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 MOS Interface
Physics, Process
and Characterization
 MOS Interface
Physics, Process
and Characterization

Shengkai Wang and

Xiaolei Wang
First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

© 2022 Shengkai Wang, Xiaolei Wang

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and
publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of
their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material
reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write
and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.
copyright.com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive,
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[email protected]

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Wang, Shengkai, 1984– author. | Wang, Xiaolei, 1985– author.
Title: MOS interface physics, process and characterization / Shengkai Wang, Xiaolei Wang.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton CRC Press, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references. |
Summary: “The electronic device based on Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) structure
is the most important component of a large-scale integrated circuit and the key to achieving
high performance devices and integrated circuits is high quality MOS structure. This book
contains abundant experimental examples focusing on MOS structure.
The volume will be an essential reference for academics and postgraduates within the
field of microelectronics”— Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021017023 (print) | LCCN 2021017024 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032106274 (hbk) | ISBN 9781032106281 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003216285 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Metal oxide semiconductors—Design and construction—Mathematics. |
Semiconductors—Junctions. | Integrated circuits—Research. | Solid state physics—Experiments.
Classification: LCC TK7871.99.M44 W358 2022 (print) |
LCC TK7871.99.M44 (ebook) | DDC 621.3815/284—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021017023
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021017024

ISBN: 978-1-032-10627-4 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-10628-1 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-21628-5 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003216285

Typeset in Minion
by codeMantra
Contents

Preface, ix
Authors, xi

INTRODUCTION, 1
0.1 SCOPE AND PLAN OF THE BOOK 1
0.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF MOS DEVICES 2
BIBLIOGRAPHY 5

Chapter 1 ◾ Physics of Interface 7

1.1 MOS INTERFACE 7
1.2 THE PHYSICAL NATURE OF INTERFACE STATES
AND BULK DEFECTS 8
1.3 MOS INTERFACE PASSIVATION METHODS 9
1.4 INTERFACE THERMODYNAMICS 11
1.5 QUANTUM CONFINEMENT EFFECT IN MOS 13
1.6 INTERFACIAL DIPOLE IN MOS GATE STACKS 14
1.7 EXTRACTION METHOD OF DIPOLE FORMATION
AT HIGH-K/SIO2 INTERFACE 17
1.7.1 Capacitance–Voltage Method 17
1.7.2 Method Based on X-ray Photoemission
Spectroscopy 21
1.7.3 Method Based on Internal Photoemission 23

v
vi   ◾    Contents

1.8 PHYSICAL ORIGIN OF DIPOLE FORMATION

AT HIGH-K/SIO2 INTERFACE 24
1.8.1 Electronegativity Model 24
1.8.2 Areal Oxygen Density Model 26
1.8.3 Interface Induced Gap States Model 27
1.9 “ROLL-OFF” AND “ROLL-UP” PHENOMENON 33
1.10 PHYSICAL ORIGIN OF FIXED CHARGES
AT GE/GEOX INTERFACE 40
1.11 SUMMARY 47
BIBLIOGRAPHY 47

Chapter 2   ◾   MOS Processes 51

2.1 MOS CAPACITOR PREPARATION PROCESS 51
2.1.1 Slicing 52
2.1.2 Cleaning 52
2.1.3 Dielectric Formation 54
2.1.4 Metal Evaporation to Form Electrodes 56
2.2 OXIDATION PROCESS AND KINETICS 58
2.2.1 Thermal Processing (RTP) and Plasma
Oxidation Systems 58
2.2.1.1 Thermal Processing (RTP) Systems 58
2.2.1.2 Plasma Oxidation Systems 62
2.2.2 Summary of Oxidation 76
2.3 DEPOSITION PROCESS 76
2.3.1 Sputtering 76
2.3.2 Atomic Layer Deposition 80
2.3.3 Vacuum Thermal Evaporation 83
2.3.4 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) 85
2.3.5 Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition
(MOCVD) 88
2.4 SUMMARY 93
BIBLIOGRAPHY 93
 Contents   ◾    vii

Chapter 3   ◾   MOS Characterizations 95

3.1 METHODS FOR EVALUATING THE DENSITY
OF INTERFACE STATES OF MOS 95
3.1.1 High-Frequency (Terman) Method 95
3.1.2 Quasi-Static (Low-Frequency) Method 97
3.1.3 High–Low-Frequency Method 99
3.1.4 C–φs Method 99
3.1.5 Conductance Method 102
3.2 EXPERIMENTAL STEP 105
3.2.1 Calibrate the Equipment 106
3.2.1.1 Phase Calibration 107
3.2.1.2 Butt Joint of Coaxial Joint
and Triaxial Joint 110
3.2.1.3 Open-Circuit Calibration 112
3.2.1.4 Short-Circuit Calibration 113
3.2.2 C–V Curve Was Measured After Calibration 113
3.2.3 An Example of Measuring Density of Interface
States of SiC MOS by Conductance Method 115
3.2.3.1 Part 1: Measurement of the C–V Curve 115
3.2.3.2 Part 2: Measurement of the G–f Curve 116
3.2.3.3 Part 3: Measurement of the System
Series Resistance Rs 117
3.3 HYSTERESIS AND BULK CHARGE 123
3.3.1 Interface Trapped Charge 124
3.3.2 Near Interface Trapped Charge (Border Trap) 125
3.3.3 Fixed Charge in the Oxide Layer 130
3.4 EQUIVALENT OXIDE THICKNESS 130
3.5 LEAKAGE 133
3.5.1 Direct Tunneling 134
3.5.2 Poole–Frenkel Leakage 138
3.5.3 Fowler–Nordheim Tunneling 142
3.5.4 Other Transport Mechanisms of Carriers 143
viii   ◾    Contents

3.6 WORK FUNCTION AND EFFECTIVE WORK

FUNCTION 146
3.6.1 Definition of EWF Based on Terraced SiO2 148
3.6.2 Definition of EWF Based on Terraced High-k
Dielectric 149
3.6.3 Quantitative Analysis of the Effects of Various
Factors on EWF 150
BIBLIOGRAPHY 153

APPENDIX I: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS, 155

APPENDICES II–V: USEFUL DATA FOR MOS INTERFACE

IN PERIODIC TABLE, 157
Preface

B oth of the authors of this book are engaged in metal–oxide–semi-

conductor (MOS) interface research. We have always wanted to write
a short, clear and easy-to-use book to help students answer their doubts in
practice and carry out relevant work as soon as possible. In the long-term
research and guidance of students, we found such a common problem; that
is, although there are many books on physics or semiconductors on the
market, students are often faced with difficulties in getting these books.
They do not have a thorough understanding of MOS interface physics,
they are not familiar with the preparation skills and key technologies of
devices, and more importantly, they lack knowledge because there are few
practical examples that can be referred to, so that sometimes it is difficult
to prepare high-quality MOS device structure, sometimes it is not clear
how to debug the relevant equipment, and even it is difficult to determine
whether the data are accurate. This brings some difficulties for our teach-
ing and students to enter the scientific research.
Here is a simple example. Students often encounter such problems: In
the preparation process of MOS devices, the contact resistance of the back
electrode puzzles everyone. How to prepare high-quality back contact by
simple methods and how to calibrate the equipment to remove the para-
sitic resistance have become very important problems, but this is often not
involved in the common textbooks.
Based on our experience at the Institute of Microelectronics of the
Chinese Academy of Sciences, and combined with some problems accu-
mulated in the early stage, we condensed what we wanted to express to
the readers into this short book. We hope to introduce the MOS interface
physics, process and characterization to readers through simple expres-
sion and try not to use profound formulas and obscure words.

ix
x   ◾    Preface

In the process of writing this book, we have received a lot of support

by many people. This book would not have been completed without them.
First of all, we would like to thank the staff from the publisher Taylor &
Francis Group, especially Ms. SUN Lian and Ms. CHEN Jingying, and
Ms. Vaishnavi Venkatesan from codeMantra for processing our book. In
addition, in the process of writing the book, our colleagues and students
also provided a lot of advices and examples. They are Mr. YAO Peilin,
Dr. HAO Jilong, Ms. YOU Nannan, Ms. ZHANG Qian, Mr. LIU Peng,
Mr. HU Qingyu, Ms. CAO Qianqian, and Mr. Zhang Ziqi. We would also
like to thank the Youth Innovation Promotion Association of the Chinese
Academy of Sciences for its support for this book.

WANG Sheng-Kai & WANG Xiao-Lei

Feb. 2021 in Beijing
Authors

Shengkai Wang is a professor in the Institute of Microelectronics, Chinese

Academy of Sciences. He received Ph.D. from the University of Tokyo in
2011 and has been engaged in Ge, III-V, SiC MOS technology. He has pub-
lished more than 100 papers and authorized 40+ patents.

Xiaolei Wang is a professor in the Institute of Microelectronics, Chinese

Academy of Sciences. He received Ph.D. from the Institute of Micro­
electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2013 and has been engaged
in Si/Ge based MOS technology. He has published more than 100 papers.

xi
Introduction

0.1 SCOPE AND PLAN OF THE BOOK

As the most important and widely used field-effect structure,
metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) is the core component of modern
integrated circuits. For the understanding of MOS system, this book
aims at introducing the MOS interface physics, process and characteriza-
tion to readers practically through simple expressions without profound
formulas and obscure words. As mentioned in the book title, it mainly
covers the related contents from three aspects: interface physics of MOS,
processes of MOS and characterizations of MOS. These three parts con-
stitute the main chapters of the book, Chapters 1–3.
Chapter 1 introduces the interface physics of MOS devices, includ-
ing what is a MOS interface, the physical nature of interface states and
bulk defects, the passivation idea of MOS interface, interface mechanics,
thermodynamics, material chemistry and other physical phenomena in
MOS devices.
Chapter 2 introduces the process technologies of MOS devices, includ-
ing how to prepare a high-quality MOS with detailed experimental skills,
thermal oxidation process and model of Si and other materials, mecha-
nism of typical deposition methods and equipment in MOS devices.
Chapter 3 introduces the characterizations of MOS devices, including
methods for evaluating the density of interface states of MOS, experimen-
tal skills in MOS characterization, hysteresis and bulk charge in MOS, how
to extract equivalent oxide thickness of MOS, what gate leakage stands for
and how to measure it, and the characterization of work function.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003216285-1 1
2   ◾    MOS Interface Physics, Process and Characterization

Since this book aims at the practical dimension, physical formulas and
theoretical content of characterization have not been included. For such
contents, some classic books, for example, “Physics of Semiconductor
Devices” by Prof. S. M. Sze and Kowk. K. Ng or “MOS Physics and
Technology” by E. H. Nicollian and J. R. Brews, could be referred to.

0.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF MOS DEVICES

The invention and application of integrated circuit is the most brilliant
pearl in the history of science and technology in the 20th century. Over
the past 60 years, integrated circuits have not only brought great success
to economic prosperity, social progress and national security, but also
changed people’s production, life and way of thinking. At present, inte-
grated circuits exist everywhere and all the time. She has become an indis-
pensable part of human civilization.
For modern integrated circuits, a MOS device is a very magical part.
From the philosophical point of view, it is the embodiment of human wis-
dom and contains the full and harmonious use of nature. As we all know,
the top three elements in our earth are oxygen, silicon and aluminum.
The early integrated circuit is made by the repeated use of these three ele-
ments, in which silicon constitutes the semiconductor, silicon oxide con-
stitutes the oxide layer and aluminum acts as the metal layer and is also
used as the interconnection material.
The exponential progress in MOS technology, called Moore’s law, is
illustrated by the evolution of the number of MOS transistors integrated
on a single memory chip or a single microprocessor, measured in calendar
years. The increase in integration density is mainly due to the scaling-down
of transistor size. Recently, TSMC officially disclosed the latest details of
3-nm process technology, with transistor density as high as 250 million
per square millimeter. Of course, the proposal of this great structure has
gone through a long incubation period, which can be traced back to the
early 20th century. So first of all, let us take a look at the development his-
tory of MOS structure.
Due to technical limitations, a device called the IGFET was first described
in patents by Lilienfeld and Heil in the 1930s. Julius Edgar Lilienfeld was
born in Lemberg, Austria-Hungary. He proposed a device similar to the
modern metal semiconductor field-effect transistor (MESFET) in 1926. A
few years later, he proposed a device similar to the modern MOS transistor
 Introduction   ◾    3

in 1928. In 1932, Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm proposed a concept known

as surface states, which is one of the central topics of this book. Surface
states according to Tamm’s theory are known as Tamm states. Later in
1935, Oskar Heil, a German scientist, proposed the idea of controlling the
resistance in a semiconducting material with an electric field in British
patent 439,457. Note that the pioneering patents by Lilienfeld and Heil
belong to “idea-patent”, and they were not practical due to the technology
limitations. Later in 1939, Shockley proposed his theory on surface states.
Note that surface states that are calculated in the framework of a tight-
binding model are often called Tamm states, while surface states that are
calculated in the framework of the nearly free electron approximation are
called Shockley states. In contrast to the nearly free electron model used to
describe the Shockley states, the Tamm states are suitable to describe also
transition metals and wide-gap semiconductors. On December 23, 1947,
Bardeen and Brattain invented the point-contact transistor, which became
a great milestone in the history of mankind. In 1952, Shockley published
a theoretical paper, indicating the debut of field-effect transistors in the
form of a junction field-effect transistor (JFET).
In 1959, Martin M. Atalla made the first practical MOS transistor based
on Si, after systematical investigation on the surface passivation of silicon
surface by SiO2. Later, he assigned the task to Dawon Kahng, a scientist in his
group. Eventually, Attalla and Kahng announced their successful MOSFET
at a 1960 conference. In 1963, Frank Marion Wanlass from Fairchild
Semiconductor invented the first CMOS under US patent 3,345,858.
In 1965, many achievements have been made. B. E. Deal and A. S. Grove
published their famous paper on “General Relationship for the Thermal
Oxidation of Silicon” that pushed the application of SiO2/Si forward.
Besides the use of the SiO2/Si system, P. Balk reported that hydrogen
annealing was another important technical development to lower the den-
sity of interface states. Also in this year, Gordon Moore made his famous
predication “Moore’s law”. In 1967, R. E. Kerwin et al. first put the Si gate
technology for ICs under US patent 3,475,234, and in 1974, R. H. Dennard
proposed the quantified scaling rule of IC process design, called Dennard’s
rule. Guided by Moore’s law and Dennard’s rule, intentionally or not, the
integrated circuit industry took off to incredible proportions and has
become one of the world’s leading industries. The milestone events in the
history of MOS devices are summarized in Table 0.1.
4   ◾    MOS Interface Physics, Process and Characterization

TABLE 0.1 Milestone Events in the History of MOS Devices

Year People Event Reference
1926 J. E. Lilienfeld The first patent of a device US patent 1,745,175, filed in
similar to the modern 1926 and awarded in 1930
MESFET
1928 J. E. Lilienfeld The first patent of a device US patent 1,900,018, filed in
similar to the modern MOS 1928 and awarded in 1933
transistor
1932 I. Tamm Proposal of a concept known Phys. Z. Soviet Union, vol. 1
as surface states (1932), pp. 733–746
1935 O. Heil A device controlling the British patent 439,457, filed
resistance in a in 1935 and awarded
semiconducting material in 1935
with an electric field
1939 W. Shockley On the surface states Phys. Rev., vol. 56, 317-323
associated with a periodic (1939)
potential
1947 J. Bardeen and Invention of point-contact Bell Labs logbook (December
W. Brattain transistors 1947), pp. 7-8, 24
1953 W. Shockley Invention of junction Proc. IRE, vol. 40, no. 11
field-effect transistors (November 1952),
(JFETs) pp. 1365–1376.
1959 M. M. Atalla Passivation of silicon surface Bell System Technical
state by SiO2 Journal, vol. 38, no. 3
(May 1959), pp. 749–783
1960 D. Kahng and The first practical MOS IRE/AIEE Solid-State Device
M. M. Atalla transistor based on Si Research Conference,
USA, 1960
1963 F. Wanlass Invention of the first CMOS US patent 3,356,858, filed in
1963 and awarded in 1967
1965 B. E. Deal and General Relationship for the J. Appl. Phys. 36, 3770 (1965)
A. S. Grove Thermal Oxidation of Silicon
1965 G. Moore Moore’s law Electronics Magazine vol. 38,
no. 8 (April 19, 1965).
1965 P. Balk Hydrogen annealing to lower Electrochemical Society
the density of surface states Spring Meeting, San
Francisco, California,
USA, 1965
1967 R. E. Kerwin Silicon gate technology US patent 3475234 (filed
et al. developed for ICs March 27, 1967, and issued
October 28, 1969)
1974 R. H. Dennard Scaling of IC process IEEE Journal of Solid-State
et al. design rules quantified Circuits, Vol. 9 (October
(Dennard’s rule) 1974), pp. 256-268
 Introduction   ◾    5

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Lilienfeld, J.E., Method and apparatus for controlling electric currents,
US Patent 1,745,175, filed in 1926 and awarded in 1930.
2. Lilienfeld, J.E., Device for controlling electric currents, US Patent 1,900,018,
filed in 1928 and awarded in 1933.
3. Heil, O., Improvements in or relating to electrical amplifiers and other
control arrangements and devices, British Patent 439,457, filed in 1935 and
awarded in 1935.
4. Riordan, M., and L. Hoddeson, Crystal Fire: The Invention of the Transistor
and the Birth of the Information Age, (New York, Norton, 1997).
5. Tamm, I., Uber eine mogliche art der elektronenbindung an kristallober-
flachen. Physikalische Zeitschrift der Sowjetunion, 1932. 1, p. 733–746.
(Note: The title of the paper after translation from German to English is
“On the possible bound states of electrons on a crystal surface”. The full
name of the journal is Physik Zeitschrift der owjetunion. This paper was
written in German and has been re-printed in “I.E. Tamm Selected Works”,
edited by B.M. Bolotovskii and V. Ya. Frenkel, Springer-Verlag, Berlin 1991,
pp. 92–102.)
6. Shockley, W., On the surface states associated with a periodic potential.
Physical Review, 1939 56(4): p. 317–323.
7. Shockley, W., A unipolar field-effect transistor. Proceedings of the IEEE,
1952, Nov. 40(11): p. 1365–1376.
8. Dacey, G.C., and I. M. Ross, Unipolar field-effect transistor. Proceedings of
the IEEE, 1953, Aug. 41(8): p. 970–979.
9. Mead, C. A., Schottky barrier gate field effect transistor. Proceedings of the
IEEE, 1966, Feb. 54(2): p. 307–309.
10. Atalla, M.M., E. Tannenbaum, and E.J. Scheibner, Stabilization of silicon
surfaces by thermally grown oxides. Bell System Technical Journal, 1959,
May. 38(3): p. 749–783.
11. Kahng, D., and M.M. Atalla, Silicon-silicon dioxide field induced sur-
face devices. IRE/AIEE Solid-State Device Research Conference, Carnegie
Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, PA, 1960.
12. Kahng, D., Silicon-silicon dioxide surface device, Technical memoran-
dum of Bell Laboratories issued on January 16, 1961. This paper has been
reprinted in the book Semiconductor Devices: Pioneering Papers, edited
by S. M. Sze, World Scientific, Singapore, 1991: D. Kahng, “Silicon-silicon
dioxide surface device”, p. 583–596.
13. Kahng, D., Electric controlled semiconductor device, US Patent 3,102,230,
filed in 1960 and awarded in 1963.
14. Kahng, D., A historical perspective on the development of MOS transistors
and related devices. IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, 1976, Jul. 23(7):
p. 655–657.
15. Balk, P., Effects of Hydrogen Annealing on Silicon Surfaces, (Electrochemical
Society Spring Meeting, San Francisco, CA, 1965).
6   ◾    MOS Interface Physics, Process and Characterization

16. Nicollian, E.H. and J.R. Brews, MOS Physics and Technology, (Wiley,
New York, 2003), p. 1–906.
17. Riezenman, M.J Wanlass’s CMOS circuit. IEEE Spectrum, 1991, May (28(5),
p. 44.
 Chapter 1

Physics of Interface

1.1 MOS INTERFACE
The metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) interface refers to the hetero-
junction interface in the gate structure of the MOS device, as shown in
Figure 1.1. The gate structure of the MOS device is usually composed of a
metal/oxide dielectric/semiconductor substrate, and the oxide dielectric
can be a stack of one or several insulating dielectrics. The interface appears
between different kinds of materials. Therefore, the interface can be con-
sidered as the boundary between any two different materials. It should be
noted that in most cases, the interface does not refer to a surface of infini-
tesimal thickness, but refers to the transition area between two different
materials, and it is a thin layer with a certain thickness, usually about 3 Å.
The following types of interfaces in the MOS gate structure can
appear: oxide/semiconductor interface, oxide/oxide interface and metal/
oxide interface. Generally speaking, the characteristics of the oxide/

FIGURE 1.1 Schematic of modern metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) device.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003216285-2 7
8   ◾    MOS Interface Physics, Process and Characterization

semiconductor interface are the most important. It seriously affects the

gate control capability of the MOS devices, the mobility of carriers on the
semiconductor substrate and the reliability of the MOS gate structure. In
addition, after the introduction of high dielectric constant gate dielectric
(such as HfO2) into the gate structure of silicon-based MOS devices, the
HfO2/SiO2 interface also plays an important role, involving the shift of the
device threshold voltage and the reliability of the gate structure.

1.2 THE PHYSICAL NATURE OF INTERFACE

STATES AND BULK DEFECTS
The concept of interface states does not belong to the category of classical
physics, but belong to the category of quantum mechanics and solid-state
physics. The interface state refers to the real-space distribution of the elec-
tronic wave function near the interface, i.e., the electronic wave function
attenuates to both sides of the interface. The electronic energy level cor-
responding to the interface state is usually located inside the band gap. The
study of the interface states has been going on for nearly hundred years,
but it is still not fully understood. The research on the interface state of
silicon semiconductor is the most complete, and the understanding is the
most profound. Here we take the interface state of silicon as an example.
The physical origin of the interface state of silicon is often attributed to
dangling bonds, or Pb centers. This concept is actually a visual explana-
tion given from a chemical point of view. From a physical point of view, it
needs to be considered from the energy band point of view. The interface
state is actually not generated out of thin air, but the energy level in the
conduction band or valence band of silicon is pulled into the forbidden
band, and then becomes the interface state, as shown in Figure 1.2.
Due to the interrupt of periodicity at the SiO2/Si interface, the solutions
of Schrödinger’s equation with complex wave vectors become of physi-
cal relevance for energies within band gaps, resulting in gap states at the
SiO2/Si interface. These interfacial gap states are derived from the virtual
gap states of the complex band structure of the silicon semiconductor,
and they may arise from intrinsic, defect, or structure induced gap states.
They consist of valence- and conduction-band states. The characteristics
of these gap states change across the band gap from predominately donor-
to acceptor-like closer to the valence band top and the conduction band
bottom, respectively. The energy at which their characteristic changes is
called their branch point, or most generally, charge neutrality level (CNL).
 Physics of Interface   ◾    9

FIGURE 1.2 Origin of interface trap.

This energy level shift comes from the change of the potential energy at
the interface relative to the potential energy inside the silicon. The physical
sources of these changes include dangling bonds and interface structure
relaxation. It should be noted here that certain chemical bonds can also
lead to the interface state energy level. For example, the Ga-O bond on the
surface of InGaAS has the bond energy in the InGaAS forbidden band.
Although there is no dangling bond, the bond energy position deviates
from the conduction. Band or valence band can still lead to interface states.
The physical nature of bulk defects originates from atomic vacancies,
interstitial atoms, replacement atoms, dislocations, structural changes,
etc. Any deviation from the perfect structure of the material may cause
defects. Corresponding to the gate structure of MOS devices, body defects
often involve oxygen vacancies. Similar to the generation process of the
interface state, the body defect energy level also pulls the electron energy
level from the conduction or valence band into the forbidden band.

1.3 MOS INTERFACE PASSIVATION METHODS

The method of interface passivation comes from the physical nature of
interface defects. At present, the most well-researched semiconductor sub-
strates include silicon, germanium, silicon germanium and III-IV semi-
conductors such as InGaAS. The origins of the interface states of these
10   ◾    MOS Interface Physics, Process and Characterization

semiconductors are slightly different, so they need to be treated separately.

The following describes the passivation ideas of each semiconductor.
For silicon semiconductor, dangling bonds are the main source of the
interface states. Therefore, the dangling bonds that passivate silicon are
the guiding ideology. Hydrogen atoms can passivate the dangling bonds
of silicon and move its defect energy level to the inside of the conduction
band or valence band. Therefore, in the process of silicon MOS devices,
forming gas annealing (FGA) is often performed in a hydrogen atmo-
sphere to effectively passivate the dangling bonds of silicon.
For germanium semiconductor, the physical origin of the interface
state is generally believed to come from the dangling bonds of germa-
nium. Unlike silicon semiconductors, hydrogen atoms cannot passivate
the germanium dangling bonds well. This shows that the physical origin
and passivation of the interface state cannot be understood simply from
a chemical point of view, i.e., from the point of view of dangling bonds
or atomic bonding. It still needs to return to deeper physical methods,
such as first-principles calculations, to accurately understand the physical
origin and passivation of interface states. This inconvenience is the lack of
easy-to-understand physical images to guide actual projects, especially for
engineers and technicians, which is difficult to understand.
For silicon germanium semiconductor, the physical origin of the inter-
face state is mainly related to the Ge-O bond at the interface. The fewer
Ge-O bonds, the smaller the interface state. This shows that the Ge-O
bond can induce interface states, although it does not produce the dan-
gling bonds. Therefore, inhibiting the formation of Ge-O bonds is the
guiding ideology of silicon germanium semiconductor passivation. This
involves the interface thermodynamic/thermodynamic process, i.e., the
oxidation process of the silicon germanium semiconductor. Current
research has found that silicon oxide has a smaller Gibbs free energy than
germanium oxide, which means it is easier to form. Therefore, anneal-
ing at an appropriate temperature (such as about 500°) can transform the
oxide of germanium to the oxide of silicon, which is beneficial to reduce
the interface state density. Another passivation idea is to prevent the for-
mation of Ge-O bonds, such as epitaxial silicon thin layers on silicon ger-
manium. This method can achieve the interface state density comparable
to silicon passivation levels.
For III-IV semiconductors such as InGaAS, the physical origin of the
interface state is the existence of Ga-O bonds. Therefore, inhibiting the
 Physics of Interface   ◾    11

formation of Ga-O bond is the guiding method for passivation. This also
involves the interface thermodynamics/thermodynamic processes; how-
ever, the research in this area is still not clear.

1.4 INTERFACE THERMODYNAMICS
The interface thermodynamics/thermodynamic process of semiconduc-
tors is still not fully understood and mastered. The research on the inter-
face thermodynamics of silicon is the most profound. Therefore, here is an
example of silicon to introduce the research progress of its interface ther-
modynamics. During the thermal oxidation and growth of SiO2 on the
silicon substrate, a transition layer appears between the silicon substrate
and SiO2. The atomic ratio of oxygen to silicon in this transition layer is
less than 2, and the space thickness is about 7 Å. Dissociative adsorption
of O2 molecule occurs via a charge transfer at the dangling bond site not
only on Si surfaces but also at SiO2/Si interfaces. During the oxidation,
the chemically active dangling bond is persistently supplied at the SiO2/
Si interface by the pint defect generation (emitted Si atom and vacancy)
due to the intrinsic (oxidation-induced) and extrinsic (thermally induced)
strain with assistance of the heat of adsorption and the thermal activation.
The high dielectric constant gate dielectric has been widely doped into
the MOSFET devices, and the interface between the high dielectric con-
stant gate dielectric and the silicon substrate is discussed here. Here we
take hafnium oxide as an example for discussion. In experiments, there
appears SiOx or HfSiO between the HfO2 and silicon substrates, which
indicates that HfO2 and Si are prone to reaction and proceed in the direc-
tion of reducing Gibbs free energy. The formation of SiOx or HfSiO is con-
ducive to reducing Gibbs free energy.
Hereafter, we discuss the oxidation of Ge substrate in ozone. Figure 1.3
shows the GeOx thickness as a function of ozone oxidation time. The oxida-
tion temperature is in the range from 80°C to 400°C. From Figure 1.3, we
can find an increase in the oxidation rate with higher temperature. After
25-min oxidation in ozone, the physical thicknesses of GeOx are about 2.8,
5.28, 7.8, 9.7 and 12.3 Å at 80°C, 250°C, 300°C, 350°C and 400°C, respec-
tively. Furthermore, an initially linear growth of GeOx thickness versus
time is observed below ~10 s, and then, it becomes parabolic as the oxida-
tion time increases. The two different growth modes suggest that there are
two different physical/chemical oxidation mechanisms in the oxidation
process. Moreover, the oxidation phenomenon has been well observed
12   ◾    MOS Interface Physics, Process and Characterization

FIGURE 1.3 GeOx thickness vs. oxidation time at temperatures from 80°C
to 400°C.
for Si substrate, which can be effectively interpreted and described by the
Deal–Grove or linear parabolic model. As a result, in the region of ini-
tially linear growth in Figure 1.3, the oxidation process is determined by
chemical reaction, which occurs at the GeOx/Ge interface. However, in the
region of parabolic growth, the oxidation is considered to be limited by
diffusion process of oxygen atoms through GeOx film.
In order to accurately well understand the reaction process of Ge oxida-
tion by ozone, the Arrhenius temperature dependence of oxidation process
is a good method and measured for each oxidation growth region. Figure
1.4 shows the Arrhenius plot of linear rate constant (B/A) in the initially
linear growth region. The B/A is obtained by fitting linear region in Figure
1.3 using the Deal–Grove model. The activation energy is then calculated
to be 0.06 eV. This rather small activation energy means that the initially
linear growth is nearly barrier-less. And this activation energy is approxi-
mately equal to that of Si surface oxidation by ozone. For the parabolic
oxidation region, the activation energy is extracted to be 0.54 eV, which
is rather reduced compared to the general reported value of thermal oxi-
dation in O2 (~1.7 eV). The small activation energy in ozone oxidation is
mainly because of the higher reactivity of oxygen atoms rather than ­oxygen
molecules to diffuse through GeOx, breaking Ge-Ge bond and creating
 Physics of Interface   ◾    13

FIGURE 1.4 Arrhenius plots for initially linear region and following parabolic
region. The Ea means activation energy.
Ge-O-Ge bond. Therefore, the atomic species during the ozone oxidation
induces a reaction pathway, which is much more effective than O2 species.

1.5 QUANTUM CONFINEMENT EFFECT IN MOS

First, introduce the quantum confinement effect of semiconductor sub-
strate. When the semiconductor substrate is in the strong inversion type,
the semiconductor forms a barrier near the interface. This barrier causes
the redistribution of the carrier energy level and wave function. It is neces-
sary to re-solve the self-consistent Schrodinger–Poisson equation, and the
result is that at the surface, the depletion phenomenon of carriers occurs,
and the space range is about 3 Å. This will contribute an additional equiv-
alent oxide thickness of the gate dielectric, which is not conducive to the
increase in the capacitance of the gate dielectric (Figure 1.5).
The quantum confinement effect will contribute additional gate-equiv-
alent oxide thickness, reduce the gate capacitance and then reduce the gate
control capability and channel current. However, the quantum confine-
ment effect keeps the carriers away from the interface, which can suppress
the interface roughness scattering and the remote Coulomb scattering of
the gate charge, thereby increasing the mobility.
After the introduction of high dielectric constant gate dielectrics, the
concept of equivalent oxide thickness is often used. When extracting the
14   ◾    MOS Interface Physics, Process and Characterization

FIGURE 1.5 Quantum confinement in semiconductor inversion layer.

equivalent oxide thickness from the C–V curve of the MOS capacitor, the
quantum confinement effect needs to be considered. There are two ways to
remove the quantum confinement effect. One is to calculate the equivalent
capacitance thickness of the gate structure through the capacitance value
of the accumulation zone, and then subtract the quantum confinement
effect contribution. For the silicon substrate, usually it is about 3–4 Å. The
second method is to solve the self-consistent Schrödinger–Poisson equa-
tion of the silicon substrate and solve the self-consistent solution con-
sidering the quantum confinement effect, i.e., the relationship between
the charge of the silicon substrate and the surface potential. Then, the
capacitance–voltage curve of the entire gate structure is simulated. After
­fitting the experimental curve, the final equivalent oxide layer thickness
is obtained. This value has already removed the influence of the quantum
confinement effect.

1.6 INTERFACIAL DIPOLE IN MOS GATE STACKS

The interface electric dipole is introduced. The electric dipole moment is
a measure of the separation of positive and negative electrical charges in
a system of charges, i.e., a measure of the charge system’s overall polarity.
Figure 1.6 schematically shows positive and negative dipoles at high-κ/
SiO2 interface. A positive dipole will increase the effective work function
(EWF) of metal gate, while a negative dipole will decrease the EWF of the
metal electrode as shown in Figure 1.7.
Figures 1.8–1.10 show the investigation on the location of interfacial
dipole. The bilayer high-k dielectrics are used to demonstrate if the dipole
is located at the high-k/SiO2 interface. Shown in Figure 1.8 is the VFB shift
 Physics of Interface   ◾    15

FIGURE 1.6 Schematic of dipole formation at high-k/SiO2 interface. (a) A posi-

tive dipole; (b) a negative dipole.

FIGURE 1.7 Schematic of band alignment of gate stacks illustrating the effect
of dipole formation at high-k/SiO2 interface on EWF of the metal gate. (a) No
dipole; (b) positive dipole; (c) negative dipole.

FIGURE 1.8 VFB shift of NiSi/Al2O3/HfO2/SiO2/Si-stacked structure with (w/) or

without (w/o) 1000°C PDA (post deposition annealing). PDA is only performed
for the bottom-HfO2 layer. VFB shift behavior with PDA is very similar to that
without PDA.
16   ◾    MOS Interface Physics, Process and Characterization

of NiSi/Al2O3/HfO2/SiO2/Si stack. It can be seen that the VFB of the gate

stack with the top Al2O3 dielectric is approximately the same as that with-
out Al2O3 dielectric. The same results are observed for the NiSi/HfO2/
Y2O3/SiO2/Si and NiSi/HfO2/Al2O3/SiO2/Si stacks as shown in Figures 1.9
and 1.10. This means that the top-layer dielectric has no effect on the VFB
shift and that the dipole is not located on the metal/high-k and top high-k/
bottom high-k interfaces. Inversely, the insertions of bottom-layer high-k
dielectric have a significant effect on the VFB shift of the gate stacks. For
example, the insertion of HfO2 layer between the Al2O3 and SiO2 layers
induces a negative VFB shift of ~0.4 V, shown in Figure 1.8, and the inser-
tion of Y2O3 between HfO2 and SiO2 layers results in a negative VFB shift of
~0.5 V, as shown in Figure 1.9. The introduction of Al2O3 into the HfO2/
SiO2 interface makes a positive VFB shift of 0.4 V, as shown in Figure 1.10.
It can be concluded that the dipole is located at the high-k/SiO2 interface.
Even though intensive research has been done in the past 5 years about
the dipole formation at high-k/SiO2 interface, the exact effect of interfacial
dipole on the EWF shift and the physical origin of the dipole formation
are still in debate. In this section, the definition of the interfacial dipole
will be first discussed, and then the extraction method of dipole moment
will be given. Finally, the physical origins of the dipole formation pro-
posed in the literature are investigated.

FIGURE 1.9 VFB shift of NiSi/HfO2/Y2O3/SiO2/Si-stacked structure with (w/) or

without (w/o) 1000°C PDA. PDA is only performed for the bottom-Y2O3 layer. VFB
shift behavior with PDA is very similar to that without PDA.
 Physics of Interface   ◾    17

FIGURE 1.10 VFB shift of NiSi/HfO2/Al2O3/SiO2/Si-stacked structure w/ or w/o

1000°C PDA. PDA is only performed for the bottom-Al2O3 layer. The positive
VFB shift by about 0.2 V is observed with 1000°C PDA process on Al2O3/SiO2
interface.

1.7 EXTRACTION METHOD OF DIPOLE

FORMATION AT HIGH-K/SIO2 INTERFACE

1.7.1 Capacitance–Voltage Method
This method was proposed by our previous work. For MOS capacitors
with metal/high-k/terraced-SiO2/Si stack as shown in Figure 1.11, the VFB
of this structure is given as follows:

2
QSiO2 ,Si EOT ρ bulk,SiO2 EOT 2 Qhigh-k,SiO2 dhigh-k ρ bulk,high-k dhigh-k
VFB = φms − − − −
ε 0ε SiO2 2ε 0ε SiO2 ε 0ε high-k 2ε 0ε high-k
2
ρ bulk,SiO2 ε SiO2 dhigh-k
+ 2
+ ∆Vhigh-k ,SiO2 + ∆Vmetal,high-k (1.1)
2ε 0ε high-k


where EOT is the equivalent oxide thickness of the whole metal/high-k/

SiO2/Si stack. ϕms is the vacuum work function difference between metal
gate and Si substrate. QSiO2 ,Si and Qhigh-k,SiO2 are the areal charge densities
(per unit area) at SiO2/Si and high-k/SiO2 interfaces, respectively. ρ bulk,SiO2
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 The front of Mr. Milburn’s wagon almost touches the back of ours,
forming an angle. I had been writing a few moments when I heard
sobbing. I was out in a jiffy, and had gone to the front of their wagon
without stopping to think whether I was intruding. “May I come in?” I
asked, as I stepped upon the wagon-tongue.
“Oh, yes, come in, Miss Sallie, but I am ashamed to let you see me
crying, somehow I could not help it. I felt so lonely and homesick.”
“I am sorry you feel lonely and homesick. Did any of us say, or do
anything this evening that could have hurt you?”
“Oh, no; not at all, only I always feel that I am one too many, when
I am with you all; you seem so light-hearted and happy, so free from
care, so full of life and fun, that I feel that I am a damper to your
joyousness, for I cannot get over feeling homesick and sad, especially
when night comes.”
“How sweetly Ernest sleeps, and how much he seems to enjoy this
manner of life.”
“Yes; he is a great comfort to me, as well as a great care. He is
dearer to me than to any one else in the world; his father seems to be
weaned from him, since they have been separated so long. He has not
seen him more than half a dozen times since his mother died. I feel
that he is altogether mine. May God help me to train him for Heaven.
He will never know what I have sacrificed for him. I have a mind to tell
you, if you care to hear, why I am here, and why I am not happy.”
“It may perhaps relieve you, and lighten the burden, to share it.”
And then she told me what I will record to-morrow, for it is almost
midnight, and mother has been asleep for two hours, and I must hie
me to bed.

MISS MILBURN’S LOVE STORY.

“Of course you have heard about my engagement to Jim Miller. I
know it has been talked about.”
“Yes; I have heard the matter discussed.”
 “We have been engaged two years, and were to be married next
month. He insisted that I must give up Ernest to mother. I felt that I
would be violating a sacred trust, and that mother is too old to have
the care of such a child, and I told him so. We quarreled, and while I
was feeling hurt and indignant, I told Brother John I would go with him
to Montana. He gladly accepted my offer, and his wife was so glad John
would have some one to take care of him if he got sick. So here I am
and I know I ought not to have come, for Jim Miller is dearer to me
than my own life.”
“I am so sorry for you, yet I believe that in some way it will be for
the best, you know the promise, ‘All things work together for good, to
those who love the Lord.”
“I will try to believe it. You have done me good, Miss Sallie. I am
glad you came. Come again.”

* * * * *

Sunday, May 7.
“Remember the Sabbath Day to keep it holy.” Have we obeyed this
command to-day? I fear not. We are all, or very nearly all, professing
Christians, yet we have had no public worship in our camp to-day, but
we have all, to some extent, desecrated the day by work.
Deeds of mercy and necessity may be done on the Sabbath Day
without sin, and mother says, “It is very necessary that our soiled
clothes, sheets and pillow-cases should be washed, and that cleanliness
is next to godliness.”
The question comes to me, Why is it that Christians are so loath to
talk of the things that pertain to their spiritual life, and eternal welfare?
Why so backward about introducing a service of worship, when so well
aware it would meet with the approval of all?
I felt that Mr. Kerfoot was the one to suggest a service of prayer and
praise, and reading the Scriptures. Perhaps he thought some of the
ladies would mention it, so all were silent, and it is numbered with the
lost opportunities for doing something for our Lord and Master. May he
pardon our sins of omission, and may we be permitted to atone for the
manner in which we spent our first Sabbath on this trip.
We have not traveled, so our teams have rested and done no labor,
if we have violated the commandment ourselves.
The weather is perfect; this is another beautiful moonlight night.
The young ladies and gentlemen have gone for another walk in the
same order as last night, except Frank went with Miss Milburn, and
Ezra is waiting for me.

A LETTER TO BROTHER MAC.

Monday, May 8.
I left camp very early, and walked on alone, that I may write to
Brother Mac before the wagons overtake me. I am seated in a
comfortable fence corner, and here goes for my letter:
Lucas County, Iowa, May 8, 1865.
Dear Brother: We were delayed several days after the time
set for starting, when we wrote you to meet us at Council Bluffs
by the 10th. We thought I would better write, that you may
know we are on the way, and hope to meet you by the 15th or
the 16th. You must possess your soul with patience, if you get
there before we do, and have to wait. I could write a long letter,
I have so much to tell you, but will wait until we meet. Mother
seems in better health and spirits than she has since you went
into the army. We are enjoying the trip very much, and I find
myself feeling sorry for the people that have to stay at home,
and cannot travel and camp out. Good-bye until next week.
With sincerest love,
Your sister,
Sarah.

The wagons are coming in sight, just as my letter is finished and

addressed, and ready to mail at the next post-office. My pony is in
harness to-day, as one of the work horses is a little lame, so I will have
to ride in the wagon or walk. As the morning is so fine I will walk until I
begin to tire.
Evening.
Cash joined me in my walk, and we walked until noon. How wisely
planned are these physical bodies of ours, how easily inured to the
burdens they must bear. Before we started on this trip, such a walk as
we took this morning would have completely prostrated us; now, we
did not feel any inconvenience from the unusual exercise.
Frank invited us, Cash and I, to ride in his wagon this afternoon. We
accepted the invitation, and made an emigrant visit. He had arranged
his wagon for our convenience and comfort, and we spent a very
pleasant afternoon. Frank mailed my letter at Charaton, and on his way
back bought candy and nuts for a treat for his visitors, which we, of
course, enjoyed exceedingly.
I should not care to ride in an ox-wagon all the way across the
plains, but for half a day, once in a while, it is a pleasant change,
especially when so delightfully entertained. The afternoon passed
quickly. We are camping near a large party of emigrants, some of the
men came to our camp. They look tough; they are from Pike County,
Missouri, on their way to Oregon.

* * * * *

Tuesday, May 9.
A beautiful day for horseback riding, until late this afternoon, when
it commenced blowing a perfect gale, too severe to travel, so we drove
into camp early. We came through Ottawa and Osceola, are camping in
Clark County.

* * * * *

Wednesday, May 10.

A very cold day for this time of year, too cold to think of riding
horseback, so we all took passage in the wagons. As we have plenty to
read, and lots of visiting to do, it is no hardship to ride in the wagon for
a day.
The boys have made a splendid camp-fire, and we are getting
thawed out, cheered, and ready for a jolly evening. There was just one
stunted oak left standing, away out here in this great expanse of prairie
—for our especial benefit, it seems. The boys cut it down, and taking
the trunk for a back-log, the top and branches to build the fire, we
have a glorious camp-fire away out here in Union County, Iowa. It is
surprising to find Iowa so sparsely settled, we travel sometimes half a
day and do not see a home. There are always a few farms near the
towns. The settlements are the only breaks in the monotonous
landscape.
Oh, the tedious, tiresome monotony of these vast extended prairies:
To look out and away, over these seemingly endless levels, as far as
the eye can reach, and see only grass, grass everywhere, with beautiful
prairie flowers, of course, but the flowers cannot be seen in the
distance. No earthly consideration would induce me to make a home on
any of these immense prairie levels. How my eyes long for a sight of
beautiful trees, and running streams of water; how delightful to stroll in
the woods once more.

* * * * *

Thursday, May 11.

The wish expressed last evening is realized in a manner. We are
camping in a strip of timber along the banks of a creek—or branch,
rather. But then it is such a slow-going stream, not at all limpid, clear,
or sparkling as a brook ought to be. It can hardly be called a running
stream, for it goes too slowly. I think creeping or crawling would be
more appropriate. We came through Afton to-day.
 THE ICARIAN COMMUNITY.
Friday, May 12.
Brother Hillhouse’s birthday. He is twenty years old. We made a
birthday cake for him last night. We divided it into twenty pieces at
lunch to-day, and there was just enough to go around and leave two
pieces for himself. The girls say we must have some kind of a
jollification to-night. I hope they will leave me out, for I want to write
about the “Icarian Community.” We came through Queen City this
morning, and this afternoon came to a town of French people, called
“The Icarian Community.”
(Call to dinner.)
Later: They have excused me.
But why Icarian? I cannot understand, for certainly they did not
impress me as high flyers, neither as flyers at all. They seemed the
most humdrum, slow-going, even-tenor, all-dressed-alike folks I have
ever seen. Every dwelling is exactly alike, log-cabins of one room, with
one door, one window, a fire-place with stick chimney. I rode close by
the open doors of some of the houses, and tried to talk with the
women, but we could not understand each other at all. The floors,
windows and everything in the houses were scrupulously clean, but not
one bit of brightness or color, not a thread of carpet, or a rug, and all
the women’s and girls’ dresses made of heavy blue denim, with white
kerchiefs around the shoulders and pinned across the front of the
waist, the skirt above the ankles, and very narrow and heavy thick-
soled shoes. The men and boys all looked alike too, but I did not
observe them closely enough to describe them.
There are several large, long buildings, one with a large bell in belfry
on top of building. They are dining-hall, town-hall, school-house and
two others. I did not learn what they are used for. All the buildings are
one story, of the plainest architecture, for the one purpose of shelter
from sun and storm. There is not a thing to ornament or beautify, not a
shade-tree or flower, yet everything—men, women, children, houses,
yards and streets—are as clean as they can be made.
 They are peaceable, law-abiding citizens, live entirely independent of
the people of adjoining neighborhoods. They are supposed to be
wealthy; the town is the center of well-cultivated and well-stocked
farms.
The principle upon which the community is founded is “Brotherly
Love”, a sort of co-operative communism, in which all things are the
common property of all. They live upon what their farms produce, have
vast herds of cattle and sheep, a fine site for their town, and seem the
picture of contentment, which is better than riches.
We stopped within sight of Quincy, and another camping outfit. We
soon learned they are Mr. Harding and Mr. Morrison and family, from
Lewis County. We are acquainted with Mr. Harding and have often
heard of the Morrisons.
Mr. Morrison and Mr. Harding came over, and the men have had a
sociable, gossiping time this evening; the men can surpass the women
gossiping any time, notwithstanding the general belief to the contrary.
The young folks have been playing games to celebrate Hillhouse’s
birthday. They had hard work to get him to join them.

A SWING AMONG THE TREES.

Saturday, May 13.
We drove only until noon, and stopped to stay over Sunday, so that
we can do our washing and baking, without violating the Sabbath. We
do not have collars and cuffs, and fine starched things to do up, but we
have a great many pocket handkerchiefs, aprons, stockings, etc. We
have pretty bead collars made of black and white beads, tied with a
ribbon, that always look nice and do not get soiled. We are in a
beautiful grove of trees. The boys have put up a swing. There is
nothing in the way of play that I enjoy as I do a good high swing.
There are plenty of boys to swing us as high as we want to go. I fear
the Sabbath will be desecrated with play to-morrow, if not with work,
for the temptation to swing will be hard to resist.
 * * * * *

Sunday, May 14.

The horses went off two or three miles last night, the men were all
off bright and early this morning hunting them. Mr. Kerfoot found them,
and came back about nine o’clock. By the time they were all here the
morning’s work was finished and we were ready—for what?
A day to spend in rest and service for the Master? Oh, no. A day
spent in swinging, frivolous conversation, and fun. I am ashamed to tell
it, but it is nevertheless true, and I believe we all thought less about a
service of worship than we did last Sunday. It is so hard to get right, if
we do not start right.
We have visitors in camp to-night, two gentlemen from Clark County,
neighbors of the Kerfoots—Mr. Suitor and Mr. Rain. They started for the
gold mines in Montana two or three weeks ago. After reaching the
Missouri River they heard such frightful stories of Indian depredations
being committed on the plains that they sold their outfit for what they
could get, and are returning home on horseback. Poor fellows, how I
pity any man that has so little grit. I should think they would be
ashamed to show their faces to their neighbors, and say, “We were
afraid, so we came back home.”
I believe Mrs. Kerfoot is the only one of our party who would be
willing to turn back, and perhaps she would not if it were put to the
test. We would not like to be scalped and butchered by the Indians, but
it does seem so cowardly to run away from a possible danger. “The
everlasting arms are underneath.” God can, and will, take care of us as
well on the plains as anywhere. He is leading us through unknown
paths. We can trust Him. Heaven is as near one place as another.
Our second Sunday has not been much of an improvement on our
first. The first we worked, to-day we have played. The boys swung us
all morning, until we were ready to “holler nuff.” We had Sunday dinner
between two and three o’clock, then we wrote letters to friends at
home, read until sleepy, took a nap of an hour, then Mr. Suitor and Mr.
Rain came, and we listened to their frightful stories of what the Indians
are doing to emigrants.
 I left them in disgust, to come and record our misdoings of this, our
second, Sunday on the road. It is almost bedtime, and I must make the
beds, for we are early to bed and early to rise while on this trip.

A FATAL ACCIDENT.
Monday, May 15.
Alas, alas! How can I write the disastrous happenings of this day?
My hand trembles and my pencil refuses to write intelligibly when I
attempt to record the sad, oh, so sad, accident that has befallen us. We
parted from our visitors this morning, and started on our way, feeling
rested and glad to be journeying on again. How little we knew of what
a day would bring forth. We stopped for lunch at noon in a little vale,
or depression, on the prairie, but where there was no water. Just as we
had finished our lunch, Neelie came, she said, to see if we could make
an exchange for the afternoon, her mother riding with mine, and I with
the young folks in the family wagon. Of course it was soon arranged,
and I told her I would come as soon as I helped mother put things
away. (We sometimes visit in this way.) Mrs. Kerfoot soon came around,
and when everything was ready I started to go to their wagon. It was
the last one in the train. As I was passing Mr. Milburn’s wagon he called
to me to “Come and get a drink of water.” He had taken a long walk,
and found clear, pure water, not very cold, but much better than none
at all. I gratefully accepted a cup. He and his sister then invited me to
ride with them. I told them of my engagement with Neelie, and, of
course, they excused me. Oh, that I had accepted their invitation; just
such a little thing as that might have prevented this dreadful accident.
Such great events turn on such little hinges sometimes. About three
o’clock in the afternoon, as we were plodding along after the fashion of
emigrant teams, we young people in the last wagon, having a jolly
sociable time, with song and laughter, fun and merriment, the front
wagons stopped. Ezra, who was driving, turned out of the road and
passed some of the wagons to see what the trouble was. Mr. Kerfoot
came running toward us, calling to Neelie, “Get the camphor, daughter,
Mr. Milburn has shot himself somehow, and has fainted.”
 Ezra got out to go with him and Neelie asked, “Shall we come, too,
papa?”
“No, my daughter, you girls would better stay here, your ma and
Mrs. Raymond are with Gus, and they will know what to do.”
Before he had finished what he was saying they were running to the
place of the accident. We could only wait, hoping and praying, oh, so
earnestly, that it might not prove so serious as Mr. Kerfoot’s manner
and tone caused us to fear. Afterward, Winthrop came to us; he was
pale, with compressed lips, and sad eyes; he came up close, leaned
upon the wagon wheel, and said in a low tone, “He is dead.” Oh, how
dreadful. We all left the wagon and went to the front as fast as we
could.
I have gathered from witnesses the following account of how it
happened. There was a flock of prairie chickens ahead of the wagons
to the left of the road. Mr. Milburn and several of the boys took their
guns and were going to try to thin their number. The wagons had not
halted, but were moving slowly on, the hunters had gone on a little in
advance of the wagons, they tried to fire all together, one of the boys
snapped two caps on his gun, it failed to go off, so he threw the gun
into the front wagon, and took his whip, in disgust. The wagon had
moved on to where Mr. Milburn was standing with his gun raised; there
was a shot, Mr. Milburn dropped to his knees, turned and looked at his
sister, saying, “Gus, I am shot.” And fell forward on his face. She was in
the next wagon.

BEREAVEMENT.
Gus screamed, jumped from the wagon, ran to her brother, and
raised his head in her arms. All who were near enough to hear her
scream ran to them and she said, “John has hurt himself with his gun
and has fainted, bring restoratives quick.”
In a few seconds, there were half a dozen bottles, with brandy,
camphor, ammonia there, and every effort was made to restore him,
but all in vain. He died instantly and without a struggle.
 When Mr. Kerfoot knew he was dead, he looked for the wound and
found a bullet-hole between his shoulders. Just then one of the boys
picked up his gun where he had dropped it and exclaimed, “It was not
this gun that did the mischief, for it is cold, and the load is in it.”
On looking around to find where the deadly shot had come from,
some one took hold of the gun in the front wagon. “Why, this gun is
warm. It must have been this gun went off.”
“Oh, no; it could not have been that gun, for there was no cap on
it,” said the boy who had thrown the gun there.
Circumstances proved that it was the gun without a cap that did the
fatal shooting. I would have supposed, as the boy did, that it was
perfectly harmless without a cap. I have heard it said, “It is the
unloaded gun, or the one that is supposed to be unloaded, that
generally does the mischief.” No doubt the hammer was thrown back
when he threw it in the wagon. On investigating we found a rut in the
wheel-track just where he fell. It is possible that when the front wheel
dropped into the rut with a jolt the hammer fell, igniting the powder,
either by the combustible matter that stuck, or by the flash occasioned
by the metal striking together. Mr. Milburn was not opposite the wagon
when he raised his gun to shoot, but the wagons were moving slowly
and the front one came up with him as he was taking aim, and that
was why Gus thought it was his own gun. She saw the smoke rise, he
stumbled and fell to his knees, she called to him. “Why, John, what
made you fall?”
He looked around at her and said, “Oh, Gus, I am shot.” The last
words he spoke.
How hard to be reconciled to such a dispensation when such a little
thing could have prevented it, only one step in either direction, or the
gun pointed the other way. Why, oh, why, has this awful thing
happened?
The poor boy seems to be as heart-stricken as Gus. In her unselfish
grief she has been trying to comfort him.
I have read of a minister of the Gospel “who dreamed that he died;
after entering the gates of Heaven he was led into a large empty room,
on the walls of which his whole life was spread out as a panorama. He
saw all the events of his life, and many that had been hard to
understand in his lifetime were here made clear, and through it all the
guiding, protecting hand of God had been over him.” Perhaps Mr.
Milburn is saved from a worse fate.
We were about three miles from Frankfort when the accident
happened. We came on here as soon as possible—a sorrowing, and oh,
so sorrowful, procession now. It does not seem that we can ever be the
merry party that we have been. Winthrop had been riding Dick; he
stood there, ready, saddled and bridled when Mr. Milburn fell; Frank
mounted my pony and rode as fast as he could go to Frankfort to get a
doctor. Mr. Milburn was dead before he was out of sight. We met them
as we came. A room has been rented and Mr. Milburn prepared for his
last long sleep. The people of Frankfort are very kind, and sympathetic.

A FUNERAL.
Tuesday, May 16.
The boys sat up with the corpse last night. I stayed with Gus. We
had only just shut ourselves in when a terrific storm came upon us; the
wind blew, and the rain fell in torrents. Before eleven o’clock it had
passed; soon after Gus slept heavily. It seemed hours before I slept.
Very early this morning Gus awakened me praying. How surely do the
sorrows of this life drive us to the mercy-seat for comfort, refuge and
strength.

“Had earth no thorns among its flowers,

And life no fount of tears,
We might forget our better home
Beyond this vale of tears.”

What a precious, what a comforting, satisfying faith the Presbyterian

faith must be, if one can really and conscientiously accept it. According
to their belief one never dies, nothing ever happens without God’s
providence, approval, and foreknowledge that it will happen in just that
way.
I wish I could accept such a faith, and believe it, but I cannot. I do
not believe it was ordained that Mr. Milburn should die in that way and
at that time. I believe it was an accident that might have been
prevented by the most trivial circumstance. The laws of nature are
inexorable. If a bullet is shot into a vital part of the body it kills. Yet
God is able to bring good out of this seemingly great and grievous evil.
I do not know which suffers most—the poor boy whose gun did the
deed or Gus. They seem to take comfort in each other’s society, and
are together the most of the time to-day. I am so sorry for both of
them.
The funeral services of the Presbyterian Church were held at two
o’clock this afternoon, a resident minister officiating. Mr. Milburn was
very nicely laid away, and his grave marked and enclosed with a neat,
strong fence before Gus and I left the cemetery. The people have been
so very kind. The funeral was largely attended for a stranger in a
strange place. There is no telegraph office here, so we have had to
write letters instead of sending telegrams.
I believe Gus’s plans are to go on with us to the Missouri River, sell
her outfit, and return home by steamboat down the Missouri River, up
the Mississippi to Canton, where friends will meet her and go with her
to Etna.

* * * * *

Wednesday, May 17.

Another night with Gus. She wakes in the morning to weep. We
started once more on our now sad journey. I have ridden with Gus all
day. We do not hear the sound of song and laughter as we did last
week; we all seem to be under a pall. We came through Redoak this
morning, are camping in a beautiful place, near a pleasant, homelike
farmhouse. The weather is perfect.

* * * * *
 Thursday, May 18.
The friends that stayed with us Sunday night told us that the
authorities are not allowing emigrants to take the northern route,
because of the Indian depredations that have been committed on that
route. That if we went to Council Bluffs we would have to come down
the river to Platsmouth to get on the southern route. So we changed
our course accordingly.
We came through Whitecloud, Glenwood and Pacific City to-day. At
Whitecloud I made a few purchases, traded with a little German
merchant who crossed the plains a year ago; he says we have a
delightful trip before us. He expects to go again to the Rocky
Mountains, and make his home there, as soon as he can sell out and
settle up his business here.
Just before we came to Glenwood, as the girls passed on their
ponies, Gus said to me, “Sallie, go ride your pony, too; you have not
had a ride for several days. Pardon me if I have been selfish in my
great sorrow.”
“No, Gus, I would rather stay with you than to ride Dick, as long as
you need me.”
“Thank you, dear; your company has been very grateful to me, but
now I would really enjoy seeing you ride through Glenwood.”
To please her, and myself, too, I soon had saddled and mounted
Dick and overtaken the girls. As we were riding through Glenwood a
photographer sent a messenger to request us to “Please stop five
minutes and let him take our picture.” We rode to the position
indicated, doffed our sun-bonnets, and looked as pleasant as we could.
We did not wait to see the proof, and I expect he was disappointed.
Pacific City is on the Missouri bottom, or lowlands. Above the town
are the highest bluffs I have ever seen. We hitched our ponies and
climbed to the top. The view was magnificently grand, the sun sinking
in the west, the river could be seen in the distance, with large trees on
the banks, the lowland between the bluffs and the trees was dotted
with cattle and horses grazing, here and there a pond or small lake
with its waters shining and sparkling in the glimmering sunset, the city
below us in the shadow of the bluffs. Everything was so sweet and
peaceful, we were more than paid for our climb. The wagons had
passed before we came down, so we mounted and hastened to
overtake them before driving into camp.

ON THE BANKS OF THE BIG MUDDY.

Our journey across Iowa at an end, we are on the banks of the Big
Muddy, opposite Platsmouth. We will stay here until Gus’s things are
sold, and we have seen her off on the steamboat. I stay with her
nights, and this afternoon is the first time I have left her since the
15th.

* * * * *

Friday, May 19.

I went over to Platsmouth on the ferryboat this morning with some
friends that are camping near us, to do some shopping for Gus. I
bought a black bonnet, crèpe veil and collar, and material for black suit,
which we will make up in camp, as there is a dress-maker with us. I
was away about five hours and came back tired and hungry. The
weather is perfect. We have a very pleasant place to camp, and
pleasant people camping near us. We are surrounded on all sides by
emigrants’ camps, and still they come. It seems like a young town, only
the houses are built of canvas instead of lumber, brick or stone. The
boys have put up a swing, but I have no time for swinging to-day.

* * * * *

Saturday, May 20.

We have had a very, very busy day. Mr. Kerfoot has sold Gus’s
wagon and team (three yoke of oxen) for $550, a good price every one
says. More than they cost them, I believe. The freight will be sold at
auction. We have all helped with Gus’s suit and it is almost finished.
Hillhouse went up to Council Bluffs this morning, expecting to bring
Brother Mac back with him. Instead of finding him he got a letter—also
the one I wrote a week ago—saying he was not coming. He has
decided to study medicine and will come west when he is an M.D. We
are disappointed, of course, yet perhaps it is for the best—we must try
and believe so anyway. Most perfect weather.
The Morrison and Harding outfit have come, also several other
families from Lewis and Clark counties. The Kerfoots are acquainted
with some of them. They had heard of the sad accident. Some of them
were friends of Mr. Milburn.

OUR LAST DAY WITH MISS MILBURN.

Sunday, May 21.
Mr. Thatcher and his wife came to call upon Gus this afternoon, and
invited her to their home in Platsmouth to stay until she takes the
steamboat for home. Mr. Thatcher and Mr. Milburn have been friends
for years. She accepted their invitation and will go there to-morrow.
As the people from different camps were sitting around an immense
camp-fire, not far from our wagons, someone proposed music. Some of
the men in Mr. Clark’s camp are fine musicians, they brought their violin
and flute, and gave several instrumental pieces, then some familiar
songs were sung and someone started “Just Before the Battle, Mother.”
They had sung two verses when I heard a shriek from Gus’s wagon. I
hastened to see what was the matter. “Oh, Sallie, tell them to please
not sing that, I cannot bear it. Dear Brother John used to sing it so
much. It breaks my heart to hear it now.”
I sent Winthrop, who had followed me, to ask them to stop singing.
Poor Gus, she was more overcome than I have seen her since her
bereavement.

* * * * *
 Monday, May 22.
Mr. Kerfoot, Cash, Neelie, Ezra and I came with Gus to Platsmouth.
She said good-bye to mother, Mrs. Kerfoot and the others this morning.
All were sorry to part with her. She has become very dear to us all.
Gus’s freight was brought over in the wagon and sold at public auction
and brought good figures, thanks to Mr. Thatcher, who, when he saw
anything going below its real value, bid it in himself. He has a grocery
store. He and Mr. Kerfoot have attended to all business transactions for
Gus, so that she has not been bothered at all, and have done better for
her than they could have done for themselves.
We have had a quiet, pleasant day with Gus at Mrs. Thatcher’s
home. She is very kind, and has invited us girls to stay with Gus until
she takes the boat for home, and Gus begged us to stay with her as
long as possible; so Cash and I are staying all night, and will see her on
board the boat to-morrow morning. Neelie has returned to camp with
her father and Ezra.
Ernest is a great care and worries his auntie. He will not stay in the
house, and she cannot bear to have him out of her sight for fear
something will happen to him; she has just now undressed him, heard
his little prayer, and put him to bed in the next room. So I hope we can
have uninterrupted quiet for awhile.

* * * * *

Tuesday, May 23.

Mr. and Mrs. Thatcher, Cash and I came with Gus and Ernest to the
steamboat. We parted with them about nine o’clock on board the
“Sioux City.” Dear friend, I have become greatly attached to her, in the
three weeks we have been so intimately associated. May God grant her
a quick and safe journey home. We cannot hope it will be a happy one.
Note.—Miss Milburn and her lover were married about six
months after her return, and have lived happily, etc.
Cash and I came directly to camp, after saying good-bye to Gus;
found every one busy getting ready for an early start to-morrow. We
have been here almost a week, yet I have not had time to try the fine
swing the boys put up the next day after we came here until this
afternoon. The camps that were here over Sunday are all gone except
those that will travel with us. It is probable there will be half a dozen
more camps here before night. It is surprising to see what a great
number of people are going west this Spring.
We hope to start very early to-morrow morning. I trust our party will
not be so much like a funeral procession as it has been since the 15th.
Vain regrets cannot remedy the past, and I believe it is our duty to be
as cheerful and happy as possible in this life.

WE HAVE OUR PICTURES TAKEN.

Wednesday, May 24.
We were up with the earliest dawn, and our own individual outfit
ready for a very early start, yet it was the middle of the forenoon
before all the wagons were landed on the west bank of the Missouri. It
takes a long while to ferry fifteen wagons across the river. We girls rode
our ponies onto the ferryboat. They behaved as if they had been used
to ferryboats all their lives. As we were waiting near the landing a
A
stranger came, apologized for speaking to us, and asked, “Are you
going to Montana?”

A
This man is mentioned here because of what
happened to him before he reached his journey’s
end.

“No, sir, our destination is California, or Oregon; we are not fully

decided which.”
“Oh, you ought to go to Montana; that is the place to get rich.”
He told of his marvelous success in that country since 1863; the
Indians were mentioned. He spoke of them with such contempt; said
he would rather kill an Indian than a good dog. Says he left a wife and
six children in Iowa, the oldest boy about fourteen who wanted very
much to go with his father, but his mother needed him. Last night he
came into his father’s camp. He had run away from home; says he is
going to Montana, too. His father told it as if he thought it smart, and a
good joke. What sorrow and anxiety his poor mother is no doubt
suffering.
Cash, Neelie, Sim Buford, Ezra, Frank, Winthrop and I while waiting
in Platsmouth went to a photographer’s and had our pictures taken;
tintype, of course, all in one group, then each one alone, then Sim and
Neelie together and Cash and I on our ponies. We only came five miles
after our rush to get an early start. There are nine families and fifteen
wagons in our train now. Miss Mary Gatewood has a pony for her
especial use, so there will be four of us to ride horseback. There are
enough wagons now to make quite a respectable corral. I did suppose,
as we had been resting so long, we would make a long drive. Feed for
the stock is very good here, and as it is fifteen miles to the next good
camping place, where there is plenty of water and feed, it has been
decided that we stay here until to-morrow. The boys have put up the
inevitable swing, and we have concluded “that what cannot be cured
must be endured.” So we will make the best of it, but certainly at this
rate we will not reach our destination before it is cold weather.

* * * * *

Thursday, May 25.

Oh, dear; here we are yet, only five miles from Platsmouth. Morrison
and Harding have lost two fine cows, half a dozen men have been
hunting them all day, but without success. There is not a doubt but
that they have been stolen. Our stock will have to be herded, hereafter,
to guard against thieves. We have spent the day reading, writing,
sleeping, swinging, and getting acquainted with our neighbors. The
Morrison family wagon is just in front of us, and the Kerfoot’s just
behind, so we are to have the most pleasant neighbors possible to
camp next to us. Mrs. Morrison is almost as pretty as Cash, although
the mother of four children; she is so bright and cheerful, so full of life
and fun, she will be great on a trip like this. Mr. Morrison has an
impediment in his speech, and when he is excited—like he is this
evening, because they cannot find their cows—he stutters dreadfully,
and will say, “Or sir, or sir, or sir,” until it is hard to keep from laughing.
In ordinary conversation and when not excited, he talks as straight as
any one. He seems so fond and proud of his wife and children I like
him. Neelie and Sim, and Frank and I took a stroll this afternoon in
search of wild flowers. They are few and far between, yet we enjoyed
the walk through the woods in this lovely springtime weather.

A YANKEE HOMESTEAD.
Friday, May 26.
We came fifteen miles, are camping on a high rolling prairie, not a
tree or shrub within sight; we are near a neat white farmhouse.
Everything seems to be very new, but does not have that “lick and a
promise” appearance that so many farmhouses in Nebraska have.
Things seem to be shipshape, the house completed and nicely painted,
a new picket-fence, and everything on the place—barns, hen-house,
etc., all seem well built, as if the owners are expecting to make a
permanent home. I would prefer a home not quite so isolated and far
away from anywhere. There do not seem to be any women about the
place, perhaps they are coming when everything is ready for their
comfort.

* * * * *

Saturday, May 27.

We came to Ashland, on Salt River, only a fifteen-mile drive, got
here soon after noon and will stay over Sunday. Several of us young
folks went fishing this afternoon. I have often gone fishing but do not
remember ever catching anything of any consequence, or having any
luck, as the boys say, so imagine my excitement and surprise when the
fish began to bite, and I drew them out almost as fast as I could get
my hook baited. Frank baited my hook and strung the fish on a forked
willow switch. After I had caught six or eight they seem so dry and
miserable I thought they would feel better in the water, so stuck the
willow in the bank, so that the fish were in shallow water. I caught
another fish and went to put it with the others, when lo, they were all
gone. I could have cried, and the rest all laughed—well, I shall try
again.
After securing the one I had—and leaving it on dry ground, I threw
in my hook, and almost immediately I had caught something so large
and heavy I could not draw it out and had to call for assistance. I was
fearful it was a mud-turtle or something else than a fish, but it proved
to be a fine, large fish, larger than all the small fish I had lost put
together. When Frank had taken it from the hook, and strung it with
the little one, I said, “Now I am going, before this fish gets away.” All
had fairly good catches, but none that compared with my big fish.
There are about twenty corrals within sight, each of from twelve to
twenty wagons. Ashland is a miserable looking place, the houses log-
cabins with dirt roofs. One store, where dry-goods, groceries, and
whiskey are sold, and a blacksmith shop are all the business houses. I
do not see anything that would pass muster as a hotel.

* * * * *

Sunday, May 28.

All the trains that camped near us last night, except one, have gone
on their way, Sunday though it is. I am glad there are some people
going West who regard the Sabbath day. Some of our young people
went fishing, and some went rowing on the river in a canoe or small
boat the boys hired. It has been a day of sweet rest, a quiet peaceful
Sabbath.

* * * * *

Monday, May 29.

Traveled all day, and made a long drive without meeting anyone or
passing a single habitation. We are camping near—what the people
west of the Missouri River call—a ranch. There is a long, low log-cabin,
with dirt roof, a corral, or inclosure for stock, with very high fence, and
two or three wells of water in the vicinity, and that is all. No vegetable
garden, no fields of grain, nor anything to make it look like farming. I
think it is a stage-station, and the people who occupy do not expect to
stay very long.
There are three other camps near, the people of the other trains are
having an emigrant ball, or dance, in a room they have hired. They
sent a committee with a polite invitation to our camp for us to join
them, which was as politely declined. They are strangers, and the
conduct of some of the women is not ladylike, to say the least.

WE MEET A FRIEND.
Tuesday, May 30.
We girls were riding in advance of the wagons when we saw a long
freight train coming. We stopped to let our ponies graze until they
would pass. I glanced at the driver on the second wagon and
recognized an acquaintance. “Why, girls, that is Kid Short,” I exclaimed.
He looked at me so funny, and began to scramble down from his
high perch.
“Why, Miss Sallie, I could not believe my eyes at first. Where did you
drop from?” shaking hands with each of us.
“Didn’t drop from anywhere; have been thirty days getting here by
the slow pace of an ox-train. Sim Buford and some more boys that you
know are with the train you see coming.”
He soon said good-bye to us, spoke to a man on horseback, who
dismounted, gave him his horse and climbed to the seat Mr. Short had
vacated in the front of the freight wagon, drawn by eight mules, while
Kid hurried off to see the boys. He and Sim have been neighbors,
schoolmates, and intimate friends all their lives. Sim says Kid is
homesick and expects to go home as soon as he can after reaching
Omaha. He has been freighting from Omaha to Kearney, and has been
away from home since last Fall. We are camping near another station,
with the same trains we camped near last night not far off.

* * * * *

Wednesday, May 31.

We are camping in the valley of the Platte. We are obliged to stop at
the stage-stations to get water for ourselves and the stock from the
wells. The water is very good, clear and cold. The same trains that
have been camping near us since we left Ashland are here again to-
night. Two of the women called upon us awhile ago. We were not
favorably impressed. They are loud, boisterous and unladylike; they
speak to strange gentlemen with all the familiarity of old
acquaintances. According to Thackeray, they are “Becky Sharp” kind of
women.

* * * * *

Thursday, June 1.
Our little village on wheels has stopped near a large two-story log-
house that was built in the early fifties for a wayside tavern; there are
fifteen rooms; there are frightful stories told of dark deeds having been
committed under that roof, of unwary travelers homeward bound from
California that never reached home, but whether true or not I cannot
say. The people of the other trains are having a dance in the large
dining-room of the old house.

* * * * *

Friday, June 2.
As Ezra and I were riding in front of the train we came to where a
man was sitting on the ground hugging his knees, two men were
standing near trying to talk to him, seemingly. As we rode up one of
them came toward us, saying, “That is an Indian, over there.” We rode
close to him, and Ezra said, “How;” but he did not even grunt. He was
very disappointing as the “Noble Red Man” we read about. He wore an
old ragged federal suit, cap and all. There were no feathers, beads nor
blankets. He was not black like a negro, more of a brown, and a
different shade from the mulatto. He was ugly as sin.

ON THE BANKS OF THE PLATTE.

Saturday, June 3.
Here we are on the Platte with about two hundred wagons in sight.
We are now on what is known as “The Plains.” My idea of the plains
has been very erroneous, for I thought they were one continuous level
or plain as far as the eye could reach, no hills nor hollows, but it is
nothing else than the Platte River Valley with high bluffs on either side.
There is some timber on the banks, but the timber of any consequence
is on the islands in the middle of the river, out of reach of the axe of
the emigrant. This is the junction of the roads from St. Joe and
Plattsmouth, and that is why there are so many wagons here to-night.
Surely, among all these people there must be a minister of the Gospel,
so perhaps we will have public worship to-morrow. Our trip grows more
interesting, even Mrs. Kerfoot seems interested, as so many people are
going West, it must be the thing to do.

* * * * *

Sunday, June 4.
We are organized into a company of forty-five wagons, a captain and
orderly sergeant have been elected, and hereafter we will travel by
system. Mr. Hardinbrooke is our captain. He has gone on this trip
before; he is taking his wife and little girl with him to Montana. A Mr.
Davis is our orderly sergeant.
We are now coming into a country infested with Indians, so it is
required by Government officials that all emigrants must organize into
companies of from forty to sixty wagons, elect captains and try to camp
near each other for mutual protection. The grass for stock is unlimited.
About twenty of the wagons in our train are freight wagons, belonging
to the Walker Brothers, Joe and Milt. Joe has his wife with him. Milt is a
bachelor; their sister, Miss Lyde, and a younger brother, De, are with
them. They are going to Montana. We have been introduced to Mr. and
Mrs. Hardinbrooke, and to the Walkers and their ladies. They are
pleasant, intelligent people, and will add much to the pleasure of our
party, no doubt. Frank and I went horseback riding this afternoon to
the station to get some good water from the well. I cannot drink the
river water.
No public worship to-day, although there were so many of us here.

* * * * *

Monday, June 5.
We were awakened at an early hour this morning with a bugle call.
Three companies were organized yesterday; there were about twenty
wagons that were not asked to join either party, so they pulled up
stakes and left while Frank and I were away. The strange women were
of the party; they must be some miles ahead by this time, and I hope
they will stay ahead. When our long train of wagons are stretched out
upon the road, we make a formidable looking outfit for the Indians to
attack. As far as the eye can reach, before us and behind us, there are
wagons, wagons, wagons; some drawn by oxen, some by mules, and
some by horses. All fall into the slow, sure gait of the oxen. There are
whole freight trains drawn by oxen; there are more ox teams than all
others.
After our evening meal, a number of us started for a stroll along the
bank of the river. Before we reached the river, we were met by a
perfect cloud of mosquitoes that literally drove us back. I never came
so near being eaten up. There is a strong breeze blowing toward the
river, which keeps them from invading the camps, for which I am
thankful, otherwise there would be little rest or sleep for us to-night.
They are the first mosquitoes we have seen on the road.

* * * * *
 Tuesday, June 6.
It is sweet to be awakened with music, if it is only a bugle. Our
bugle certainly makes sweet music. The road is becoming very dry and
dusty, which makes riding in the wagon rather disagreeable sometimes.
Mother and I take turns driving the horses and riding Dick. Rather the
most of the time I ride Dick. One of our boys goes out with the herders
at night, so one of them is generally sleepy, and sleeps during the day,
while the other drives the ox-team.

THE ORDER OF OUR GOING.

Wednesday, June 7.
There is such a sameness in our surroundings that we seem to be
stopping in the same place every night, with the same neighbors in
front and back of us, and across the corral. When we organized, Mr.
Kerfoot’s wagons were driven just in front of ours and Mr. Morrison’s
just behind ours, so we have the same next-door neighbors, only they
have changed places. We are in the central part of the left-hand side of
the corral. The wagons occupied by the Walkers and Hardinbrookes are
just opposite in the right-hand side of the corral.
We always stop in just this way, if only for an hour at noon—which
we do every day for lunch, and to water the stock.
When we halted to-day, the rain began to pour, the stock scattered
in every direction. When it stopped raining, the cattle could not all be
found in time to start again this afternoon, so we only made half a
day’s drive. It has commenced raining again, and promises a rainy
night. It is not very pleasant camping when it rains, yet it would be
much more unpleasant if it did not rain—to lay the dust, refresh the
atmosphere, and make the grass grow.
When the captain finds a place for the corral, he rides out where all
can see him, and gives the signal, the first and central wagons leave
the road; the first to drive to where the captain stands, the other and
all behind it cross over a sufficient distance to form the corral by the
wagons stopping, so as to form a gateway, for the stock to pass
through, turned so that they will not interfere with each other when
hitching. The next wagon drives to position, with the right-hand side of
cover almost touching the left-hand or back, outer edge of the wagon
in front, with tongues of wagons turned out, so that all can be hitched
to at one time. In this way the entire corral is formed, meeting at the
back an oblong circle, forming a wall or barrier, the cattle cannot break
through. The horses are caught and harnessed outside the corral, but
the cattle have to be driven inside to be yoked.

* * * * *

Thursday, June 8.
It rained all night, seemingly without cessation; the wind did not
blow, so there was no harm, but lots of good done. I am glad when the
rain comes in the night-time, instead of day-time. Where the beds
touched the covers they were quite wet this morning.

* * * * *

Friday, June 9.
We came through a little town—Valley City. There is a very pretty
attractive looking house near the road. Cash and I had come on ahead
of wagons. Our inclination to enter that pretty home was irresistible, so
we dismounted, took off our habits, hitched our ponies, and knocked at
the door. A very pleasant lady opened the door and gave us hearty
welcome. We told her frankly why we came. She laughed, and said, “I
have had callers before, with the same excuse, but you need not
apologize, I am glad my home is attractive to strangers.”
The gentleman of the house is postmaster, and has his office in the
room across the hall from the parlor. While we were there the coach
arrived, and the mail was brought in. He did not know we were there,
and called to his wife to “Come see this mail.” We went with her, and
oh, such a mess. They had emptied the mail-sack on some papers that
had been spread upon the floor, and such a lot of dilapidated letters
and papers I never saw before. I picked up a photograph of an elderly
lady, but we could not find the envelope from which it had escaped.
Perhaps some anxious son, away out in the mines, far from home
and friends and mother, will look in vain for mother’s pictured face, and
be so sadly disappointed. I am so sorry for the boy that will miss
getting his mother’s photograph. She looks like such a sweet, motherly
mother. A great many of the letters were past saving; if the owners had
been there they could not have deciphered either the address or the
written contents, for they were only a mass of pulp; the postmaster
said it was “Because they send such old leaky mail-bags on this route;
those post-office folk seem to think any old thing will do for the West,
when we ought to have the very best and strongest, because of the
long distances they must be carried.” All that could be, were carefully
handled and spread out to dry; still, they would reach their destination
in a very dilapidated condition.
We have made a long drive, are within four miles of Fort Kearney.
There are a great many wagons within sight besides our own long
train, whichever way we look we can see wagons. The road from
Kansas City comes into this road not far from Valley City, and there are
as many, or more, coming that way as the way we came. People
leaving war-stricken Missouri, no doubt. I have never seen a fort. I do
hope Kearney will come up to my expectations.

FORT KEARNEY.
Saturday, June 10.
I was disappointed in Fort Kearney, as I so often am in things I have
formed an idea about. There are very comfortable quarters for the
soldiers; they have set out trees, and made it quite a pretty place,
away out here in the wilderness, but there is no stockade, or place of
defense, with mounted cannon, as I had expected.
Sim and I rode horseback through the fort while the wagons kept
the road half a mile north of the fort. Only a few of us came by the way
of the fort. A soldier gave us a drink of water from a well by the
wayside. He seemed a perfect gentleman, but had such a sad
expression. We were told that these soldiers were in the Confederate
service, were taken prisoners, confined at Rock Island, and enlisted in
the Government service to come out here and fight Indians. They are
from Georgia and Alabama.
Two families have joined our train and come into corral on the
opposite side, just behind the Walkers: Mr. and Mrs. Kennedy—a newly-
married couple—and Mr. and Mrs. Bower, with a daughter fourteen and
a son five. We only came one and a half miles west of the fort near
Kearney City. I do not understand why we have made such a short
drive, for the boys say the feed is not good, it has been eaten off so
close.

* * * * *

Sunday, June 11.

We were obliged to leave camp and travel to-day, the first Sunday
we have hitched up since we started. It was a case of necessity, as
there was not feed for our large herds of cattle and horses. We made
only a short drive, just to get good feed for the stock.
We are camping near a station that must seem like a military post,
there are so many soldiers. Several soldiers came to our camp this
afternoon; they confirmed what we heard yesterday. They are
Confederate soldiers, they were prisoners, and their homes are in far-
away Georgia and Alabama, and they are desperately homesick. It is a
distressing sickness. I have been so homesick that I could not eat or
sleep, and a cure was not effected until I was at home again. Then
how nice it did seem to be home, and how good everything tasted. I
do hope this cruel, homicidal war will soon be over, and these fine-
looking Southern gentlemen will be permitted to go to their homes and
loved ones, who, no doubt, are waiting and longing for their return. My
heart aches for them.
 ELEVEN GRAVES.
Monday, June 12.
We stood by the graves of eleven men that were killed last August
by the Indians. There was a sort of bulletin-board about midway and at
the foot of the graves stating the circumstances of the frightful tragedy.
They were a party of fourteen, twelve men and two women, wives of
two of the men. They were camped on Plum Creek, a short distance
from where the graves are. They were all at breakfast except one man
who had gone to the creek for water, he hid in the brush, or there
would have been none to tell the tale of the massacre.
There had been no depredations committed on this road all Summer,
and emigrants had become careless and traveled in small parties. They
did not suspect that an Indian was near until they were surrounded,
and the slaughter had commenced. All the men were killed and
scalped, and the women taken prisoners. They took what they wanted
of the provisions, burned the wagons and ran off with the horses.
The one man that escaped went with all haste to the nearest station
for help. The soldiers pursued the Indians, had a fight with them and
rescued the women. One of them had seen her husband killed and
scalped and was insane when rescued, and died at the station. The
other woman was the wife of the man that escaped. They were from
St. Joe, Missouri.
Ezra met with quite an accident to-day; he went to sleep while
driving the family wagon—he was on guard last night—the horses
brought the wheel against a telegraph pole with a sudden jerk that
threw him out of his seat and down at the horses’ heels—a sudden
awakening—with a badly-bruised ankle.
We are in the worst place for Indians on all this road. The bluffs
come within half a mile on our left, and hundreds of savages could hide
in the hollows; the underbrush and willows are dense along the river
banks. There is an island, about a mile in length, that comes so near
this side in many places that a man could leap from bank to bank. The
island is a thick wood, a place where any number of the dreaded