PLANNING AND DESIGN OF PORTS AND MARINE TERMINALS

and thus do not add much to the height of their cargo. If they have to be
returned empty, they can easily be stacked and do not take up much
space. A very low trailer with a large number of small wheels made to
fit the frame is guided into the latter as it stands on the ground or on
deck. The trailer, and with it the frame, is raised hydraulically to provide
ground clearance for the frame. The hydraulic power has to be supplied by
the towing unit. The trailer has coupling devices designed for standard
terminal tractors and for special tractors built for integration with the
trailers.
Several prototype units were built and tested, e.g. in the ports of Singa-
pore and Gothenburg, but did not apparently catch on.

Ferry terminals
General considerations
While container and ro/ro terminals can be considered rapid transit facil-
ities exclusively for a specialised type of cargo, but serving many different
ships in more or less regular services, ferry terminals are reserved for a
smaller number of ships in regular service. On the other hand, the cargo
is much less uniform and usually includes:

(a) vehicles (cars, buses, trucks, trailers);

(b) trains; and
(c) walk on/walk off (wo/wo) passengers.

Due to the large difference in loading/unloading time and other require-

ments, trains and cars are not normally transported simultaneously on the
same ferries. Another significant aspect is that loading/unloading of the
vehicles themselves is not carried out within the terminals. Neither is
cargo storage provided for, except perhaps parking space for a relatively
low number of trailers. Pure passenger ferry services may be carried out
from any suitable ordinary quay and are not treated in the following.
Ferry terminals typically link fairly rapid road or railway traffic by a
‘floating bridge’ system with carrier speeds of around 15 to 20 knots.
However, in recent years a growing interest has been experienced in
high-speed ferries for transport of passengers, cars and trucks, but not
of rail cars. Such ferries are often catamarans and usually made from
aluminium in order to reduce the weight. Their cruising speed is in the
range from 32 to 40 knots. Such high speed generates special wake
waves, which may cause physical damage to ships and structures in the
vicinity, if proper remedial measures are not taken (see ‘High-speed
ferry terminals’, later in this chapter).
The introduction of high-speed ferries may change the transport concept
for a certain crossing completely. For a traditional ferry service, it may be
optimal to reduce the crossing time by locating the ferry terminals where

290
 BERTH AND TERMINAL DESIGN IN GENERAL

the crossing distance is at a minimum. For a high-speed ferry service it may

turn out to be preferable to operate the service directly between the origin
and destination of the bulk of the traffic, i.e. the nearest cities.
Great efforts should be made to speed up ferry operations by facilitating
approach, berthing, and loading/unloading as well as by introducing new
types of high-speed ferries, such as catamarans, hovercraft and hydrofoils.
As high-speed ferry terminals are dealt with later in this chapter, this
section will be devoted to the functional elements of traditional ferry
terminals
The design of the following functional elements in a ferry terminal is of
decisive importance:
(a) marshalling yards;
(b) passenger facilities; and
(c) ferry berth(s) with three main elements:
(i) fendering system;
(ii) ramp(s); and
(iii) scour protection.
The basis for the planning of these elements is clearly the traffic which is
expected. The total volume of traffic, its distribution over time and its
distribution over the different modes of land transport are important para-
meters. It should be pointed out that the forecasting of these parameters is
very difficult and its accuracy quite limited. Also, once a new terminal
starts to operate, it will influence the traffic pattern in ways that are diffi-
cult to predict. Fortunately, ferry routes are usually flexible systems which,
within a year or two, may be modified to cope with changes in the traffic
volume and pattern. New ferries may be chartered or built within 6 to 18
months, and the terminal structures may be modified over the same period
of time.

The traffic
Traffic forecasts are prepared for:
(a) vehicles arriving at the terminal for crossing, divided into:
(i) passenger cars;
(ii) trucks, including trailers; and
(iii) buses.
(b) vehicles delivering and picking up wo/wo passengers divided into:
(i) private cars;
(ii) taxis; and
(iii) buses.
The forecasts are results of a multidisciplinary study involving statistics,
economic growth analysis, origin–destination estimates, customs regula-
tions where applicable, interviews with potential users, etc.

291
PLANNING AND DESIGN OF PORTS AND MARINE TERMINALS

Forecasting of the passenger traffic involves evaluation of traffic

generation and diversion, and determination of annual growth factors.
The traffic generation and diversion may be assessed on the basis of a
passenger-traffic generation model, if sufficient data are available for its
calibration, using the existing road network and the present ferry service
system. The travel habits will probably change in accordance with the
improved connection roads and ferry services in ways which may only
be judged with limited accuracy. The basis for the forecasts of the future
cargo traffic is the expected cargo movements between the regions con-
nected by the ferry route in question. In this context, it is essential to
assess the competition with other modes of transport, such as conventional
shipping, air freight and road/bridge transport.
Having forecast the annual volumes of different transport categories,
the next step is to assess the distribution over time of the various
categories. In particular, the identification of peak traffic is required
for design of the functional elements of the ferry terminal. The required
maximum daily transport capacity varies from one ferry service to another
and may exceed the daily average by a factor of two or more.
It is often practical to express the forecast traffic categories as equivalent
passenger car units (pcus). One pcu may be considered to occupy 10 m2 of
deck, including space around each car. Trucks are equivalent to 4 to
7 pcus depending on their size and buses to about 4 pcus. This is used
for an estimate of the transfer capacity in terms of car deck area, as well
as for marshalling-yard requirements.
The turnaround time depends mainly upon the distance between the
terminals, the cruising speed and the loading/unloading time. Financial
analysis will establish whether a few large ferries or more smaller
ferries should be preferred, the desirable cruising speed and the
number of ferry berths. These options, however, will have different
impacts on the traffic, because more frequent departures are likely to
stimulate traffic.

Marshalling yards
In order to speed up operations, reduce bottlenecks and avoid acci-
dents, it is essential to prepare the layout of the land areas in such a
way that different traffic categories are kept separate. The departing
traffic should never interfere with the arriving traffic. The latter should,
after arrival at the terminal, be separated in:

(a) passenger cars;

(b) trucks and trailers;
(c) buses; and
(d) vehicles which discharge or pick-up wo/wo passengers.

292
 BERTH AND TERMINAL DESIGN IN GENERAL

Also lanes for waiting vehicles with and without reservation should be
separated. A reservations system will increase the required number of
lanes for waiting vehicles, but will reduce the required total length of the
lanes, because vehicles with reservations spend less time waiting.
The number and lengths of the lanes for the different traffic categories
are determined from the traffic forecasts and arrival distributions, com-
bined with the capacity of the ferries. A rough idea of the size of the
marshalling area may be obtained based on the assumption that waiting
time during peak traffic of more than two to three hours would not be
acceptable. With a departure frequency of about once per hour, this
would mean a marshalling area capacity corresponding to two or three
ferry loads.
Figure 8.10 shows the layout of a terminal, which has recently been
designed according to the above-sketched principles. The ferry is of the
catamaran type. However, the planning elements for a traditional ferry
are the same.

Passenger facilities
The required passenger facilities are mainly shelter for use while waiting
for departure. In addition, facilities for sale of refreshments and conveni-
ence shopping as well as toilets should be provided. The requirements
vary from one ferry service to another. The total area requirement
should not be less than about 1 m2 per passenger. This figure must be
used with caution, as it is heavily influenced by climatic conditions and
local standards. For safety reasons, special gangways for wo/wo passen-
gers should be provided.

Berth facilities
(a) Fendering system: in order to allow rapid berthing, a fendering
system with smooth front panels is required. The fendering system
shall be designed to absorb the impact energy from the berthing
ferries with reasonably low impact forces on both ship and quay.
During the last 10 to 12 years significant developments in the
design of fendering systems have taken place. Formerly a continu-
ous fendering system with smooth front panels was normally used.
The berths ranged from the closed type, with approximately equal
lengths of fendering on each side of the ferry, to the open type
with fendering along one side of the ferry only. Such arrangements
were necessary, because the manoeuvrability of the ferries was
limited. Recent developments in ferry design have included
introduction of the shuttle propeller, able to rotate 3608 around a
vertical shaft. With one shuttle propeller at either end of the ferry,
a traditional rudder becomes superfluous. The ferry is extremely

293
PLANNING AND DESIGN OF PORTS AND MARINE TERMINALS

Fig. 8.10 Ferry terminal layout

294
 BERTH AND TERMINAL DESIGN IN GENERAL

Fig. 8.11 Fender panel. Example from catamaran ferry berth

295
PLANNING AND DESIGN OF PORTS AND MARINE TERMINALS

manoeuvrable, and a continuous fendering system can be reduced

to a system of separate fendering elements. This concept has also
been enhanced by the development of very smooth front covers
for the fender panels, which reduce the friction coefficient signifi-
cantly. The material commonly used is of the UHMW-PE (Ultra-
High-Molecular Weight PolyEthylene) type. An example of such a
system for a traditional ferry is shown in Fig. 8.11.
Normally, the mass of a catamaran ferry is less than the mass of a
traditional ferry with similar dimensions. Hence, the impact energy
to be absorbed by the fenders would be less. However, it should be
borne in mind, that the car deck of a catamaran is situated at a
higher level than a traditional car ferry deck. Further, the added
hydrodynamic mass for a catamaran, which moves sideways, is
higher than that for a traditional single-hull ferry.
(b) Ferry ramps: movable ramps are installed ashore at the inner end of
the ferry berth. As a ferry is usually not equipped with ramp(s), the
outer end of the shore ramp is connected directly to the bow or stern
of the ferry. Ferries with two or more decks require the same number
of shore ramps to provide access to the different decks. The
approach road from the marshalling yard to the ramps must be
designed in such a way that it is possible to divert cars to any
deck. Ramps are designed to sustain the vehicle load and be able
to transfer the vehicles safely also when extreme water levels
occur. The length of the ramp may be determined based on high-
and low-water statistics, the maximum allowable steepness of the
ramp and the specifications of the vehicles to be transported. The
maximum allowable steepness is normally 1 on 10. The ramps
must be able to allow small roll movements of the ferry. For reason-
ably well protected ferry berths roll movements of more than
3
degrees will rarely occur. An ISO standard for fixed and adjustable
shore ramps in general is summarised in ‘Roll-on/roll-off terminals’
earlier in this chapter.
In some instances, small ferries with short crossing times of some
10 to 20 mins, are equipped with movable ramps, where fixed land-
ing slopes are available ashore. Due to the considerable ramp length
compared to the ferry dimensions, the ramps remain in a horizontal
position during the crossing and are thus vulnerable to damage.
Further the rationale of reducing the payload by transporting
two ramps (one at either end) on a ferry during each crossing is
debatable.
The shore ramp may be constructed with longitudinal I-beams
and a transverse system of secondary beams, supporting the deck.
The ramp is supported on land and on the ferry in a recess. The

296
 BERTH AND TERMINAL DESIGN IN GENERAL

design of ramps does not normally present particular problems,

except where extremely long ramps are required or other special
circumstances exist. The weight of the ramp may change the trim
of small ferries significantly. This may be reduced by suspending
the ramp partly by means of counterweights or by submerged
uplift tanks.
Figure 8.12 shows an example of a movable shore ramp for a
catamaran ferry. Due to the high levels of car decks on catamaran
ferries, the ramp will normally be longer than shore ramps for tradi-
tional ferries. In order to minimise its length the ramp is designed
with two horizontal hinges. The ramp is supported by and fixed to
the ground at its landward end. Two supplementary sets of supports
are provided by pairs of hydraulic cylinders, enabling the ramp to be
adjusted continuously during loading/unloading.

Scour protection
Proper scour protection against propeller erosion from traditional ferries
and from the water jets of catamaran ferries is an important component
of ferry terminals. Published theoretical research concerning this matter
is rare, so the design is based almost exclusively on experience and/or
hydraulic model tests. Scour protection may consist of:

(a) layers of armour stones on the seabed;

(b) a continuous layer of smaller stones encased in steel wire cages
(gabions); or
(c) a continuous concrete pavement.

For (a) it is essential to observe the filter criteria to avoid that seabed
material is extracted through the protective layers. When (c) is constructed
by placing concrete flagstones it is necessary to place filter layers under
the flagstones. The gabions must be inspected regularly, because the
cages deteriorate through corrosion. The gabion and concrete pavement
solutions require the least thickness to achieve the desired protection.
Fibre-reinforced concrete may be constructed directly on the sea
bottom, either to seal erosion holes or as new erosion protection.
The free edge of the scour protection is very exposed to erosion. This in
particular is the case for concrete pavements, which cannot by themselves
close minor erosion holes, while gabions and layers of armour stones are to
some extent self-repairing.

High-speed ferry terminals

General considerations
The main feature of high-speed ferries are the adverse effects caused by
their speed of 32 to 40 knots or even higher. The ferries are normally of

297
PLANNING AND DESIGN OF PORTS AND MARINE TERMINALS

Fig. 8.12 Movable shore ramp (catamaran ferry)

298
 BERTH AND TERMINAL DESIGN IN GENERAL

the catamaran type and the descriptions in this section is confined to this
type, since other ferry types, such as hovercraft, only require a simple
landing ramp on the beach. This section should be read in conjunction
with the previous section ‘Ferry terminals’, in which some highlights of
the characteristics of high-speed ferry terminals have already been
incorporated.

The traffic
In the earlier section also called ‘The traffic’, the forecasting principles
have already been dealt with. These principles are, of course, also valid
for high-speed ferries. It should, however, be borne in mind that transport
of heavy vehicles such as trucks and buses is extremely costly on high-
speed ferries. Normally the time reduction benefit for trucks on high-
speed ferries does not justify the higher costs and, consequently,
traditional ferries are generally competitive. The time and comfort
benefits associated with transport of buses on high-speed ferries may in
some few cases keep long range bus lines alive.

Marshalling yards
Since the cost and, consequently, the price of transporting a car or a
passenger by a high-speed ferry is higher than transport by a traditional
ferry it is essential that the customers experience all elements in the trans-
port process as being efficient and smooth. This means that waiting time
has to be reduced as much as possible, so that the customers may arrive
late at the terminal, typically some 15 mins before departure. In order to
assure that this is possible, an ample number of ticket boxes must be
provided with appropriate associated marshalling lanes. One conse-
quence of such a late-arrival pattern for the customers may, on the other
hand, reduce the requirements to the total marshalling area, since the
loading operation will be going on, while customers are still arriving at
the terminal.
Similarly the unloading of vehicles and passengers must keep the
same high pace. Hence, the unloading operations may cause regular
high influxes to the general traffic in the destination zone near the
terminal. In order to assure smooth and rapid traffic, special measures
are required. Such measures may include traffic-light systems with
priority to the ferry traffic through city centres. It will probably also be
necessary to provide accommodation lanes for leaving cars in the immedi-
ate vicinity of the ferry terminal in order to empty the ferry as quickly as
possible and, at the same time, ease the integration into the general city
traffic.
A terminal inaugurated in the spring of year 2002 is shown in Fig. 8.13.
The largest ferry using this terminal accommodates some 200 passenger

299
PLANNING AND DESIGN OF PORTS AND MARINE TERMINALS

Fig. 8.13 High-speed ferry terminal and conventional ro/ro ferry terminal (reproduced
with permission from Mols–Linien A/S)

cars and four buses. A total number of eight ticket boxes provide quick
access to nine lanes, in which some 400 pcus are accommodated. Cars
leaving the ferry may line up in three lanes corresponding to some
180 pcus before entering the city.

300
 BERTH AND TERMINAL DESIGN IN GENERAL

Passenger facilities
The passenger facilities requirements are very limited since the waiting
time is very short. However provisions for toilets and limited shelter
should be made. Normally, these facilities will not be used very much,
since passengers arrive at the ‘kiss-and-wave’ area near the ferry in the
last minutes and are picked up on arrival immediately.
It should, however, be emphasised that vehicles and passengers for
safety reasons should be separated in the terminal area to the greatest
extent possible. This may, among other measures, require installations
of gangway overpasses, elevators, etc.

Berth facilities
The main aspects are presented in ‘Ferry terminals’, earlier in this
chapter.
In order to assure quick operations it is essential that the fendering
system provide a smooth and distinct berth line with sufficient fendering
capacity. For quick operations, fender units with smooth UHMW-PE
front panels are considered indispensable. Another measure, saving
both time and operational costs, is installation of auto moorings
operated by the ship’s crew using a small radio transmitter (remote control
unit).
The ramp is operated in the same way. When designing the ramp, care-
ful consideration of the ship’s setting by the load of the ramps should be
made. Since catamarans are sensitive, especially to bow loads, it may be
necessary to implement counterweight systems at the ramp, which may
be accomplished hydraulically.
The catamaran ferry berths, shown in Fig. 8.13 and Fig. 8.12 allows
accommodation of two different catamaran ferry types, with different
widths and different fender line and car-deck levels. Therefore, a movable
and adjustable fendering system and a long movable land ramp have
been provided. The time required for wireless adjustment from one ferry
type to another is less than five minutes.

Scour protection
The water jets of the catamarans will create extensive erosion of the
seabed almost regardless of the seabed material (except rock). Therefore
proper scour protection is mandatory.
Due to the heavy propensity to erosion at the free edge of the scour pro-
tection, it must be extended to cover the erosion area adequately. If the
scour protection is constructed of concrete, gabions should be placed at
the edges in order to provide an adjustable transition to the original
seabed.

301