UNIT I: APLLIED GRAMMAR AND USAGE

(Transformation of Sentences: Simple, compound and complex. Subject verb agreement.

Prefix and Suffix. Advanced vocabulary. Antonyms and Synonyms. Homophones and
homonyms. New Word Formation . Select word power.)

What is a Sentence?
A sentence is a grammatically complete idea/ thought. All sentences have a noun or
pronoun component called the subject, and a verb part called the predicate.

What is a Clause?

Clauses are those parts of a sentence that have a subject and a predicate as a collection of
words, but it is not regarded as a complete sentence. There are 2 types of clauses.

 For example:

All the cars stop when they see a red flag.

 (Clause 1) "All the cars stop” (independent)

 (Clause 2) "when they see a red flag“ (dependent)

1. Independent Clause:

An independent clause is one that - aren’t dependent on other clauses. They are always
finite (they must contain a verb which shows tense). They also –

1. Comprises a subject as well as a predicate.

2. Can be used as an independent sentence or as a component of a multi-clause
sentence.
3. Employs conjunctions like - or, for, nor, so, and, but.
Ex- We went to Jaipur but did not visit my aunt.

2. Dependent Clause:

These clauses are dependent on another clause in the sentence.

1. It has a subject and a predicate and cannot exist on its own as an independent
sentence.
2. It always needs to be part of the main sentence.
3. Also, it relies on the main sentence for its complete meaning and interpretation.
4. Also, a Dependent clause can be of various kinds like the adjective clause, adverb
clause, and noun clause.

There are basically three types of Sentences –

1. Simple Sentences -
2. Complex Sentences
3. Compound Sentences

What are Simple Sentences?

 A simple sentence is a sentence containing only one clause, or more specifically, an

independent clause, with a subject and a predicate.
 A simple sentence can never be a dependent clause.
 A simple sentence is typically made up of a subject, verb, and object, or SVO, and
creates a complete thought; however, since a simple predicate is a verb or verb
phrase only, a simple sentence can also be made up of only a subject and verb (SV).
For Example:

Subject + Verb + Object (SVO)

 Rishi ate dinner.

Subject + Verb (SV)

 Rishi ate.

1. Modifiers, compound subjects, and compound verbs/predicates can be used in

simple sentences.

Ex –
a. The hungry Jimmy quickly ate a very large dinner after a long day at
work.
 b. Jessie, Jade, and Titus ate dinner.
c. Jessie cooked dinner and rinsed the dishes.

What are Compound Sentences?

A compound sentence has two or more separate clauses connected by a semicolon and
coordinating conjunction. A compound sentence comprises two or more basic phrases
joined together. There are no dependent clauses in a compound sentence.

Ex –

a. I like tea, and Madhu likes coffee.

b. Every day I eat my breakfast, and I listen to Radio.

What are Complex Sentences?

A complex sentence is a sentence that contains an independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence, but a dependent
clause even though it has a subject and a verb cannot stand alone.

Ex –

a. You cannot leave the school until the bell rings.

b. After Troy ate a giant cookie, he got a stomach ache.

Transformation of Sentences: Simple, compound and complex

Transformation of sentences is the process by which a sentence in a particular form is
transferred to another without altering its meaning. There might come various instances in
which you would have to structure your sentences differently to make your writing look
better, to sound positive or just because you are asked to.

For example:
 Please shut the gate.
 Could you please shut the gate?
 Would you mind shutting the gate?

Transformation of sentence can be done from any one form of sentence to another, but
here, we will study only transformation among simple, compound and complex types of
sentences.
Into Simple Sentence –

1) Change the idea of the sentence into simpler form.

2) Use coordinating conjunction, but the clause should remain one.
3) Use comma for framing and to remove coordinating conjunctions.

For example:

Complex-He said that he was innocent.

Simple - He declared his innocence.

Complex - Men who have risen by their own exertions are always respected.
Simple - Self-made men are always respected.

Compound - He got up and he walked away.

Simple – Getting up, he walked away.

Into Compound Sentences

1.) Using coordinating conjunction – FANBOYS – For, And, Not, But, Or, Yet, So.

For Example -
Simple: Being ill, he could not attend the meeting.
Compound: He was ill and he could not attend the meeting.
Complex - He went to work as soon as he finished his meal.
Compound - He finished his meal and he went to work.

2.) Using semicolon – (;)

For Example –
 She hardly studied; she failed her exams.
 The entire city was flooded; people used boats.
 We always shop at the mall; it’s got everything in one place.

3.) Using Conjunctive Adverbs:

We can also link independent clauses using words and phrases like moreover,
nevertheless, at the very least (conjunctive adverbs). The conjunctive adverb must
be preceded by a semicolon (;) and followed by a comma (,).
 For Example-

 Dessert is not costly; moreover, it’s very delicious.

 What she did was incredible; in fact, I can barely accept it.
 She turned herself in to the police; otherwise, they would have arrested her.

Into Complex Sentences

Break the sentences into dependent and independent clause. The complex sentences
must have subordinate clause. As long as you’re using the right subordinate conjunction,
you only have to worry about commas in complex sentences.
1.) If the dependent clause comes first, place a comma right before the independent clause.
2.) If the independent clause comes first, no comma is needed.
For example –
 When Thanos attacked the Earth, where were the Eternals?
 Where were the Eternals when Thanos attacked the Earth?

Into Compound – Complex Sentences

Combine Complex and compound sentences. Compound-complex sentences are typically

the longest of all sentences. Compound-complex sentences allow you to add a layer of
complexity to your writing. They improve the flow and keep your readers engaged. They’re
also useful if you’re explaining complicated ideas.

For Example --

“Though Samantha prefers peanut butter and jelly sandwiches, she ordered a
pastrami on rye, and she thought it was delicious.”

First, we have our dependent clause: “Though Samantha prefers peanut

butter and jelly sandwiches.” Then, there are two independent clauses: “she ordered a
pastrami on rye,” and “she thought it was delicious.” In this sentence, the coordinating
conjunction "and" joins the two independent clauses.

(NOTE: For case specific transformation rules, check the end of the pdf.)
 HOMOPHONES and HOMONYMS

What are Homophones?

Homophones are two or more words that share the same pronunciation, but which have
different spellings or meanings. For example, the words ‘hear’ and ‘here’ are
homophones because they mean completely different things, even though they sound
similar.

In the English language, there are lots of words with two homophones and almost
90 words that have three homophones. Some words have more - one word has seven! That
would be rays, raise, rase, raze, rehs, reis and res.

Few Common Examples –

1. There vs Their vs They're
2. To vs Too vs Two
3. Bough vs Bow
4. Lead vs Led
5. Sell vs Cell
6. Hear vs Here
7. Sea vs See
8. Bear vs Bare
9. Flower vs Flour
10. Ate vs Eight

Different types of homophone --

There are two different types of homophones which are as follows:

What is a pseudo-homophone?
A pseudo-homophone is a homophone that is phonetically identical. However, in almost all
cases pseudo-homophones aren’t actually real words. For example, the word ‘blue’ and the
non-word ‘bloo’ could be considered pseudo-homophones.

Likewise, the word ‘groan’ and its obsolete spelling ‘grone’ are pseudo-homophones.

What is a near homophone?

A near homophone is a word which is pronounced almost the same as another word, but
has a different meaning and a slightly different spelling; unlike, full homophones, which as
we know share the same pronunciation, near homophones may have one sound or letter
which causes them to be sounded out differently.

For example:

 Except and Accept

  Proceed and Precede
 Worn and Warn

What are Homonyms?

Homonyms are two or more words with the same spelling or pronunciation, but
with different meanings.

The word 'homonym' comes from the Greek word 'homonymos' which means 'having the
same name'. The prefix 'homo' means the same, and the suffix 'nym' means name.
Therefore, homonyms are two words that look and/or sound exactly alike.

Few Common Examples --

1. Bats – Sports Bat and animal.

2. Current -- A flow of water / Up to date / Electricity current.
3. Kind -- A type of something / Caring.
4. Ring -- To call someone on the phone / A band on a finger.
5. Right -- Correct / Opposite of left.
6. Bright -- Smart or intelligent / Filled with light.
7. Well -- It went positively / A structure made to access water underground.

Difference between Homophones and Homonyms:

 In homophones, the spelling is different, whereas in Homonyms the spelling is

exactly the same.
 In homophones, the meaning of the words is clear in itself, whereas in homonyms,
the meaning of the words is dependent on their utility in the sentence. For example
– In homophones – their and there, here, their means ‘of or belonging to them, and
there means ‘place’. The meaning is clear in itself. In the case of homonyms, let’s
take bat as an example. We can only deduce the clear meaning of the bat by its use
in the sentence; whether it means bat as an instrument of sports or, is it the animal.
E.g. ‘The cricketers are playing with bats’, or ‘There are bats in the dark cave’. Only
by reading the sentence you can imply what is meant by bat.
 Homophones are further sub-categorized in pseudo- homophones and near
homophones based on their pronunciation, but homonyms do not have any such
sub-category.
 Homophones are only verbally confusing, whereas, homonyms are confusing in both
oral as well as in written format, unless clarified.
 PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES
What are Prefixes?

Prefixes are a letter or group of letters added to the beginning to make a new word. The
meaning of the root/base word always changes. They generally create opposite words to
the base word.

For example, in the word "unimportant", "un-" is a prefix.

Common prefixes are – ‘im’, ‘dis’, ‘pre’, ‘ex’, ‘en’, ‘un’, ‘in’, etc.

They can also be defined as one- to three-syllable affixes added to the beginning of a base
word to change its meaning. For example, adding the prefix im- to the base
word possible creates a new word, impossible, which means “not possible.”

What are Suffixes?

A suffix is a letter or group of letters added at the end of a word which makes a new word.
The meaning of the root/base word sometimes changes They generally change word’s
conjugation, word type, or other grammar properties like plurality.

For example, adding suffix ‘ful’ to the word ‘forget’ makes it forgetful.

Common suffixes are – ‘s’, ‘ies’, ‘ed’, ‘ly’, ‘y’, ‘able’, ‘ness’, etc.

New Word Formation

New words are formed in the language through various methods. Many words
are derived from other languages, some are created through modifying the
existing words by various means like adding prefix, suffix, blending, cutting,
compounding, etc.

Common four ways to create new words –

1. Prefix
2. Suffix
3. Compound
4. Conversion

Prefix and Suffix as above.

1. Compound Words –

They are created by combining two words.

For ex-

 Over + load = Overload.

 White + board = Whiteboard.
 Short + hand = Shorthand.
 Out + look= Outlook.

2. Conversion Words –
They are created by changing the word from one form of speech to another. Like from
the verb or into adverb; by changing adjective into noun or by changing noun into verb,
etc.

 verb or into adverb – slow – slowly.

 adjective into noun – dark – darkness.
 noun into verb – bottle – bottled.
 adjective to verb: green - to green (to make environmentally friendly)
 preposition to noun: up, down - he ups and downs of life
 conjunction to noun: if, and, but - no ifs, ands, or buts

SUBJECT – VERB AGREEMENT

Subject-verb agreement is the grammatical rule that the subject and verb in a sentence
should use the same number, person, and gender.

If a subject is singular, use the singular form of the verb; if the subject is plural, use the
plural form of the verb. The only exception to this rule is the verb be, which uses different
forms based on both number and person.

Person Singular Plural

First person (I) am (we) are
Second person (you) are (you) are
Third person (he/she/it) is (they) are
 Past Present Future
Singular was Is/ has shall
Plural Were/had Are/ have will

Advance Subject Verb Agreement Rules --

1. When using the negative form in the present tense, only the verb do needs to match the
subject.

 She does not like reading before bed.

 She likes reading before bed.

2. Likewise, in questions that involve the word do, only do needs to match the subject.

 Do you know where the train station is?

 Does anyone know where the train station is?

3. If the subject consists of multiple nouns joined by the conjunction and, treat the subject
as plural and use the plural form of the verb.

 Lucas and Maxine are in love!

 Only Lucas is in love.

However, some common phrases that form a single unit can act as singular.

 This bed and breakfast is delightful!

4. If the subject consists of multiple singular nouns joined by or, treat the subject as
singular.

 Penne or rigatoni works fine for the recipe.

However, if the subject consists of multiple plural nouns joined by or, treat the subject as
plural.

 Cats or dogs make good friends.

5. If there’s a combination of singular and plural nouns joined by or, the verb follows the
number of the final one listed.

 The teacher or the students have to inform the principal.

 The students or the teacher has to inform the principal.
6. If there is more than one active verb, as with compound predicates, all the verbs must
agree with the subject.

 After work, I go shopping, pick up the kids, cook dinner, and then relax for the night.

7. Mass nouns, otherwise known as “uncountable nouns” or “non-count nouns,” act as

singular subjects.

 Love makes the world go around.

8. Collective nouns can be either singular or plural, depending on whether they act
together or separately.

 [Together, singular] The team goes to practice at 4:00.

 [Separately, plural] The team goes to their homes after practice.

9. Verbs used in alternative forms, such as gerunds, infinitives, or participles, do not need
to follow subject-verb agreement. However, the main verbs of the sentence still do.

 The coach makes running mandatory.

 The coaches make running mandatory.

10. Unless you’re using an appositive or other descriptive phrase, do not put a comma
between subjects and verbs.

 The holiday is becoming a total disaster.

 The holiday, which I was looking forward to, is becoming a total disaster.

11. The words each and every count as singular when they’re used as the subject, even if
they’re followed by multiple nouns.

 Each window and door needs to be sealed.

 Every doctor, nurse, and technician gets free training here.

12. Likewise, these words always act as singular subjects, even when they describe more
than one thing:

1. anybody
2. anyone
3. either
4. everybody
5. everyone
6. neither
7. no one
 8. nobody
9. somebody
10. someone

 Everybody loves using correct grammar!

 Either blue or green works for the wallpaper color.

13. If additional phrases come between the subject and the verb, the verb must still agree
with the subject. These sentences can be tricky, so be careful.

 A group consisting of Professor Lidenbrock, the Icelandic guide Hans Bjelke, and the
professor’s nephew Axel departs for the volcano.

14. Be particularly careful of subjects that use the phrase “one of . . . ” The word one is
singular, even when followed by plural nouns.

 One of the world’s leading scientists still has trouble speaking in public.

15. In the active vs. passive voice debate, the verb in the passive voice still follows
whatever word acts as the subject.

 They pay the electric bill online.

 The electric bill is paid by them online.

16. When choosing between “there is . . . ” and “there are . . . ,” the verb should match the
number of the noun that follows it. The same goes for sentences beginning with “here . . . ”

 There is a new map in the DLC.

 There are new maps in the DLC.

17. Similarly, words that indicate a portion, including percentages, use the number of the
noun they describe. This noun is typically the object of the phrase “of . . . ”

 All of the book is ruined!

 All of the books are ruined!
 Some of the film is funny.
 Some of the films are funny.
 Fifty percent of the house is made of wood.
 Fifty percent of the houses are made of wood.

18. When referring to distances, periods of time, or amounts of money—taken as a whole—

use the singular form of the verb.

 Twenty dollars is too much for IMAX!

19. Be careful of nouns that exist only in the plural form; they sometimes act as singular.

 The news has been depressing lately.

 Politics is getting too combative.
 However, some of these nouns act as plural.
 The scissors do not work.

20. If a plural noun is preceded by the word pair, treat the subject as singular
because pair is singular.

 The pair of scissors does not work.

**Case Specific Transformation Rules:

First rule:

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND

V-ing When/As/Since And [Same Subject]

If there is a “V-ing” at the beginning of a simple sentence, “when / As / Since” helps to

convert that sentence into a complex sentence.

Again when we convert those simple sentences and complex sentences to compound
sentences, “And” helps. The subjects of the sentences are the same.

Simple: Going to market, Gopal bought a new book.

Complex: When/as/since Gopal went to market, he bought a new book. Or

Gopal bought a new book when/as/since he went to market.

Compound: Gopal went to the market and bought a new book.

Second rule:

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND

By+ V-ing If (Aff) And

If there is a “By+ V-ing” in a simple sentence, “when / As / Since” helps to convert that
sentence into a complex sentence.

Again when we convert those simple sentences and complex sentences to compound
sentences, “And” helps. The subjects of the sentences are the same.

Example:

Sim: By earning money, you will live better.

Cx: If you earn money, you will live better.

Cd: Earn money and live better.

Third rule:

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND

Besides + V-ing Not only – but also And

If we find “Besides + V-ing” in the simple sentence, we use “Not only-but also” to convert
the simple sentence into a complex.

Again we use “And” to change the simple and complex sentence into a compound sentence.

Example:

Sim: Besides teaching English, he gives good tips.

Cx: He teaches not only English but also gives good tips.

Cd: He teaches English and gives good tips.

Fourth rule:

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND

Without + V-ing /In case of If (Neg) Or

If we find “Without + V-ing/ In case of ” in the simple sentence, we use “If (Neg)” to transfer
the simple sentence into a complex sentence.

Again we use “Or” to change the simple and complex sentence into a compound sentence.
But the subjects of the sentence must be the same.
Example:

Sim: Without taking the risk, you can not prosper in life.

Cx: If you do not take the risk, you can not prosper in life./Unless you take the risk,
you can not prosper in life, life.

Cd: Take the risk or you can not prosper in life.

Fifth rule

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND

Having V-3 When+S+had+V-3 And [Same Subject]

If we get “Having + V-3” at the starting of a simple sentence, we use “When+S+had+V-3” to

change the sentence into the complex.

Again we use “And” to transfer that simple and complex sentence into the compound
sentence. But the subjects of the sentence must be the same.

Example:

Sim: Having finished her home tame task, she took her meal.

Cx: when she had finished her home task, she took her meal.

Cd: She had finished her home task and took her meal.

Sim: Having heard the news, Dinesh sat down on the ground.

Cx: When Dinesh had heard the news, he sat down on the ground.

Cd: Dinesh heard the news and sat down on the ground.

Cd: Dinesh heard the news and sat down on the ground.

Sim: Having reached the station, my uncle got on a train.

Cx: when my uncle had reached the station, he got on a train.

Cd: My uncle reached the station and got on a train.

Transformation of sentences Simple Compound Complex
Sixth rule

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND

Because of Because And/ So

On account of

Due to

If we get “Because of/ On account of/ Due to” in the simple sentence, we use “Because” to
covert the sentence into a complex sentence.

Again we use “and/so” to convert that simple and complex sentence into a compound.

Example:

Simp: He could not go to school because of his illness.

Complex: He could not go to school because he was ill.

Complex: He was ill and / so he could not go to school.

Seventh Rule:

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND

In spite of / Despite Though/Although But

If we get “In spite of/ Despite” in a simple sentence, we use “Though/Although” to convert
the sentence into the complex.

Again we use “But” to transfer the simple and complex sentence into the compound.

Example:

Sim: In spite of his poverty, he is honest.

Complex: Though he is poor, he is honest.

Compound: He is poor but he is honest.

Eighth Rule

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND

To+ Verb In order that/ so that S+ can/may… So

If we find “To+Verb” in the simple sentence, we use “In order that/ so that S+ can/may…” to
convert the sentences into the complex.

Again we use “so” to convert the simple and complex sentence into a compound sentence
and the subjects of the sentences are the same.

Example:
Sim: I bought a new book to learn English.

Cx: I bought a new book so that / in order that I can / may learn English.

Cd: My target/object was to learn English so I bought a new book.

Ninth Rule:

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND

In order to In order that/So that S+ may … So

If we find “In order to” in a simple sentence, we use “In order that/ So that S+may….” to
transfer the simple sentence into a complex sentence.

Again we use “so” to convert the simple and complex sentence into a compound sentence.

Example:

Sim: I went there in order to meet her.

Cx: I went there so that /in order that I might /could meet her.

Cd: My target /object was to meet her so I went there.

Tenth Rule

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND

For the purpose of In order that/ So

So that S+ might/ could …

If there is “For the purpose of” in the Simple Sentence, the help of “In order that / so that S
+ could / might “ is taken during converting the simple sentence into Complex Sentence.

Again we use “so” to convert the simple and complex sentence into a compound sentence.
Example:

Sim: He studied hard for the purpose of passing in the first division.

Cx: He studied hard so that/in order that he might pass in the first division.

Cd: His target /object was to pass in the first division So he studied hard.

Eleventh Rule

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND

Too- to So–that Very -And

If there is “Too-to” in Simple Sentence, then “So-that” is used to convert that sentence to
Complex Sentence.

When converting that Simple Sentence and Complex Sentence to Compound Sentence, the
help of “Very-and” is taken.

The subjects of the sentences must be the same.

Example:

Sim: The man is too dishonest to speak the truth.

Cx: The man is so dishonest that he can not speak the truth.

Cd: The man is very dishonest and he can not speak the truth.

Twelveth Rule:

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND

Too- to So- that Very- And

If there is “Too-to” in Simple Sentence, then “So-that” is used to convert that sentence to
Complex Sentence.

When converting that Simple Sentence and Complex Sentence to Compound Sentence, the
help of “Very-and” is taken.

The subjects of the sentences must be different.

Sim: The sum is too hard for me to understand.

Cx: The sum is so hard that I can not understand it.

Cd: The sum is very hard and I can not understand it.

Thirteenth Rule:

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND

At the time of When/As/Since And [Subj is different]

If there is “At the time of” in the simple sentence, then the help of When / As / Since is
taken while converting that sentence to Complex Sentence.

When converting that Simple Sentence and Complex Sentence to Compound Sentence, the
help of “And” is taken.

Example:

Sim: At the time of my entering the class, the students stood up.

Cx: When / since/ as I entering the class the students stood up.

Cd: I entered the class and the students stood up.

Fourteenth Rule

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND

At the time of As soon as And [Subj is different]

No sooner- than

Hardly – when

Scarcely—when/Before

If there is “At the time of” in the Simple Sentence, the help of As soon as / No sooner- than /
Hardly – when / Scarcely — when, Before is taken while converting the sentence to
Complex Sentence.

Again we take the help of “And” at the time of converting that Simple Sentence and
Complex Sentence to Compound Sentence.

Example:
Sim: At the time of my entering the room, the students stood up.

Cx: As soon as I entered the room, the students stood up.

Cd: I entered the room and the students stood up.

Fifteenth Rule:

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND

Object [Time] When X

If we get object-related time in a simple sentence, we use “when” to transfer the sentence
into a complex.

But that simple and complex sentence can not be transformed into a compound.

Example:

Sim: I know his birthplace.

Cx: I know where he was born.

Sim: This is his workplace.

Cx: This is where he works.

Sixteenth rule:

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND

Object [Place] Where X

If we get an object-related place in a simple sentence, we use “were” to transfer the

sentence into the complex.

But that simple and complex sentence can not be transformed into a compound.

Example:

Sim: I can not tell the time of his coming.

Cx: I can not tell when he will come.

Sim: I know his birthday.

Cx: I know when he was born.

Sim: He heard the time of your arrival.

Cx: He heard when you will arrive.

Table of all the above rules of Transformation of sentences Simple Compound

Complex

Simple Complex Compound

01 V-ing When/As/Since And [Same Subject]

02 By+ V-ing If (Aff) And

03 Besides + V-ing Not only – but also And

Without + V-ing/In case

04 If (Neg) Or
of

05 Having V-3 When+S+had+V-3 And [Same Subject]

Because of/On account

06 Because And/ So
of/ Due to

07 In spite of / Despite Though/Although

But

In order that/ so that S+

08 To+ Verb So
can/may…

In order that/So that S+ may

09 In order to So
…

In order that/ So that S+

10 For the purpose of So
might/ could …

11 Too- to So–that Very -And

 Too- to [subject
12 So- that Very- And
different]

13 At the time of When/As/Since And [Subject different]

As soon as/No sooner-

than/Hardly –
14 At the time of
when/Scarcely— And [Subject is different]
when/Before

15 Object [Time] When

X
16 Object [Place] Where X

END.