TERRORISM AND ITS IMPLICATION ON GLOBAL SECURITY IN

THE 21ST CENTURY

By

J.K. ROWLING

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ABSTRACT
The research presented in this work highlights a complex and rapidly changing set of
dynamics in global terrorism. While on the one hand the top-line statistics highlight an
improvement in the levels of global terrorism, the continued intensification of terrorism in
some countries is a cause for serious concern, and highlights the fluid nature of modern
terrorist activity. 2015 saw the total number of deaths decrease by ten per cent, the first
decline since 2010. The number of countries recording a death from terrorism also
decreased by one. This decline in terrorism deaths is mainly attributed to a weakened
Boko Haram and ISIL in both Nigeria and Iraq due to the military operations against them.
However, expanded activities by both of these groups in other countries is posing new
threats in other parts of the world. Boko Haram has expanded into Niger, Cameroon and
Chad, increasing the number of people they have killed through terrorism in these three
countries by 157 per cent. This research work lays emphasis on terrorism in the 21 st
century.

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 Table of Content

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Of Study
1
1.2 Statement of Problem 7
1.3 Research Objectives 8
1.4 Research Questions 9
1.5 Research Hypothesis 9
1.6 Significance of the Study 9
1.7 Research Limitations 10
1.8 Delimitation 11

CHAPTER TWO
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction 13
2.1 The Concept of Collective Security 14
2.2 The Theory of Realism 20
2.3 Literature Review 24
2.4 Literature on Terrorism Motivations 34

CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction 37
3.2 The Implications Of Terrorism 39

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 The Implications Of Terrorism On Global Security 42
4.2 The Implications of Terrorism on Individual Security
and Education 48

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion 55
5.2 Recommendations 59
References

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iv
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKROUND OF STUDY

Terrorism is violence or threat of violence calculated to create an

atmosphere of fear or alarm and thereby bring about some social and

political changes. This definition is in line with the explanation offered

by a South American Jurist more than 30 years ago, according to him

“Terrorism consists of acts that are in themselves may be classic-

crimes, murder, arson, the use of explosives, but that differ from

classic crimes in that they are excited with the deliberate intention of

causing panic and terror within an arranged or organized society. It is

the use of violence and most especially the fear it causes among

people for political objectives.

It was also defined by the Terrorism Research Center as “the

systematic use of physical violence against noncombatants but with an

audience greater than the immediate victim in mind to create a

general climate of fear in a large population in order to affect some

kind of political and social changes”.

The United States Federal Bureau of investigation (FBI) defines

terrorism as “the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or

1
property to intimidate or coerce a government, the population or any

segment thereof in furtherance of political and social objectives”. In

basic terms, terrorism is an act of inflicting terror upon the people in

the process of achieving personal or political objectives.

Although from the above definitions, it can be rightly concluded that

there is no precise or widely accepted definition of the concept of

terrorism, it is generally believed that terrorism is the use of covert

violent actions in order to achieve certain objectives. It is a form of

covert attack directed at targets that are outside a certain range of

clearly military targets. Though the terrorist attack on the world trade

centre in New York and the Pentagon in Washington DC constitute a

prime case, most terrorist attack are aimed at domestic regimes or

other targets within the terrorist own country.

Terrorism is not new on the world stage. Northern Ireland had been

dealing with terrorists for more than forty years, Israel with Palestinian

terrorists for much the same period and Spain with Basque terrorists.

Although the use of terrorism as a political tool extends far back into

history, recent decades have seen a rise in the practice for several

reasons. One is the overwhelming advantage in weapons that

governments usually have over dissident groups. Because many

2
governments are armed with aircraft and other high tech weapons that

are unavailable to opposition forces, it has often become nearly

suicidal for armed dissidents to use conventional tactics.

Secondly, terrorists’ targets are now more readily available than in the

past: people are more concentrated in urban areas and even in large

buildings; there are countless airline flights, and more and more people

travel abroad. Thirdly, the mass availability of instant visual news

through television and satellite communications makes it easy for

terrorists to gain an audience. This is important because terrorism is

not usually directed at its victims as such; rather it is intended to

frighten others. Fourth, technology has led to the creation of

increasingly lethal weapons that terrorists can use to kill and injure

large numbers of people. These technological “advances” include

biological, chemical, nuclear, and radiological weapons.

Terrorists attacks are relatively regular event. In 2000 there were 423

international terrorist attacks, many of these carried out across

national borders and there were many other incidents of domestic

terrorism. However, through this time, Americans worried little about

terrorism for example, in a survey conducted in 1999 that asked

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Americans to name two or three top foreign policy concerns, only 12

percent of the respondents mentioned terrorism as a worry.

This American’s sense of security was shattered by the September 11,

2001 terrorists attacks which included the destruction of the World

trade Center, major damage to the pentagon, the crash of a hijacked

airliner in Pennsylvania, and the deaths of over 3,000 people.

Soon thereafter President George W. Bush responded by announcing a

war on terrorism. An American led coalition of forces intervened in

Afghanistan, toppling the Taliban government that had supported Al

Qaeda and attacking Al Qaeda forces in the country. Later President

Bush charged that Iraq, Iran and North Korea constituted an “axis of

evil” that, among other things were guilty of state terrorism. In March

2003, the United States, in alliance with Great Britain and other

countries known as the coalition of the Willing attacked Iraq, arguing in

part that Iraq’s support of terrorism made it an international threat and

an outlaw nation.

Terrorist make use of various means in achieving their aims,

irrespective of whether it is individual group or state sponsored terrors.

Some of which are briefly stated as follows:

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Kidnapping: Seizure of one or more victims are then moved to a

hideout. This method is regularly abducted by the Niger Delta

Terrorists Movements.

Barricade Hostage: Seizure of a facility with whatever hostages

available, these is made cotangent on meeting terrorist demand.

Bombing: Major bombing is the use of any type of explosives or

device for terrorist purposes, including those delivered through mail

when sufficient demand or casualties occurs, the terrorists group

claims responsibility. Example Commuter bombing in 2004 March that

killed 191 people and wounded 1,8000. and July 7: Londonbombings –

Bombs explode on one double-decker bus and

three LondonUnderground trains, killing 56 people and injuring over

700, occurring on the first day of the 31st G8 Conference. The attacks

are the firstsuicide bombings in Western Europe.

Hijacking: An attempt to seize an airplane, ship or other vehicle with

whatever hostage maybe in it, to force some actions or movement to

another country upon an agreement by authorities involved to

terrorists demand.

Armed attack: An attempt to seize or damage facility with no intent

to hold for negotiating purposes.

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Assassination: An attempt whether successful or not to kill a pre

selected victim usually with small arms or letter bombs, are executed

form this small category, in many cases, there is a specific intended

victim.

Sabotage: this is willful destruction of properties by any means

including bombing.

Exotic Pollution: The use of exotic substances such as atomic,

chemical or biological to contaminate materials of the targeted state.

For example, the introduction of mercury into orange shipped form

Israel.

Threat for hoax: The stated intent by a terrorist group to carry out an

attack or a false alert of authorities about the coming of terrorists

attack by a named group.

Most of these means terrorists adopt in carrying out their activities are

becoming obsolete because of the fact that most governments that are

more implicative in combating terrorist elements.

Few governments are as inclined as they were some years ago to

release captured terrorists simply to avoid further terrorists attacks.

Most government have adopted non concessions, non-negotiations

politics in dealing with hostage cases or situation.

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Physical security around likely target has increased for example, it has

become more difficult now, although it is still possible to smuggle

weapons abroad through airlines. Embassies are becoming virtual

fortress (especially after the terrorists attack on the United States

embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in August 1998).

Diplomats and top executives often travel in armored limousines with

armed body guards (for example, the coming of former United States

President Bill Clinton into Nigeria and Ghana with armored limousines

and several CIA and FBI agents). But despite these undeniable

achievements, the total volume of terrorist’s activities in the world has

increased. At the same time terrorism has become bloodier and the

terrorist seem to be less reluctant to inflict casualties. The latest fear

exercise after the September 11th incident is the fear of terrorist

making use of instruments of mass destruction in achieving their aims.

One aspects of the problem of definition of the term terrorism is the

difficulty in distinguishing between terrorism and a freedom fighter for

example, the man who attacks a plane and proceeds to kill some or all

the passengers.

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The man who wrap bomb around his waist and drives into a shopping

mall causing maximum damages of government may well be a

freedom fighter to his kith and kin.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Terrorism has been a big problem faced globally. Terrorism has been

going on around the world for a millennium now, though the

government of countries, the United Nations and other world agencies

have put in much effort to eradicate terrorism from their boarder and

within their country, the major problem is that the united states of

America has labelled Africa among the place for terrorist recruitment;

though some of the countries in Africa has put a stop to terrorism in

their boarders.

1.5 Research Objectives

The objectives of the study were:

1. To identify the factors influencing terrorist activities between the

period of 2000 to 2015,

2. to establish why terrorism is inevitable despite the collective state

efforts (UN),

3. to examine how terrorism has affected education systems,

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 4. to examine the implications of terrorist activities on international

peace and security from 2000 to 2015, and

5. to provide recommendations on how to implicatively combat the

implications of terrorism in the international system.

The thrust of the research was to provide an analysis of the

implications of terrorism between 2000 and 2015 in maintaining

international peace and security.

1.6 Research Questions

The study was anchored on the ensuing research questions.

1. Who is a terrorist?

2. What are the types of terrorism and the methods they are using

to implication of terror?

3. What are the factors that influence terrorist activities?

4. What are the threats brought by terrorists in the international

system?

5. What is the future of terrorism and what needs to be done to

reduce or eradicate terrorism?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

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Terrorism negatively affects collective effort towards the maintenance

of international peace and security.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The UN (2002: V) Preface by the former UN Secretary General Koffi

Annan states that, “terrorism strikes at the heart of everything the UN

stands for. It presents a global threat to democracy, the rule of law,

human rights and stability.” Since its inception in 1945, the UN has

been less successful in eliminating terrorism in all its manifestations.

Governments on the other hand find it very difficult to uproot terrorists

in their territorial boundaries. Terrorism disrupts livelihoods, increases

violence and fear, affects production in all sectors of economy,

destroys infrastructure and has resulted in bloodshed. In all cases of

terrorist attacks, it has disrupted normal education life, stalled

production in the economy and international effort to provide peace

and security. This justifies the importance of providing an analysis on

the implications of terrorism in maintaining international peace and

security from 2000 to 2015. The research findings will be of great

significance to the world and regional organisations concerned with

world peace, educationists, security and state institutions, concerned

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with tackling terrorism. It is against this background that Open

Distance Learning (ODL) plays a pivotal role in providing education

under these circumstances.

1.7 Research Limitations

For the purposes of this research, limitations are impediments that

prevent the researchers from achieving objectives of the study.

Analysing the implications of terrorism is a political research and it

involves embassies, foreign affairs ministry, senior government

officials and political non-governmental organisations which deal with

human rights. These sources did not release accurate information

easily depending on the complexity and nature of information being

solicited. Failure to access some of the information has affected the

outcome of the research.

Besides, a state, foreign missions, international organisations, local

political practitioners and other sources provided partisan information

depending on their political orientation and ideologies. Withholding

information and provision of partial, partisan and subjective

information are limitations that have largely affected this research.

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To overcome the said limitations, the researcher used qualitative

methodology in form of interviews which provides for questions

probing during data gathering and analysis. The researcher provided

several sources to increase information base. Secondary data was of

much help as both sides of opinions were extracted. The researcher

used the internet and renowned authors as sources of information.

1.8 Delimitation

The study analysed the implications of terrorism on international peace

and security from the year 2000 to 2015. The research traced the

origins of terrorism and its prominent resurgence in the twenty-first

century, particularly the period between 2000 and 2015.Of importance

is how terrorism affects efforts to maintain international peace and

security as well as scrutinising the various methods they use to

implicating terror and proffer recommendations on how to combat

terrorism. The names of terrorist groups that undermine peace and

security from the year 2000 to 2015 were listed as well as their

approaches to undermine the promotion and maintenance of

international peace and security.

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 CHAPTER TWO

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

The main objective of this part was to review relevant literature on

international peace as it relates to international peace and security. In

trying to provide an analysis of the implications of terrorism on

international peace and security the study relied on the concept of

collective security which is derived from the theory of Idealism to

explain why states come together to combat terrorism. The major

terrorist groups and the way they operate across the world are

discussed in this chapter. Incidences of the terrorist acts are costly and

have led to the loss of life, disturbance of the environment and

destruction of infrastructure. Terror is persistent, evolving and

transnational such that individual states in the international system

has a need to come together to eliminate terrorism. The terrorist

activities are transnational and have been manifesting in various forms

including kidnapping, suicide bombing, accessing Weapons of Mass

Destruction (WMD) and hostage-taking. They seek to fulfill different

political objectives to suit their individual goals. This instills a sense of

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insecurity for both the state and its citizens as the attacks are sporadic

and have unknown formulae of execution.

The UN (2002:V) Preface by the former UN Secretary General Koffi

Annan states that “terrorism is a global threat with global

implications…its consequences affect every aspect of the UN agenda

from development, peace to human rights and the rule of law…” The

continuous devastating and horrific attacks in the presence of

collective security custodian, UN and other regional bodies responsible

for peace keeping suffered serious challenges in guaranteeing peace

and international security.

2.1 The Concept of Collective Security

The death of civilians prior to World War 1 (WW1), violence and

growing pressure of terrorists left the world with a high sense of

insecurity and a distorted future world security system. The

implications of the war were massive to an extent that states were left

exposed and vulnerable. In January 1918, the United States of America

(USA), President

Woodrow Wilson proposed a “general association of nations” which

was the human kind's only salvation. The History Learning Site

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(2011:1) argued that “Woodrow Wilson was horrified by the slaughter

that had taken place during WW1 in what was meant to be a civilised

part of the world. The only way to avoid a repetition of such a disaster

was to create an international body whose sole purpose was to

maintain world peace” In this way, Woodrow Wilson was proposing for

a democratic peace formula that will serve the people from the

scourge of war. This study revealed that it led to the formation of the

League of Nations in 1921, which was later transformed into the UN in

October 1945. The UN has become a Collective Security Organisation

which has a mandate given to it by the Charter of the United Nations

(2011 Article 1.1) to “maintain international peace and security, and to

that end: to take collective measures for the prevention and removal of

threats to peace… and for the suppression of acts of aggression or

other breaches of peace…” It is from this background that UN plays a

pivotal role in international peace and security maintenance. This

study centred on the efforts, failures and hopes of the UN as the

“barometer” of peace and security maintenance in fighting terrorism.

International Relations Theory Knowledge Base

(http://www.irtheory.com/know.htm) defines collective security as

“arrangements for facilitating peaceful settlements of disputes

15
assuming that the mechanisms of preventing war and defending states

under armed attack will supplement and reinforce each other.” The

definition for collective security implies that states have to come

together and find a common solution to end the problems affecting the

peace and security arrangements. The need for collective security can

be traced back to Emmanuel Kant‟s writings in ThePerpetual Peace in

1795. Gallile (1980:9) states that “perpetual peace has usually been

taken to be a call for immediate political action and to provide a recipe

for the immediate achievement of a lasting European peace, but it has

also been interpreted as presenting a moral ideal to which states ought

indeed to aspire in their external relations.” It can be argued that

enforcement of peace by combined power of a league of peace-loving

nations would ensure maintenance of international peace and security

which is the hallmark of a pacifist tract of settlement of disputes.

However, terrorist organisations have not followed pacific pact because

they have governments which they define in their own unique way but

not conventionally accepted.

The concept of collective security rests on the assumption that all

nations share a primary interest in maintaining peace. In order for

collective security to operate, peace must be viewed as indivisible and

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threats to peace anywhere must be treated as the concern of all

members of the international system. Once the aggressor is

established then an overwhelming opposition from all other members

of the system will respond such that peace will be restored. This has

not been the case with the UN members today. In the case of

terrorism, there is no agreed working definition at the UN level such

that the perpetrators are seen as “liberators, fighters and redeemers

who are fighting for emancipation of entangled people” within some

member states while some members see them as “terrorists, axis of

evil who deserve to be wiped out, tyrants and despots”. Thus there is

no unanimous agreement on identification of terrorist at the

international level. According to Papp (1984:80) “when seen from the

American perspective, the „Indians‟ of the Boston Tea Party were

American nationalists making a political point; when seen from a

British perspective, they were terrorists destroying property and

endangering life.” This serves to give the differences in perceiving a

“terrorist” by states. To further express the difficulty of definition of a

terrorist, Lowe (2005:266) states that “in the 1960s Nelson Mandela

was regarded as a terrorist by the white supremacy and kept in jail for

27 years; now he is respected and revered by the same whites.

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President Bush refused to meet “terrorist” Yasser Arafat yet when the

Israeli government carried out similar attacks they are recognised as a

legitimate government.” The definition and identification of terrorists is

problematic at the international level.

According to Bennet (1984:134) the following are some of the

conditions required for collective security application: “a commitment

on the part of all members of the international system to peace as a

paramount goal requiring the subordination of other goals of foreign

policy and the ability of the members of a system not only to reach

initial consensus for establishing the system, but also to find a

consensus in each situation that a threat to peace or a breach of peace

does exist.”

Baylis (2002:227) states that “collective security is based on collective

decision making once the aggressor is found… this will work better if

the power is dispersed.” In order to qualify as collective security

organisation there is need to employ the conditions of consensus and

commitment to peace and collective response that are fundamental to

collective security concept.

According to Baylis (2002:228), “there should be a distinction between

collective security and collective defence …the latter refers to an

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arrangement such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)

and the War Saw Pact (WSP) which involve alliances for mutual

protection against outside attack.” The NATO in the twenty-first

century has been seen being active in protecting its strategic interests.

The NATO actions in Afghanistan in the past decade, Palestine, Iraq

invasion in 2003, Ivory Coast 2011 and Libya in 2011 can be allegedly

equated to state-sponsored terrorist attacks in the guise of the

Responsibility to Protect (R2P) and Humanitarian Intervention.

The concept of collective security is based on the fundamentals of

idealism which supposes that peace can be restored by coming

together of states that share a common view and base their

arrangements on consensus. Idealism has led to the formation of

collective security organisation, UN. There are several strides that the

organisation has made in trying to promote international peace and

security but it has been less successful to eradicate terrorism as

evidenced by the continued terrorist attacks that have continued to

cause great suffering and defied international peace and security

initiatives. Given the continued attacks from the year 2000 to 2015

and the continued struggles of religion has been one of the major

causes of violence especially in the Middle East.

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Baylis (2002:227) stated that “the advent of cyber terrorists brings a

belief that the irregular wars will be fought in cyberspace… given the

vulnerabilities of websites and servers to hackers, terrorists inevitably

will become cyber terrorists through the World Wide Web (WWW).”

This leads to electronic raids on vital national systems controlled by

computers for example financial services, transportation networks and

power grids. Baylis (2002:227) further stated that “ access to the web

and portability of modern computer equipment will allegedly give new

power to aspiring terrorists…an individual can do more damage than

armed terrorist cells.” The fact that technology is not governed by

sovereign states presents a total defeat of collective security where

states usually react to what technologists have introduced. The

operations of terrorists are not clear because they conceal themselves

in publics and use the technology which every citizen is using.

Napolitano (2009:1) alleges that “September 11 2001 attacks

conceived of their plans in the Philippines, planned in Malaysia and

Germany, recruited from Yemen and Saudi Arabia, trained in Pakistan

and Afghanistan and carried them out in USA-New York City (NYC).”

This was made possible by a networked international system. However,

the above implicated states are members of the international

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collective security organisation who were serving their own interests.

To explain why collective security has never worked so implicatively,

the researcher used the theory of realism.

2.2 The Theory of Realism

The theory of Realism offers an alternative explanation on the failure

of idealism to curtail problems posited by terrorism on international

peace and security. Realists consider the principal actors in the

international arena to be states, which are concerned with their own

security, act in pursuit of their own national interests, and struggle for

power. The negative side of the realists' emphasis on power and self-

interest is their skepticism regarding the relevance of ethical norms to

relations among states. Korab-Karpowicz (2011:6) states that “national

politics is the realm of authority and law, whereas international politics,

they sometimes claim, is a sphere without justice, characterized by

active or potential conflict among states.” This realist perception

underscores the very nature and behaviour of states. Bennet

(1984:134) states that “the national goals, values, interest and

international commitments compete with the demands of collective

security for action…national security takes precedence over collective

security, cultural, traditional, trade and investment, military alliances

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and ideology are balanced against a general commitment to world

peace.” Thus the selfish and competitive aspects of international

relations present a major challenge to the success of collective security

agenda at the regional and global level.

The study provided that human beings are needy and vulnerable and

can easily be led astray by our attempts to know the world and

communities around us such that when we act, we may do so selfishly

and impulsively on the basis of faulty reasoning or theology. Korab-

Karpowicz (2011:7) quoting Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan argued that

“human beings are subject to perpetual and restless desire of power

after power that they inevitably struggle for power….independent

states, like individuals are enemies by nature, asocial and selfish, and

that there is no moral limitation on their behaviour.” This is a great

challenge to the idealist political vision basing on collective security

formula to solve problems posed by terrorism. It can be put forward

that USA, Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan have become terrorist

themselves because of the perceived benefits of terror. Thus attending

the terrorist conventions is just a routine event.

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With regards to fighting terrorism, the individual states have never

agreed on the way forward and identifying of the perpetrators because

there is no universally agreed definition of terrorism. The individual

states struggle for international dominance at the expense of

cooperation. In advancing their political motives, they use intimidation

and induction of fear not as means to an end but as a way to acquire

dominance. In turn, they subvert other states by sponsoring acts of

terrorism which are anarchic to the legitimate ruling governments. For

example Dershowitz (2002:7) states that “the USA has supported,

financed and trained groups that are widely regarded as terrorist, such

as the Contras in Nicaragua, the Mujahedeen in Afghanistan, The

National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) Angola

and Samuel K. Doe in Liberia and Sierra Leone.” It becomes ironic that

the states at the forefront of countering terrorism supported or are

supporting some alleged terrorist groups. This leaves a lot to be

desired when it comes to collective security where some states are

members of the UN yet they act as spies to terrorist and combine to

disrupt peace and security they intend to preserve. They are working

to pull down every idea brought nobly to combat terrorism. That

becomes a realistic world where people, states and continents are not

23
unified by “the desire to find common interest” but are driven by their

egoistic interests.

Given the theory of realism, it is imperative to conclude that the

collective security mechanism have tried to a lesser extent to fight

terrorism which is interrupting international peace and security

arrangements. This researcher argues that, the concept of Collective

Security is not very implicative in combating terrorist activities. It goes

without saying that, the concept is based on pacifist tract and is muted

from the writings of Immanuel Kant (1975 Section 1) which stated that

“ A state is a society of men whom no-one else has any right to

command or dispose except the state itself and it is a trunk with its

own roots.” This means that a state can decide whether to be part of

the collective security or not. Collective security is guided by morality

and consensus to an extent that fighting terrorism is likely to be

unimplicative. Realism offers a more credible reason why the states

are driven by their zest for the struggle for power and individual

interest. These interests have led to the following incidences. The

failure to prevent the September 11 2001 USA attacks, 2008 Mumbai

attacks, Marriot Hotel bombing in Islamabad, Chechnya, Kosovo,

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Montenegro, Northern Island and Kashmir between the year 2000 and

2015 has reflected that collective security has failed to bring

international peace and security. The Jewish Virtual Library (2011:1)

states that “from September 2000 until December 2005, 1,100 Israelis

were killed during the Palestinian Al- Aqsa-Intifada.” It can be pointed

out that the problems between Israel and Palestine is a historical one

but it is now controlled by self- interest embroiled in terrorism to

advance their claims. Siebert, (2010:5) argues that “although they are

pledged to defend each other, many countries will refuse to do so if

such an act is not in their own interests or is thought to be too risk or

expensive.” Collective security has not successfully included human

security other forms of security like human security. Collective Security

has remained narrow and has remained an “ought to be” fantasy kind

of concept yet realism is an extreme way of expressing the reality in

the international system. Realism thus offers better reasons why states

have not been so implicatiive and exhaustive in fighting terrorism.

Thus both theories give focus on the state and forget all other types of

security which citizens need.

25
2.3 Literature Review

Kepel (2008:2) argued that “on the morning of 9/11 a quadruple attack

of the USA marked the beginning of the new century and continuation

of the discord and demons of preceding ones.” The horrific attack

indicated a blink future in the new millennium and it served as a

premonition of many destructive activities to come. This has attracted

many terrorist groups to activate their operations in order to attack the

most powerful states having witnessed the crush of the USA.

Throughout the Middle East and Western Europe, German, Basque,

Italian and Palestinian terrorist groups have increased assaults.

Kupperman (1979:5) pointed out that, terrorist possess weapons, “not

just pistol, submachine and bombs, for there have been attempts to

use heat seeking surface -to –air rockets (SA-7s) and Soviet anti-tank

weapons (RPG-7s), German entrepreneurs disbursed mustard gas and

nerve agents.” This highlights the level of massive penetration

terrorists used to be in the early 1980s.

Slater (1988:1) states that, “the face of international terrorism is

constantly changing as it increases in scale…the number of terrorist

groups has multiplied and from the year 2000 to 2015, terrorists have

introduced the resurgence of suicidal bombing, developed

26
collaborative networks, have gained better access to international

arms, they have refined their planning, intelligence and targeting. They

have discovered new sources of funding through crime, bank robberies

and they have entered lucrative narcotic markets.” This is how

intricate the situation has become and it has become very difficult to

remove this network which has claimed many lives and casualties.

Waugh (2000:4-12) states that, “in 2002, the world witnessed Bali

bombing in Indonesia which claimed 202 lives, 2003 Istanbul bombing

claimed 57 lives, March 2004 Madrid train bombing claimed 192,

Beslan School hostage crisis 334 killed, Mumbai attacks 175 killed,

Yemen killing of 17 people, Colombia in 2000, about 27 lost their lives

and 145 hostage taking in Nigeria in 2000.” All these events are

overshadowed by horrific attacks on 11 September 2001 which is the

major destructive terrorist effort by the late Osama bin Laden and the

Taliban. The Rock Mountain News (2002), reported that, “the death toll

exceeded 3000 and the financial losses for just the destruction of the

WTC were estimated to be in excess of US $83 billion.”

Terrorist Groups have increased in the past decade but there are major

groups which are identified by massive attacks on civilians to induce

fear from 2000 to 2015 while a few have been disabled prior to 2000.

27
The following are the major terrorist groups in Africa, Asia, USA, Latin-

America and Middle East.

 Abu Nidal Organisation(ANO) - This is a loose coalition of

organisations founded and operated by terrorist leader Sabri-al-Banna

who broke with Palestine Liberation Organisation in 1974. The group

has operated using other names like Arab Revolutionary Council (ARC),

Fatah Revolutionary Council (FRC) and sometimes Black September.

Henderson (2001:47) argued that “the group has conducted more

than 100 terrorist actions in more than 20 countries killing about 900

and their actions includes attacks on passengers in airports in Vienna

and Rome in December 1985 as well as the killing of worshippers in

Istanbul synagogue in 1986.” The vicious attacks on civilians disrupted

communities and livelihoods in the Middle East. Lowe (2005:267)

argued that “ANO was committed to a completely independent

Palestinian state; it had bases in Lebanon and Palestine and drew

support from Syria, Sudan and Libya.” This resembles a sophisticated

network which was aimed at liberating Palestine. In the process life

unfortunately is lost.

28
 Al Qaeda (the Base) – This is an Islamic terrorist group which has

worked tirelessly to fight USA domination in the Islamic states and it is

the most prominent terrorist group at the present time. In his

testimony Fadl (2001:5) argued that “it is widely thought that the

organisation was founded by Osama bin Laden between August 1988

and the late 1989. It operates as a network comprising both a

multinational, stateless army and a radical Sunni movement group for

global Jihad.” The group has implored variety of tactics to

indiscriminate targets to further their interest. Wright (2006:107)

states that Al-Qaeda uses “techniques include suicide attacks and

simultaneous bombing of different targets and instigating violence

among resistance Islamic groups and the group has attacked civilian

and military targets in various countries including Europe, North Africa,

Asia and Latin America.” The group has been destabilized in 2011 by

the murdering of its founder and leader Osama bin Laden in Pakistan

by the notorious USA forces who buried him in the sea.

 Arab National Youth Organisation for the Liberation of Palestine

(ANYOLP) - This is a radical offshoot that broke away from the Popular

Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) in 1972. The group

29
committed acts of violence on Israel diplomat in Cyprus in April 1973.

The long standing conflict between Israel and Palestine over Gaza strip

have brooded many terrorist groups who seek to emancipate

themselves from the bondage. By so doing the groups use wide-spread

violence and terror actions to drive forward their ideology. As a way of

deterring the aggressions, the Israelis raided Beirut and PFLP killing

them leading to the formation of ANYOLP. The group has not been so

active in the twenty-first century.

Hamas- This is a militant Palestinian military Islamic movement in the

West Bank and Gaza Strip founded in 1987. The group aim at

destroying Israel from the Mediterranean Sea to the Jordan River and

create Islamic State in Palestine because it was furthering the interest

of the Muslim Brotherhood. Hamas comprises of three interrelated

wings which are social welfare, political and military wing. The group is

more organized and has activities which range from the year 2000 to

2015. According to the Jewish Virtual Library (2011:1) “Hamas has

since 2000 been increasingly perpetrating terrorist attacks in a variety

of forms; firing Qassam rockets toward Israeli communities, infiltrations

into Israeli communities and murder civilians, explosive charges

30
against tanks, vehicle shooting and kidnapping as a bargaining method

… the group since 1993 has dispatched 113 suicide bombers and 72

suicide bombers were dispatched since September 2000 and 227

people have been murdered and 1 393 wounded.”

Hezbollah - This is a Shi‟a Muslim militant group and a political party

based in Lebanon. The forces were allegedly formed with the aid of

Ayatollah Khomeini and were trained and organized by a contingent

Iranian Revolutionary Guards (IRG). Shatz (2004) stated that

Hezbollah‟s 1985 manifesto was underpinned on the four aspects

“ending imperialist power in Lebanon, submission of Phalagists to “just

rule”, bringing to trial perpetrators of war for war crimes and giving

people the full chance to choose “with full freedom” the system of

government they want.” From 1982, there were 36 suicide attacks in

Lebanon directed against the Americans, French and Israeli forces.

According to The AmericanConservative (2005:7) “the group was

responsible for the 1982 January 15 bombing of a USA embassy vehicle

in Beirut, the 1992 Israel embassy attack in Buenos Aires, killing 29 in

Argentina, the 1994 bombing of a Jewish culture killing 85 in Argentina

31
and in 2002 Hezbollah recruited Singaporeans in a failed 1990 plot to

attack US and Israel ship in the Singapore straits.”

Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) – This is a Marxist-

Leninist guerilla organisation founded by George Habash in 1967 as a

leftist alternative to the Islamic nationalist al-Fatah between 1968 and

1970. Its main terrorist activities included hijacking of Israel El Al

airline and Lord Airport that resulted in 25 deaths.

Red Brigades (RB)- This is a left wing terrorist organization in Italy

which employs kidnappings, murder and sabotage. The group sought

to advance Marxism during the 1970s and emancipations of the

populace to gain access to the means of production. The group was

formed by college student Ronato Curcio in 1969 to battle “against the

imperialist state of multinationals.” In 1972, the group abducted a

business executive Idalgo Macchianni releasing him. The sign that was

displayed was written “Hit one to educate 100. Power to the armed

populace.” The group has embarked on wide spread of terror in Italy.

Red Army Faction (RAF)- A terrorist group based on leftism in West

Germany which was founded in 1968. The group included robberies of

32
banks and other businesses, bombing, arson, kidnapping and

murdering of prominent political, military and business figures.

According to Moncourt (2009:7) “red army faction emerged from the

intellectuals, communists, independent leftist and the radical student

movement and countercultural revolt of the 1960s…and devoted to

carry out attacks within the Federal Republic of Germany in view of

establishing a tradition of illegal guerilla resistance to imperial and

state repression”. The Red Army faction has a focus in Germany and its

actions do not cross borders.

Irish Republican Army (IRA)-Unofficial semi-military organization based

in the Republic of Ireland (formed in 1919). It sought complete Irish

independence from the United Kingdom (UK). The group used tactics

like ambushes, raids and sabotaging against the ruling government.

This forced the British to accept the creation of Irish Free State.

There are several efforts that have been made to reduce or mitigate

terrorism but they have ended in futility. The UN Counter-terrorism

Strategy as quoted in the United Nations General Assembly Sixtieth

Session (2006:3) states that “ as the states, Members of the UN,

33
resolve consistently, unequivocally and strongly condemn terrorism in

all its forms and manifestations, committed by whoever, wherever and

for whatever purposes as it constitutes one of the most serious threats

to international peace and security and to implement all General

Assembly resolutions on measures to eliminate international terrorism

and relevant General Assembly resolutions on the protection of human

rights…” This is a unique global instrument that will enhance national,

regional and international efforts to counter terrorism. However,

terrorists have made such kind of strategies fail as they continue to

operate yearly.

Wood (1974:703) argued that the other measure that was enacted in

order to reduce implications of terrorism is the Convention on the

Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected

Persons including diplomats which is “built on the great codification

conventions in the field of privileges and immunities including the

Vienna Convention on Diplomatic and Consular relations… and was

negotiated in response to a spate of kidnappings and killings of

diplomatic agents beginning in the late 1960s.” This has remained in

vain in the first decade in the millennium, for example the bombing of

the UN office in Baghdad on 19 August 2003, Nigerian attacks and

34
Algerian attacks of the UN offices clearly lays bare the retrogressive

efforts terrorist have made to undermine the success of counter

terrorism measures. The Security Council Resolution 1624 (2005) that

addresses the incitement to terrorism and the UN Counter-Terrorism

Strategy in September 2006 have been put in place in order to stifle

terrorist actions. The efforts to curb terrorism are marred by terrorists

who ignore these measures for their own benefit.

Arguably, terrorist activities from 2000 to 2015 have reflected that, it

is an inevitable evil that will continue to disturb most of the

international efforts to maintain international peace and security in the

past and the future. Its indiscriminate actions, targets and plans are

not known as they play their cards on their chest. There are several

terrorist groups around the world and this makes it very difficult to

curtail their actions. The concept of collective security has been

brought forward in order for the states to appreciate the need to come

together in fighting terrorism. On the other hand, the theory of realism

answers the question why the states are failing to come together

because they are pursuing individual interests first than anything else.

Thus, it is very difficult to fight terrorism given the anarchic state of

nature.

35
2.5 Literature on Terrorism Motivations

According to Hoffman, it no longer seems to be the focus of terrorists to

have the large audience watching. Their concern has now become

creating more damage and destruction than in the past, and a lesser

focus on sending a message to the community. Hoffman suggests this

is also why the new era of terrorists has more of a tendency to

threaten with the use of weapons of mass destruction. The

development of this type of destructive warfare means that there will

be an increase in fatalities by due to terrorism. Hoffman states that

religious terrorists contend that, “violence is first and foremost a

sacramental act or divine duty executed in direct response to some

theological demand or imperative.” Essentially, this is stating that the

acts of violence committed by terrorists are perpetrated in response to

some religious obligation or demand. That is, religion,in this instance, is

most certainly a motivating factor in the perpetration of

terroristacts.Juergensmeyer states that terrorist attacks around the

world are perpetrated with religion as a driving factor and it cannot be

pinpointed to a specific country of origin. He gives examples of the

36
Jewish assassins of Israel, the Buddhist terrorist sect in Japan, radical

Hindus and Sikhs in India and the Christian militants in the United

States.Researchers have long believed that certain religious

organizations give incentives to those ready to surrender their lives for

the sake of their religion. For instance, Ghorayeb inferredthat that the

eradication of discrimination and degradation led to the core of

sacrificial victim in Shi'a Muslims. The idea of martyrdom isused to

demonstrate high esteem and prominence within society at large.

Those who are ready to forfeit their lives for religious purposes are

viewed as iconic within their culture. Ghorayeb claims that they are

worshipped by family and friends for their willingness to continue the

fight for their belief and complete selfless disregard for their personal

life.

A number of researchers have suggested that religious terrorism is of

far greater threat than political terrorism. Caleb Carr claims that

religiously motivated terrorists believe they are fighting in a cosmic

battle that defines the battle of good versus evil. The outcome of this

type of war is greater than the individual and therefore justifies the

sacrifice of lives. Those individuals that perpetrate religiously affiliated

37
terrorism acts are more willing to kill themselves and those around

them as opposed to the political terrorists who want their message to

be known but without massive fatalities. Hoffman claims that the

politically motivated terrorist wants their message to be heard and

theyview killing as a sad necessity while the religiously motivated

terrorist believe that killing is a sacramental act. Religion is a far more

dangerous motivator for conflict when compared to just acquiring

land.The objectives of Religious fighters go beyond the world we live in

today and look to the afterlife. Religious fighters develop a “will to win”

mentality because the consequence for giving up in a battle is falling

out of good graces with God and therefore eternal damnation. The idea

of damnation moves the religious fighter past the point of self-

preservation and allows them to overcome the fear of death. Suicide

terrorists are ten times more likely to come from Muslim countries

where the American military is present, or, in the case of Palestine,

where an active Israeli occupation remains.

38
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

Research methodology refers to the way in which a researcher

retrieves data from the selected sampling frame, methods to collect

data, instruments to be used and how is the data scrutinised and

presented. Leedy and Ormrod (2000:100) define research

methodology as the “framework to extract meaning from the data

collected.”

The researchers used qualitative research methods to solicit

information from respondents who are well informed about issues of

terrorism. The method ensured thoroughness, authenticity and

accuracy of the research findings. The qualitative part of the research

included in-depth one-on- one interview with a guide, chat interview

through social networks like Google chat, Skype, Hotmail and Facebook

as well as review of secondary historical sources. The researcher used

structured interview because it guided the respondents on the

information required. The goal of using interview as a research method

was to obtain more in depth information on how terrorism affects

39
international peace and security. This allowed the respondents to

describe the implications of terrorism more accurately and thoroughly.

The researchers targeted 25 research participants and managed to

interview 14. This made the researchers to make a twist from face to

face to using telephone and chat shows on Facebook. For telephone

interview the researcher managed to interview 2 participants because

they had busy schedules. The reason for using interviews was that it

led to compilation of rich and complete description of terrorism.

The researchers used secondary sources which provided for thorough

research and a broad framework on which to build analysis. This

includes reading through textbooks and surfing the internet. Secondary

sources allows for the scrutiny and evaluation of data collected on past

cases of terrorism and to compare the data with hypothesis. The

literature used provides a greater insight into the problems of terrorist

activities which have affected international peace and security. The

use of secondary sources of data provides qualitative information.

3.2 The Implications Of Terrorism

Terrorism is a menace and is like an aching tooth which needs to be

rooted out but has no immediate remedy. The magnitude of

40
destruction, loss of life, injuries and disabilities have all made human

kind fail to find comfort in their governments as citizens are left

vulnerable to indiscriminate attacks of terrorists. The implications of

terrorism range from short, medium and even long term. The

researchers will discuss the implications of terrorism in the context of

militarypolitical, global, and human security problems. The results of

the interviews will also be discussed. The views are from independent

people‟s opinions and criticism that are drawn from the embassy staff

(Iran, Pakistan, USA, Nigeria, South Africa and Sudan), NGOs, Inter-

Governmental Organisation (IGO), high profile people representing the

Central Intelligence Organisation (CIO), Zimbabwe National Army (ZNA)

,political scientists and students who are well versed with the

implications of terrorism on international peace and security.

The Global Focus (http://www.globalfocus.org/GF-Terrorism.htm) states

that “terrorism does not just happen, it is an advanced stage of a failed

political process that begins with inequities and injustice, and moves

from frustrated attempts at reform that breed fear and anger, to

political confrontation that erupts in violence, which can be exploited

to rationalise the use of any form of violence against any target.” This

explains why the USA has the highest number of terrorist attacks per

41
year worldwide because of its failed expansionist foreign policy

towards other states they perceive to be “rogue” thereby attracting

many political enemies. The solutions of eradicating terrorism are

there but the implications are ubiquitous, inevitable, pervasive, and

offensive to the civilians.

The researchers used interviews and documentary research as a way

of soliciting for in depth knowledge about the implications of terrorism

on international peace and security. The researcher had scheduled 25

face- to- face interviews but they failed to materialise as planned due

to long bureaucratic processes at embassies and some ministries,

particularly Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The researcher requested

interview sessions from the following embassies; Islamic State of

Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, USA, Kenya, Libya, Ireland, the Sudan,

South Africa and Tanzania. Unfortunately some blamed for the absence

of the key personnel responsible for international affairs, while some

refused to assist. Some replied to my emails but did not invite me for

the interviews.

Out of the scheduled interviews, the researcher successfully carried

out 14 face- to face- interviews leaving a deficit of 11 participants who

failed to make it for the interviews. These research participants

42
included officers in the military and intelligence services, students at

the University of Zimbabwe (UZ), NGOs and IGO like African Union

(AU). The other participants were occupied for example at SAPES Trust;

others were affected by the 2011 Libyan war such that they were

deported by the authorities. The researcher compensated this failure

by conducting 2 telephone interviews with some research participants

at the embassy of Islamic Republic of Pakistan (but Zimbabweans) who

later provided some material on terrorism and 5 chat interviews with

close friends who were using Facebook. Facebook chat interview had

instant feedback, the facility is less costly and chatting can remain

confidential even if the research participants are scattered across the

globe.

There was much difficulty at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in terms of

interviewing the key personnel related to international relations.

However some junior officers assisted but the information was limited

due to the prohibitive Official Secrecy Act. The major political parties

welcomed the research and were very helpful both in ZANU PF and

MDC-T. The African Union was so difficult to reach but the researcher

was assisted by a law expert in the President‟s office who usually

attends the AU Summits and the information was very helpful. Desk

43
research became a major success with abundance of literature in the

UZ Library and SAPES Library.

The data consolidated from the research findings was stream lined into

three broader implications of terrorism on international peace. These

are Global and Human Security Implications.

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 THE IMPLICATIONS OF TERRORISM ON GLOBAL SECURITY

Abadie (2007:7) states that terrorism “reduces capital stock of a

country, threatens higher level of uncertainty, increases in counter-

terrorism expenditure, and drawing resources from productive sectors

for use in security and affects specific industries like tourism.” It is

history that terror causes investment to decrease immediately, income

and consumption to decline with time. While confronting terror as a

reactive measure, the optimising government uses taxes to

manufacture security weapons in order to reduce terror levels. The

terror levels which are indiscriminate can be less successfully

minimised.

The global implications of terrorism are enormous and they erode the

savings of the countries involved, divert some money designed for

44
other projects to fighting terrorism and rebuilding of infrastructure as

well as relief services. The European Journal of Political Economy

(2004:294) states that “the estimated global costs of the 9/11 attacks

were USA $14 billion for private sector, USA $1,5 billion for state and

local government, USA $0.7 billion for the Federal government and

USA 11 billion for rescue and cleanup operation.” The estimated cost

was not the money budgeted for but it was an expense to the coffers

of the collective efforts of the USA and its allies. This results in the

disadvantaging of other sectors at the expense of security.

While death, injuries and capital destruction are the most visible

implications of terrorist attacks, fear, violence, uncertainty and indirect

implications of terror are harmful to the economy in the long term. The

European Journal of

Political Economy (2004:295) states that “consumer confidence in the

USA had started to recover before 9/11 and was held back by

psychological impact of the attack.” The loss of confidence had a

negative impact on growth in the

USA and Europe in that it led to reduced spending, slowed down

investment, led to layoffs and increased the number of unemployed.

Sandler (2006:2) states that “$80 to $90 billion resulted in global

45
losses in lost wages, workman‟s compensation and reduced

commerce, diverting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), destroying

infrastructure, redirecting public investment funds to security or

limiting trade.” Given the above, it can be argued that the developed

countries may be able to resuscitate their economies because of its

reserves.

The European Journal of Political Economy (2004:295) states that

“terrorism, like civil conflicts, may cause spill over costs among

neighboring countries as terrorists campaign in a neighbor dissuades

capital inflows, or a regional multiplier causes loss in global activities in

the terrorism ridden country to resonate throughout the region.” An

economist and veteran politician in ZANU PF gave an example of

“Yemen shipping industry which suffered greatly in terms of its global

growth after the terrorist attacks on the USS Cole and Limburg diverted

half of Yemen‟s port activities to competitive facilities in Djibouti and

Oman due to increase in insurance premiums.” The implications of

terrorism are contagious in a global village where there is

interconnectedness of activities including trade routes. However, the

transportation sector suffers increases in insurance premiums because

of the risky environment as the demand was high. Lenain (2002:5)

46
states that “the disruptions in the transportation system following any

terrorist attack have illustrated the importance of efficient and open

borders for the daily operations of firms.” The researchers‟ interview

with some renowned Economists at the University of Zimbabwe

establishes that, the 9/11 eye opening event led to severe tightening

of border controls resulted in long waiting times, searching of vehicles

and detection led to disruption of the operations in manufacturing

companies for example the Canada- USA border. While the

manufacturers slow down the rate of production, the recipients also

suffer inadequacy of the products thus raising the prizes of commodity.

The costs of terrorism vary in their distribution across various sectors,

countries and time. In particular, terrorist attack can cause a shift in

the patterns of demand. Of interest under the implications of financial

markets will be the households, firms and governments which will

exhibit different preferences. The financial markets also affect

transportation and tourism sectors.

The asset values respond to the changes in expected profitability. The

total investment expected from individuals, is attracted by the levels of

expected returns or profitability. For example, if there are dangers of

the freight industry and terrorism sector, the value of shares as a

47
result of the unstable financial market hence a reduced activity on the

Stock Market. The European Journal of Political Economy (2004:295)

states that “the terror directed on the population of Israel with 639

terror attacks from 1990 to 2003, the empirical evidence indicate that

the terror did not affect the foreign exchange market but that the stock

market was affected with stock prizes internalising expectations of

reduced future profits.” The foreign market may continue gaining

because of the need to invest in the risky situation while the stock

market will witness a shock and the dividends, shares will not be

attractive for internal investment. Sandler (2006:7) states that “the 11

day cumulative average abnormal returns were larger than on the

Frankfurt, Paris, Toronto, Amsterdam, Switzerland, Italy and Hong Kong

stock market than on the NY Stock Exchange (NYSE) following the 9/11

attacks.” The analysis provides that the surrounding stock markets

were gaining due to the loss in investor confidence on the NYSE

thereby attracting investment to other stock markets. The researchers

define international trade as trading between two or more countries.

Once a terrorist attack has occurred, the attacks themselves do not

cause the increase in transaction costs but the policy responses to the

attack causes the increase in transactions of the trading pattern. The

48
individual including the Multinational Companies (MNC) will take

advantage of the given policy. For example, after the attack, a state

may introduce a policy to prevent or detect terrorism which during

implementation affects transacting at the border, regulation laws

which may affect the transportation routes and stifle the movement of

tourists freely. The European Journal for Political Economy (2004:297)

observes that “these measures are especially enacted on borders and

include closer inspections of people, vehicle and goods as well as more

restrictive immigration regulations which affect domestic trade which

will suffer higher transaction costs if new regulations prove costly for

business.” This will also affect bilateral trade flows because of the

insecurity that is exhibited by international trade.

Terrorism has significant fiscal implications and both direct and indirect

implications on growth. Sandler (2006:7) states that “a lower sense of

domestic security reduces the value of the growth of Gross Domestic

Product (GDP) which in turn reduces the intensity of the fight for

control of the state and if the government policy succeeds in reducing

the scale or the implications of terrorism, the value of capturing the

state rises and the domestic struggle for power intensifies.” This is true

in the sense that if the government expenditure is more on fighting

49
terrorism then the internal citizens will find the vacuum of power to

revolt against the burdening budget of sponsoring such events. The

USA sponsored war in Afghanistan, Iraq and Pakistan to combat

terrorism and billions of dollars are channeled towards sustaining the

war at the expense of the critical mass. While this exerts pressure in

job cuts, low manufacturing and attract disinvestment and increase

spending to the security sector. The problems of burdening the fiscal

obligations of the USA government and the security is not a guarantee

to the citizens and the future of terrorist attack cannot be eliminated

forever and then it led to the growing global pressure until a point of

protesting against such policies through the Wall Street Protests which

fuelled the security dilemma in mid-2012.

A policy issue of the defense against terror requires awareness of the

motivations and objectives of terrorism. The policy can result in

changed perceptions thereby affecting the majority in the way they

execute their functions. The Patriot Act later infringed domestic civil

rights, immigration and education policies, and the regulation of

religious and the granting of citizenship. Thus the domestic fiscal

growth is affected leading to reduced GDP.

50
4.2 The Implications of Terrorism on Individual Security and

Education

Gasper (2008:12) states that “human security redirects attention in

discussions of security from the national or state level to human beings

as the potential victims; beyond physical violence as the only relevant

threat or vector; and beyond physical harm as the only relevant

damage.” Human security includes global security, food security,

health security, environmental security, personal security, community

security and political security. Terrorism is deemed to be a usurper of

human security in general such that there is chaos among the civilians

after being denied access to the securities. As such the masses will

revolt and use violence to their government. This also breeds an

environment for the emergence of terrorists.

The greatest danger that the humankind is facing today comes from

terrorists who are more inspired by radical religion values which are

state-sponsored and are seeking to develop WMD. Terrorists have no

“return address” in that they cannot be made easy targets but as they

make publicity, they pounce on civilians who are left languishing in

pain, poverty, disabilities and diseases. From all history of terrorism,

mankind have been suffering and the major casualties die

51
indiscriminately leaving behind their families, widows, orphans and

disabled who in most cases cannot sustain themselves. This will

present a burden to the financial side of the government to commit

funds for rebuilding and construction. The state of nature is presented

by Morgenthau (1993:29) as “international politics, like all politics is

the struggle for power and whatever the ultimate aims of international

politics power is always the immediate aim.” The desire to acquire

power or see power as a means to an end pushes terrorist to try and

perform their evil acts against the people to attract attention as one of

their objectives. Terrorists need dominance, their formation and the

motives they pursue differ but they are united by the major common

thing of death to induce fear in targeted society. It pains to note that

the terrorists do not care about human life as extracted from the

writings of Campos (2009:1) in preface quoting

Himmler, that “The best political weapon is the weapon of terror.

Cruelty commands respect. Men may hate us. But, we don‟t ask for

their love; only for their fear.” Such kind of thinking is criminality at the

expense of fostering a peaceful world. Reading through the above

statements, one can argue that the state of nature is unequivocally

inevitable and is perpetually conflictual.

52
The researchers extracted a few selected terrorist incidences to

demonstrate that it is the humankind that suffers most in any action of

terrorism from 2000, 2001 and 2002. The basis of selection is that the

9/11 is the major attack in the decade, while 2000 is prior to the 9/11

attacks and 2002 is after the catastrophic events of the decade.

Koberston (2007:88) states that “ in 2000, Liberation Tigers of Tamil

Eelam bomb killed C.V Gooneratine, Sri Lanka‟s industrial minister and

20 others, on 18 May a bomb exploded and Buddhist temple in

Battilacoa, Sri Lanka killing 23, on 12 October Al Qaeda attacked USS

Cole, moored outside Aden, Yemen where two suicide bombers

rammed the ship and small boat loaded with explosives killed 17

sailors, on 24 December multiple Christian Church bombed in

Indonesia killing and injuring 100” while in “2001, in March IRA car

bomb exploded outside British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)

Television Offices in West London, Hamas bombs Netanya Israel killing

3 and 65 wounded, on May 27 Abu Sayyaf members kidnapped 20

people from resort in Palawan, Philippines, on 11 June Oklahoma City

bomber Timothy McVeigh executed, on 11September the WTC

bombing and Pentagon in New York killing over 3000 people of various

nationals, on 1 October suicide attack on legislature in Kashmir and

53
Janmu leaving 31 people dead, on 7 October USA invaded Afghanistan,

on 1 and 2 December Hamas suicide bombers strucked targets in

Jerusalem and Itaifa killing two dozens,‟ and “ in 2002, on January 17

Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade shooter killed six in Israel, 16 February PFLP

suicide bomber killed 4 people and West Bank food court, 20 March

bomb exploded across from USA embassy in former Peru, killing 10

people, 11 April 19 tourist died when Al Qaeda detonate track bomb

outside a synagogue in Tunisia, 19 June Hamas suicide bomber killed 6

people on bus in West Jerusalem, on 31 July Hamas bomb detonated at

Hebrew University killing 9, on 12 October Jemaah Islamiah bombed

two night clubs in Bali, Indonesia killing 202 predominantly Tunis and

on 27 December truck bomb destroyed headquarters of Russia

government in Grozny Chechnya killing 80 people.” The deaths by

terrorists have claimed a lot of lives including children of the school

going age. The researcher argues that the perpetrators of violence

must receive severe punishment because of the crimes against

humanity and it is the human‟s burden to restore destroyed

infrastructure and the environment.

The people have also suffered from biological weapons though mainly

used during warfare but terrorists are capable of accessing such

54
weapons. Garrison (1993:62) listed the types of biological weapons as

follows “incapacitation weapons designed to cause sickness and lethal

weapons which cause massive deaths.” In 1993 Japan released

anthrax with the intend to cause an epidemic and on 20 March 1995 it

released sarin nerve gas on a train system leading to death of 12 and 5

000 injured. During the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq as pre-

emptive strategy to counter-terrorism, the USA soldiers were fought by

biological weapons leading to deaths, sickness and ill health. Human

Security comprises of environment in relation to mankind versus

sustainable development. Mankind has over the years greatly modified

the environment. As environment degrades and change due to human

influence, new diseases arise and old diseases in lethality. The

implications of terrorism to the environment can be equated to the

times of war. Thus the analysis given on the environmental

implications of terrorism blends terrorism and war. It can be argued

that, terrorism is a form of war. In the Geographical Paper number 169,

Mannion (2003:5) states that “many European cities were substantially

altered by bombing raids during the World War Two (WW2) for

example London, Coventry, Berlin and Dresden while in Berlin 125 000

people died, half of the buildings and one third of the industrial plant

55
were razed to the ground.” This is reminiscent of the terrorist attacks

that saw the destruction of the UN offices in Dar es- Salaam, Tanzania

where USA embassies were destroyed including over 250 injured and

10 lives were lost. In Kenya about 5 000 injured in Nairobi, Kenya living

building destroyed at the USA embassy. Mannion (2003:7) states that

“devastation wrought by terrorist bombing of the resort of Kuta on the

island of Bali, Indonesia on 13 October 2002 is still evident.” This leads

to destruction and annihilation of the buildings which cause

environmental damage. In Iraq from 2003, there was a lot of

destruction of buildings which is not environmentally friendly. The

bombings can be equated to the aerial bombing of the palace of the

late Libyan leader Gaddafi and Ivory Coast, Gbagbo. The bombings

were offensive and kill creatures, young children and animals which

are not part of the targets propounded by Gulio Douhet in his ideas on

air strategy.

The terrorists can also use biological weapons which are so harmful to

the environment and the people. Mannion further states that “NATO

bombing raids in Belgrade in 1999, the petrol-chemical plants in the

suburbs leaked hazardous substances into the air and the release of oil

from these plants led to the killing of fauna and flora while they have

56
contaminated above- and below-ground water.” The release of

hydrochloric acid and mercury compound do not only affect the

targeted state but also the downstream states while bombing of

factories which produce ammonia and plastics resulting in the release

of chemicals such as chlorine and vinyl chloride causing local air

pollution and health hazards.

According to American Psychological Association the Impact of

Terrorism and Disasters on Children states that most children

suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This condition

“develops in response to witnessing or experiencing threatening or

harmful events that elicits fear, helplessness or horror.” This condition

can affect the children even after 15 years. A research survey

indicated that six months after 9/11 attacks, approximately 75 000

New York City public school children in grades 4 through 12 were

suffering from PTSD including children who were not directly affected

by the event.

It can be argued that terrorism highly affects individual security and

education of both adults and young. The continued killings and

bombings leaves people with no sense of pride in education as the

fruits are not realised due to terrorism.

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58
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

The research study concludes that terrorism has negatively affected

collective state effort in maintaining international peace and security

especially the period between 2000 and 2015. The decade in the

millennium witnessed the major attack of a superpower where almost

3000 people dead of over 50 nationalities. Of the dead, they left

orphans and widows who are not able to pay the school fees for their

kids because the bread winners were killed. This is a challenge not only

in America but in Africa as a whole.

The concept of collective security has been discussed in detail but it

has remained very difficult for states to collectively co-exist. This is

because of the ideological and geographical differences between and

among member states of the UN. The collective security agenda is

overridden by state interest. This is accompanied by refusal by some

member states to be bound by the rules of the UN. This concept is

based on the pacifist settlement of disputes but on the other hand

diverge from the real practise of politics and peace. The concept is

59
usually favoured during large conferences whose idea is to stimulate

research while on the ground states act together with friends than

enemies. As noted earlier, the concept of collective security is

outweighed by the theory of Realism which is clear on the reasons why

states are reluctant to fight terrorism collectively. It states that politics

is ridden by selfishness and egoism of states and individuals who are

always in pursuit of power. Politics is thus the struggle for power and

peace. The theory of realism explains the real practise and contact of

states and the exercise of hard power in a political world. The research

study used the concept of collective security and theory of realism

because they are relevant in the contemporary times when there is

need to eradicate terrorism or reduce its implications.

The research provides that terrorism has negatively affected collective

state effort in maintaining international peace and security especially

from 2000 to 2015. The implications of terrorism has been categorised

into three (2) major areas: The Implications of Terrorism on Global

Security and The Implications of Terrorism on Individual Security.

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 The Implications of Terrorism on Global Security includes the

reduction of FDI, reduced capital inflows, stalls stock markets, shifts

investment both capital and labour. It ushers in higher uncertainty thus

reducing confidence among potential investors. The state shifts its

priority from projects designed for growth to higher demand for

security and once security is given higher priority, transport sector

suffers especially dealing with cross border. Besides industry will act

below capacity or forced to close due to the lack of labour.

 The Implications of Terrorism on Individual Security. The research

study explained security not only to mean insulated from physical

harm but also from environmental security, food security, community

security, global security and even health security among other

securities. The continuous advancement in technology has led to the

emergence of cyber-terrorism, Narco-terrorism, biological terrorism

and even nuclear terrorism. These are designed to inflict pain and

insecurity upon the citizens of a government which will then fail to

protect its citizens. The Mumbai attacks, Black September, 9/11,

bombing of the WTC in 1993, hostage taking and kidnapping have all

caused human insecurity

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These problems are very difficult to mitigate given that the states are

driven by their individual interests rather than collective efforts. The

UN has tried to curb terrorism through pacifist tract of dispute

settlements but this has been very implicative in world forums. These

forums are not binding to terrorist organisations, so whatever

recommendations, policies or actions, the concerned organisations are

absent hence they escape any legal binding status. On the other hand

the UN has no leverage, financial resources and motivation to deter

terrorism. It is ironic that the UN which is supposed to maintain peace

and security has no permanent police force to safeguard what it stands

for. Instead, the “boys and girls” who are selected to represent this

body are mostly egoistic and enjoy themselves at the expense of

providing peace and security. It can be summarised that the period

between 2000 and 2015has witnessed fragrant gross violation of

human rights either by the state itself against its civilians or the

civilians against the state or state versus another state. It can be

dubbed a prime period for terrorism which took advantage of the world

chaos especially after 9/11 terrorist attacks.

62
If the economy is deteriorating, then many people especially in Africa

fail to send children to Primary School, High School and Universities.

People will be migrating; some will lose their infrastructure and slowly

poverty is witnessed. Somalia is a true case. Individual security allows

children to find better educational facility. But terrorism seeks to break

all that. In turn, the nation as a whole will not function properly.

5.2 Recommendations

It is commendable in this research study that the UNSC should be

reformed, rebranded or abolished and submits all veto to the General

Assembly in order to meet the challenges of the twenty-first century.

The P5 status was made by the victorious powers of the WW2. But this

is an era that has since passed. Today there are some states which are

more advanced than France for example Japan and South Africa who

can take over from France. The Asian Tigers have a success story of

global boom while the USA, EU and Africa are facing financial crisis.

Thus there is a need to re-look at the criteria which warrant veto

status.

The GWOT needs to be based on a clearly defined concept of terrorism

and has to be conducted in such a way that it does not itself resort to

63
terrorism. Instead, it has to be integrated into a balanced international

global order, one that will make the incidences of terrorist thwarted

and finally erode the social support for terrorism. Thus, it is

commendable that the UN find a common definition of terrorism which

is more accommodative than the current case where “terrorist” defend

themselves through definitions which are not universally bound. If

there is no definition of terrorism which is agreed then there is no basis

for such a war because it is baseless. The waging of the GWOT should

be waged through collective security framework as defined in Chapter

VII of the UNC. This will avoid anarchy and it restores the lost

international peace and security as such kind of war is contacted

multilaterally and not unilaterally.

It will be of great value if the fighting and detonation of bombs is

stopped to allow for global growth. If fighting continues, investors will

find it risk to invest in any area. It is imperative that the fighting,

destruction of property in order to make a political statement be

minimised paving way for investments, good distribution channels and

providing of capital injection into manufacturing. This allows for

maximum exploitation of resources and free sanctions trading zone in

64
a globalised village. If terror activities are minimised this allows growth

in every sector of the economy.

The study recommends that there is need to observe human rights and

all protocols relating to the protection of civilians. Without observance

of human rights then the humans will continue to suffer. The methods

applied to the contact of war should be observed without fail and the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights and African Charter for People‟s

Human Rights. Besides it is suggested that all states begin to create

structures that will cater for all human security needs from security,

food, health, environment, and community security. To that end, this

will provide a new world political dispensation which tolerate the

existence of all securities.

There is also need to provide stiffer measures to terrorists who target

civilians once they are multilaterally caught and tried. This also

extends to the abolition of Guantanamo Bay and Ghraib terrorist

holding centres. There is also need to remove control of counter-

terrorism (GWOT) from the USA to the UN for the purposes of trial and

execution of terrorists. This minimises the frequency of terrorist

attacks because terrorism would have been dealt with in a multi-lateral

approach as opposed to uni-lateralism.

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The research study recommends that Open Distance Learning (ODL)

should be used a panacea to better educational systems during the

time of crisis and beyond. As students drop out of school due to the

reasons related to terrorism, ODL will provide a gap between lessons

missed or time lost. This will be a powerful weapon to insulate a nation

against the implications of terrorism on educational system.

66
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