MS performs the signal
processing function of digitizing, encoding, error protecting, encrypting,
and modulating the transmitted signals. It also performs the inverse
functions on the received signals from the BS.

The MS continuously monitors the power level and signal quality

received on the forward channel, by reading strength of the signals
received from its current BTS and the six surrounding BTSs. The MS
sends this information to the BTS & BSC to facilitate the network to take
decision on handover

Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) Card

The SIM is a removable smart card bearing a unique identification
number. At the very beginning of the service, GSM subscribers are
provided with a SIM card. The subscriber is identified in the system when
the user inserts the SIM card in the mobile equipment. This provides an
enormous amount of flexibility to the subscribers since they can now use
the SIM in the mobile equipments, as the SIM card is portable between
Mobile Equipment (ME) units. The user only needs to
take his smart card on a trip. He can then rent a ME unit at the destination,
even in another country, and insert his own SIM. Any calls he makes will
be charged to his home GSM account. Also, the GSM system will be able
to reach him at the ME unit he is currently using. The SIM contains an
integrated circuit chip with a microprocessor, random access memory
(RAM), and read only memory (ROM).
Operation Maintenance Center (OMC):

The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all

equipment in the switching system and to the BSC. The implementation
of OMC is called the operation and support system (OSS).
OMC is used to monitor and maintain the performance of each Mobile
Station (MS), Base Station (BS), Base Station Controller (BSC) and
Mobile Switching Center (MSC) within a GSM system. The OMC has
three main functions which are:
1)To maintain all telecommunications hardware and network operations
with a particular market.
2)Manage all charging and billing procedures.
3)Manage all mobile equipment in the system.
The OMC is dedicated to each of these tasks and has provisions for
adjusting all base station parameters and billing procedures, as well as for
providing system operators with the ability to determine the performance
and integrity of each piece of subscriber equipment in the system.

Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) uses a combination of

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Frequency Division
Multiple Access (FDMA).

c ) Explain about the Bluetooth and Zig Bee and write their
application in daily life.
Ans:
Bluetooth:
Bluetooth is a digital radio standard that uses frequency-hopping spread
spectrum (FHSS) in the unlicensed 2.4-GHz ISM band. It hops over 79
frequencies spaced 1 MHz apart from 2.402 to 2.480 GHz. The hop rate
is 1600 hops per second. The dwell time on each frequency, therefore, is
1/1600 = 625 µs. During this time, digital data is transmitted. The total
data rate is 1 Mbps, but some of that is overhead (headers, error
detection and correction, etc.)The data, which may be voice or any other
digitized information, is put into packets and transmitted sequentially in
as many as five time slots. The serial data signal is Gaussian-filtered, and
then FSK is used for modulation.

Another version 2.0 of Bluetooth is called Enhanced Data Rate (EDR). It

has all the features described earlier but increases the overall data rate to
3 Mbps. The 3-Mbps rate includes all the headers and other overhead.
The raw data rate is three times the 723 kbps rate mentioned earlier for a
net rate of more than 2.1 Mbps. The new protocol still transmits at 1
Mbps using GFSK for accessing and recognizing inputs to establish a link
and for the protocol headers. However, it uses different modulation
method to achieve the higher data rate in the data payload.

A gross data rate of 2.1 Mbps is achieved by using a form of QPSK called
DQPSK.To reach the 3-Mbps rate, an eight-phase differential phase-shift
keying (8DPSK) modulation scheme is used.

The most recent version of Bluetooth is 4.0. It incorporates all the

previous features of Bluetooth but adds Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), a
low-power variation of the original Bluetooth standard. Bluetooth BLE is
also called Bluetooth Smart. Smart uses a different set of technical and
radio techniques to ensure very low power consumption.Bluetooth Low
Energy still operates in the same ISM (industrial-scientifi c-medical)
license-free 2.4- to 2.483-GHz frequency band as standard Bluetooth.
However, it uses a different frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
scheme. Standard Bluetooth hops at a rate of 1600 hops per second over
79 channels 1-MHz wide. BLE FHSS uses 40 channels 2-MHz wide to
ensure greater reliability over longer distances. Standard Bluetooth offers
gross data rates of 1, 2, or 3 Mbps. BLE’s maximum rate is 1 Mbps
with a net throughput of 260 Kbps. GFSK modulation is used

Other features of BLE are a power output of 0 dBm (1 mW) and a typical
maximum range of 50 meters. Security is 128-bit AES. Link reliability is
improved with the use of an adaptive frequency-hopping technique that
avoids interference, a 24-bit CRC, and a 32-bit Message Integrity Check.

The main applications for Bluetooth are cordless headsets for cell phones
and hands-free voice systems in cars and trucks. It is also the main
connection between smartphones and the accessory smart watches.
Bluetooth is also used in other wearables such as those for medical or fi
tness monitoring. Other uses include wireless human interface devices
(HIDs) such as keyboards, mice, and game controllers. Any wireless
connection over a short distance that is within the data rate capability of
Bluetooth is a potential application.

ZigBee:

ZigBee is the commercial name for another PAN network technology

based on the IEEE 802.15.4 wireless standard. Like Bluetooth, it is a
short-range technology with networking capability. It was designed
primarily for commercial, industrial, and home monitoring and control
applications.The ZigBee Alliance, an organization of chip, software, and
equipment vendors of ZigBee products, specifies additional higher levels
of layers including networking and security.ZigBee is designed to operate
in the license-free spectrum available in the world.There are three basic
bands and versions shown in table below:

All Zigbee devices have two different addresses, a 64-bit and a 16-bit
address.All Zigbee transmissions are sent using the source and destination
16-bit addresses. The routing tables on Zigbee devices also use 16-bit
addresses to determine how to route data packets through the network.
However, since the 16-bit address is not static, it is not a reliable way to
identify a device.To solve this problem, the 64-bit destination address is
often included in data transmissions to guarantee data is delivered to the
correct destination.

ZigBee defines three different device types: coordinator, router, and end
devices
ZigBee Coordinator(ZC):

Each ZigBee network must have one coordinator. A coordinator has the
following characteristics:
1.It selects the channel and PAN ID (both 64-bit and 16-bit) to start the
network.
2.It can allow routers and end devices to join the network.
3.It can assist in routing data.
4.It can not sleep. It has to be always awake.

ZigBeeRouter(ZR):

A router has the following characteristics:

1.It must join a ZigBee network before it can transmit, receive or route
data.
2.After joining, it can allow routers and end devices to join the network.
3.After joining, it can route data.
4.It ca not sleep. It has to be always awake.

ZigBee End Device(ZED):

An End Device has the following characteristics:

1.It must join a ZigBee network before it can transmit or receive data.
2.It can not allow devices to join the network.
3.It must always transmit and receive RF data through its parent.
4.It cannot route data.
5.It can sleep.

The ZigBee standard supports three topologies: star, mesh, and cluster
tree. The most commonly used are the star and mesh, illustrated in Fig
below

Fig: Most common ZigBee topologies (a) Star (b) Mesh

These network topologies are made up of three types of ZigBee
nodes: a ZigBee coordinator (ZC), a ZigBee router (ZR), and ZigBee end
device (ZED). The ZC initiates a network formation. There is only one
ZC per network. The ZR serves as monitor or control device that
observes a sensor or initiates off/on operations on some end device. It
also serves as a router as it can receive data from other nodes and
retransmit it to other nodes. The ZED is simply an end monitor or control
device that only receives data or transmits it. It does not repeat or route.
The ZC and ZR nodes are called full-function devices (FFDs), and the
ZED is known as a reduced-function device (RFD). An FFD can perform
all the tasks that are defined by the ZigBee standard, and it operates in the
full set of the IEEE 802.15.4 MAC layer. An RFD performs only a
limited number of tasks.

The star configuration in Fig.(a) is the most common, where a centrally

located ZR accepts data from or distributes control data to other ZRs or
ZEDs. The central ZR then communicates back to the ZC, which serves
as the master controller for the system

In the mesh topology, most of the nodes are ZRs, which can serve as
monitor and control points but also can repeat or route data to and from
other nodes. The value of the mesh topology is that it can greatly extend
the range of the network. If a node lacks the power or position to reach
the desired node, it can transmit its data through adjacent nodes that pass
along the data until the desired location is reached. While the maximum
range between nodes may be only 30 m or less, the range is multiplied by
passing data from node to node over a much longer range and wider area.

An additional feature of the mesh topology is network reliability or

robustness. If one node is disabled, data can still be routed through other
nodes over alternate paths. With redundant paths back to the ZC, a
ZigBee mesh ensures that data reaches its destination regardless of
unfavorable conditions. Many critical applications require this level
of reliability.

As for applications, ZigBee can address a wide range of wireless needs.

Home Automation
a.Security Systems
b.Meter Reading Systems
c.Light Control Systems
d.HVAC(Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning) Systems
Consumer Electronics
a.Gaming Consoles
b.Wireless Mouse
c.Wireless Remote Controls
Industrial Automation
a)Asset Management
b)Personnel Tracking
c)Livestock Tracking
Healthcare
a)Hotel Room Access
b)Fire Extinguishers