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Pathways in Mathematics
Peter Junghanns
Giuseppe Mastroianni
Incoronata Notarangelo
Weighted
Polynomial
Approximation
and Numerical
Methods for
Integral Equations
Pathways in Mathematics
Series Editors
Takayuki Hibi, Department of Pure and Applied Mathematics, Osaka University,
Suita, Osaka, Japan
Wolfgang König, Weierstraß-Institut, Berlin, Germany
Johannes Zimmer, Fakultät für Mathematik, Technische Universität München,
Garching, Germany
Each “Pathways in Mathematics” book offers a roadmap to a currently well devel-
oping mathematical research field and is a first-hand information and inspiration
for further study, aimed both at students and researchers. It is written in an
educational style, i.e., in a way that is accessible for advanced undergraduate and
graduate students. It also serves as an introduction to and survey of the field for
researchers who want to be quickly informed about the state of the art. The point of
departure is typically a bachelor/masters level background, from which the reader
is expeditiously guided to the frontiers. This is achieved by focusing on ideas and
concepts underlying the development of the subject while keeping technicalities to
a minimum. Each volume contains an extensive annotated bibliography as well as a
discussion of open problems and future research directions as recommendations for
starting new projects. Titles from this series are indexed by Scopus.
Weighted Polynomial
Approximation
and Numerical Methods
for Integral Equations
Peter Junghanns Giuseppe Mastroianni
Fakultät für Mathematik Department of Mathematics, Computer
Technische Universität Chemnitz Sciences and Economics
Chemnitz, Germany University of Basilicata
Potenza, Italy
Incoronata Notarangelo
Department of Mathematics
”Giuseppe Peano”
University of Turin
Turin, Italy
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland
AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This book is published under the imprint Birkhäuser, www.birkhauser-science.com, by the registered
company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
The content of this book is a combination of two topics, one comes from the
theory of approximation of functions and integrals by interpolation and quadrature,
respectively, and the other from the numerical analysis of operator equations,
in particular, of integral and related equations. It is not necessary to point out
that integral equations play an important role in different mathematical areas. We
stress the connection between ordinary differential equations and Volterra-Fredholm
integral equations and the connection between boundary value problems for partial
differential equations and boundary integral equations, which are obtained by so-
called boundary integral methods. These methods lead to different classes of integral
equations like, for example, Fredholm integral equations of first and second kind
involving integral operators with both smooth and weakly singular kernel functions,
or Cauchy singular integral equations, as well as hypersingular integral equations,
or integro-differential equations.
Regarding interpolation and quadrature processes, we restrict ourselves to the
non periodic case, that means to the approximation and integration of functions
defined on bounded or unbounded intervals, where we attach particular value to
functions having singularities at the end points of the interval. This is due to our
further aim in this book, namely, to propose and to investigate numerical methods
for different classes of integral equations given on such intervals, where these
methods are based on the mentioned interpolation and quadrature processes. The
book contains classical results, but also very recent results. We thought it might be
worthwhile to publish a book in which these two topics are summarized.
In Chap. 1, the introduction, we give some hints for the use of the book and
introduce some general notations and agreements for the whole text. Chapter 2
collects the basic principles from linear functional analysis needed in the remaining
part of the book, gives definitions for different kinds of function spaces such as
weighted Lp spaces and weighted spaces of continuous functions as well as scales
of subspaces of them, which are important for our investigations. This chapter also
presents some concepts concerned with the stability and convergence of operator
sequences or, in other words, with numerical or approximation methods for operator
v
vi Preface
equations. Moreover, we recall some basic facts from fixed point theory and about
Newton’s method.
Chapters 3 and 4 are devoted to the study of interpolation processes and the
respective quadrature rules based on the zeros of orthogonal polynomials with
respect to certain weight functions on the interval (−1, 1), the half axis (0, ∞),
and the whole real axis. These chapters can be considered as a continuation of [121,
Chapter 2 and Chapter 4, Section 5.1], where the authors mainly consider classical
weights (also with additional inner singularities). In the present text we concentrate
on recent results and developments concerned with non classical weights like
exponential weights on (−1, 1) and on (0, ∞) and generalized Freud weights on
the real axis.
In Chap. 5, we provide mapping properties of various classes of integral operators
in certain Banach spaces of functions and with respect to appropriate scales of sub-
spaces of these Banach spaces, which are of interest for our further investigations.
Moreover, we discuss solvability properties of certain classes of nonlinear Cauchy
singular integral equations.
Chapters 6 and 7 deal with numerical methods for several classes of integral
equations based on some interpolation and quadrature processes considered in
Chaps. 3 and 4. While Chap. 6 concentrates on respective Nyström and collocation-
quadrature methods for Fredholm integral equations with continuous and weakly
singular kernel functions, in Chap. 7 collocation and collocation-quadrature meth-
ods are applied to strongly singular integral equations like linear and nonlinear
Cauchy singular integral equations, integral equations with strongly fixed singu-
larities, and hypersingular integral equations.
In Chap. 8, we investigate some concrete applications of the theory presented
in the previous chapter to examples from two-dimensional elasticity theory, airfoil
theory, and free boundary seepage flow problems. In the two final chapters, Chaps. 9
and 10, we give complete answers or detailed hints to the exercises and list a
series of inequalities, equivalences, and equalities used at many places in the book,
respectively.
The book is mainly addressed to graduate students familiar with the basics of real
and complex analysis, linear algebra, and functional analysis. But, the study of this
book is also worthwhile for researchers beginning to deal with the approximation
of functions and the numerical solution of operator equations, in particular integral
equations. Moreover, we hope that the present book is also suitable to give ideas for
handling further or new problems of interest, which can be solved with the help of
integral equations. The book should also reach engineers who are interested in the
solution of certain problems of similar kind as presented here.
We are deeply grateful to Birkhäuser for including this book in the very
successful series Pathways in Mathematics and, in particular, for the invaluable
assistance in preparing the final version of the text.
1 Introduction .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Basics from Linear and Nonlinear Functional Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Linear Operators, Banach and Hilbert Spaces . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Fundamental Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Compact Sets and Compact Operators . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Function Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4.1 Lp -Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4.2 Spaces of Continuous Functions . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4.3 Approximation Spaces and Unbounded
Linear Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.5 Fredholm Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.6 Stability of Operator Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.7 Fixed Point Theorems and Newton’s Method.. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3 Weighted Polynomial Approximation and Quadrature Rules
on (−1, 1) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.1 Moduli of Smoothness, K-Functionals, and Best
Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.1.1 Moduli of Smoothness and K-Functionals.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.1.2 Moduli of Smoothness and Best Weighted
Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.1.3 Besov-Type Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2 Polynomial Approximation with Doubling Weights on
the Interval (−1, 1) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.2.1 Definitions .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.2.2 Polynomial Inequalities with Doubling Weights . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.2.3 Christoffel Functions with Respect to Doubling
Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.2.4 Convergence of Fourier Sums in Weighted Lp -Spaces . . . . 91
3.2.5 Lagrange Interpolation in Weighted Lp -Spaces .. . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.2.6 Hermite Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
vii
viii Contents
8 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
8.1 A Cruciform Crack Problem .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
8.1.1 The Integral Equations Under Consideration .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
8.1.2 Solvability Properties of the Operator Equations .. . . . . . . . . . 542
8.1.3 A Quadrature Method.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
8.2 The Drag Minimization Problem for a Wing . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
8.2.1 Formulation of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
8.2.2 Derivation of the Operator Equation . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
8.2.3 A Collocation-Quadrature Method .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
8.2.4 Numerical Examples .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
8.3 Two-Dimensional Free Boundary Value Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
8.3.1 Seepage Flow from a Dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
8.3.2 Seepage Flow from a Channel.. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
9 Hints and Answers to the Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
10 Equalities and Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
10.1 Equalities and Equivalences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
10.2 General Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
10.3 Marcinkiewicz Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Index . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
Chapter 1
Introduction
In this book we are mainly interested in the approximation of (in general, complex
valued) functions, defined on bounded or unbounded intervals of the real line, with
possible singularities (like unboundedness or nonsmoothness) at the endpoints of
these intervals (cf. Chaps. 3 and 4). In particular, we focus on situations, where such
functions are (unknown) solutions of different kinds of integral equations, namely
Fredholm integral equations (Chap. 6), linear and nonlinear Cauchy singular integral
equations, hypersingular integral equations, and integral equations with Mellin
kernels (Chap. 7). We propose and investigate numerical methods for solving these
operator equations. Thereby, we concentrate on so-called global ansatz functions
for the unknown solutions by searching an approximate solution as a finite linear
combination of (in general, weighted) polynomials (cf. Chaps. 6 and 7).
Consequently, our main goals are, firstly, studying (weighted) polynomial
approximation of functions from weighted spaces of continuous functions and
weighted Lp -spaces (cf. Chaps. 3 and 4) and, secondly, the stability and convergence
of certain approximation methods for integral equations basing on interpolation and
quadrature processes as investigated in Chaps. 3 and 4. Thus, if readers are mainly
interested in the approximation of functions and integrals, then, after reading this
introduction and Chap. 2, they can concentrate on studying Chaps. 3 and 4 on
weighted polynomial approximation. Readers, who are more interested in numerics
for integral equations, can skip Chaps. 3 and 4 and directly proceed with Chap. 5
on mapping properties of some classes of integral operators, followed by Chap. 6
or/and Chap. 7 (consulting certain results from Chaps. 3 and 4 if necessary). They
should end up reading Chap. 8 on some Applications devoted to fracture mechanics,
wing theory, and free boundary value problems (cf. the picture at the end of this
introduction). Moreover, many sections of the book are written in such a way that,
for a reader who would not go too much into the details, it is also possible to study
a single section with a certain success and without taking into account too much
references to other places in the book. That means, that definitions and notations
Chapter 1 : Introduction
Chapter 6 : Chapter 7 :
Chapter 8 : Applications
In this chapter we collect the basic principles from linear functional analysis needed
in the remaining part of the book. We give definitions for different kinds of function
spaces such as weighted Lp -spaces and weighted spaces of continuous functions as
well as scales of subspaces of them, which are important for our investigations. We
also present some concepts concerned with the stability and convergence of operator
sequences or, in other words, with numerical or approximation methods for operator
equations. Moreover, we recall some basic facts from fixed point theory, namely
Banach’s and Schauder’s fixed point theorems, and discuss a few aspects on the
convergence of Newton’s iteration method.
γ −1 f 2 ≤ f 1 ≤ γ f 2 ∀f ∈ X.
for some p ∈ [1, ∞). We agree that, if in the sequel there occur products of normed
spaces, we will consider them equipped with one of these norms. Moreover, K is
also considered as the Banach space (K, |.|) with the modulus as norm. Clearly,
if both spaces X and Y are Banach spaces, then so is their product. With these
definitions, one can easily see that the maps X × X −→ X, (f, g) → f + g and
K × X −→ X, (α, f ) → αf are continuous maps.
Let X and Y be normed linear spaces over the same field K. A linear operator
A ∈ L(X, Y) is called bounded if it maps bounded sets into bounded sets, which is
equivalent to
AX→Y := sup Af Y : f ∈ X, f X ≤ 1 < ∞ .
Af Y ≤ M f X ∀f ∈ X.
The set of all bounded linear operators from X into Y is denoted by L(X, Y), in case
Y = X by L(X). The linear combination of two linear operators A, B ∈ L(X, Y)
is defined by (αA + βB)f := (αAf ) + (βBf ) ∀f ∈ X, where α, β ∈ K. Then
L(X, Y) is a linear space, and L(X, Y), .X→Y = L(X, Y), .L(X,Y) is a
normed linear space, which is a Banach space if and only if Y is a Banach space
(see the following three exercises).
Let (X, .X ) and (Y, .Y ) be two normed spaces. We say that Y is continu-
ously embedded into X, if Y ⊂ X and the operator E : Y −→ X, y → y is
2.1 Linear Operators, Banach and Hilbert Spaces 7
bounded, i.e., if yX ≤ cyY holds true for all y ∈ Y with a finite constant c ∈ R
not depending on y.
In all what follows, we abstain from writing the index in a norm (for example, in
.X or .L(X,Y)), if there is no possibility of misunderstandings.
Exercise 2.1.1 Let X0 be a dense linear subspace of X and let Y be a Banach space.
Assume A0 ∈ L(X0 , Y). Show that there exists a unique extension A ∈ L(X, Y) of
A0 , i.e., Af = A0 f for all f ∈ X0 .
∞
Exercise 2.1.2 For a sequence (xn )n=1 of elements xn ∈ X of a normed space
∞
n ∞
(X, .), we say that the series xn is convergent if the sequence xk
n=1 k=1 n=1
∞
converges. It is called absolutely convergent, if the number series xn
n=1
converges. Show that X is a Banach space if and only if every absolutely convergent
series of elements of X is convergent in X.
Exercise 2.1.3 Prove that L(X, Y) is a Banach space if and only if Y is a Banach
space. (Hint: For the ⇒-direction, use Corollary 2.2.10 from Sect. 2.2 below.)
An operator P ∈ L(X, X) is called projection if P 2 = P. Since in this case, for
g = Pf , we have PgX = gX , we see that PX→X ≥ 1 for every continuous
projection P ∈ L(X, X).
Let H be a linear space over the field K = R or K = C, equipped with a so-called
inner product ., . : H × H −→ K having the following properties:
(I1) f, f ≥ 0 ∀ f ∈ H, and f, f = 0 if and only if f = ,
(I2) f, g = g, f ∀ f, g ∈ H (α denotes the complex conjugate number of
α ∈ C),
(I3) αf + βg, h = α f, h + β g, h ∀ f, g, h ∈ H, ∀ α, β ∈ K.
A linear space (H, ., .)
√with inner product is considered as a normed linear space
(H, .) with f := f, f . In such a space the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality
holds true,
| f, g | ≤ f g ∀ f, g ∈ H .
1 : m = n,
em , en = δmn := (2.1.1)
0 : m = n .
8 2 Basics from Linear and Nonlinear Functional Analysis
We remark that in this case the system {e0 , e1 , . . . , em } is linearly independent for
every m ∈ N0 . We denote the linear hull of this system by Hm and define the
operators Pm : H −→ H by
m
Pm f = f, ej ej .
j =0
∞
|f, ek |2 = f 2 ∀f ∈ H. (2.1.2)
k=0
lim f − Pm f = 0 ∀f ∈ H, (2.1.3)
m→∞
∞
which can also be written as f = f, ek ek (in the sense of convergence in H)
k=0
and which is a consequence of the relation
m
f − Pm f 2 = f − Pm f, f − Pm f = f 2 − Pm f 2 = f 2 − | f, ek |2 .
k=0
(2.1.4)
2.2 Fundamental Principles 9
∞
Exercise 2.1.4 Show that the orthonormal system (en )n=0 is complete if and only
∞
if the set H := Hm is dense in H, which means that every f ∈ H is the limit of
m=0
a sequence of elements of H.
There exist three fundamental principles in linear functional analysis, the principle
of uniform boundedness, the closed graph theorem, and the theorem on the sufficient
number of bounded linear functionals, which are closely connected with the Banach-
Steinhaus theorem, Banach’s theorem, and the Hahn-Banach theorem, respectively.
In the sequel, we will describe these principles in a short manner.
Principle of Uniform Boundedness Let X be a Banach space and Y be a normed
space. If a family F ⊂ L(X, Y) of bounded linear operators is pointwise bounded,
i.e.,
sup Af Y : A ∈ F < ∞ ∀f ∈ X,
lim An f − Af Y = 0 ∀f ∈ X.
n→∞
holds true. In view of Theorem 2.2.7, there exists a functional f ∈ X∗ such that
f (x) = f0 (x) for all x ∈ X0 and |f (x)| ≤ x∗ = f0 X∗ xX for all x ∈ X.
0
Thus, on the one hand f X∗ ≤ f0 X∗ . On the other hand, we have
0
f X∗ = sup {|f (x)| : x ∈ X, xX ≤ 1} ≥ sup {|f0 (x)| : x ∈ X0 , xX ≤ 1} = f0 X∗ ,
0
∞
∞
p
= ξ= (ξn )n=0 : ξn ∈ C , |ξn | < ∞
p
, (2.2.1)
n=0
1
+ q1 = 1 , its dual space ( p )∗ can be identified with q via the isometrical
p
isomorphism
p ∗ ∞
J : −→ q
, f → J f = η = (ηn )n=0 (2.2.4)
∞
p )∗
with f (ξ ) = ξn ηn for all ξ ∈ p (i.e., J : ( −→ q is linear and bijective
n=0
with J f = f ( for all f ∈ ( p )∗ ).
q p )∗
Exercise 2.2.12 Use Hölder’s inequality (2.2.3) to show that the map J :
( p )∗ −→ q defined in (2.2.4) is an isometrical isomorphism.
∞ p
For a sequence ω = (ωn )n=0 of positive numbers, by ω we denote the weighted
p ∞
√ ∞
space ω = x = (ξn )n=0 : p ωn ξn n=0 ∈ p equipped with the norm
∞
1
p
ξ p
ω
= ωn |ξn | p
. (2.2.5)
n=0
Of course,
p ∗ ∞
Jω : ω −→ q
ω, f → Jω f = η = (ηn )n=0 (2.2.6)
∞
p
with f (ξ ) = ωn ξn ηn for all ξ ∈ ω is an isometrical isomorphism (cf.
n=0
Exercise 2.2.12).
Corollary 2.2.13 Let 1 < p < ∞ and p1 + q1 = 1, and let αk ∈ C, γk > 0, k ∈ N0 ,
be given numbers. If there is a constant A ∈ R such that, for all βk ∈ C and all
n ∈ N,
n n 1
p
γk αk βk ≤ A γk |βk |p , (2.2.7)
k=0 k=0
then
∞ 1
q
γk |αk |q ≤ A. (2.2.8)
k=0
2.3 Compact Sets and Compact Operators 13
∞
Proof For γ = (γn )n=0 , define the linear functional
n
∞
fn : p
γ −→ C, ξ = (ξn )n=0 → γk αk ξk .
k=0
p ∗
By (2.2.7) we have fn ∈ γ and, since Jω in (2.2.6) is an isometrical
1
n q
isomorphism, fn p ∗
γ
= γk |αk |q ≤ A, which yields (2.2.8).
k=0
Let E be a metric space with the distance function d : E × E −→ [0, ∞). Recall
that a subset A ⊂ E is called compact if every covering of A by open sets contains a
finite covering of A and that A is called relatively compact if its closure is compact.
For ε > 0, by an ε-net for a nonempty subset A ⊂ E we mean a set Aε ⊂ E such
that for every x ∈ A there exists an xε ∈ Aε with d(x, xε ) < ε. This condition can
also be written in the formula
Aε ∩ Uε (x) = ∅ ∀x ∈ A,
where Uε (x) = UE
ε (x) denotes the (open) ε-neighbourhood of x ∈ E,
Exercise 2.3.1 Let A ⊂ E be a nonempty subset of a metric space (E, d). Show
that, if for every ε > 0 there exists a finite ε-net Aε ⊂ E for A, then, for every
ε > 0, there exists a finite ε-net Bε ⊂ A for A.
Exercise 2.3.2 Prove that A ⊂ E is relatively compact if and only if every sequence
∞
(xn )n=1 of points xn ∈ A possesses a convergent subsequence. Moreover, show that
a set A ⊂ E is relatively compact if, for every ε > 0, there exists a finite ε-net for
A, and that the reverse conclusion is true, if E is a complete metric space.
Note, that a subset of a finite dimensional normed space is relatively compact if
and only if it is bounded.
Lemma 2.3.3 Let X be a Banach space and Xn ⊂ X, n = 1, 2, . . . be a sequence
of finite dimensional subspaces of X. If A is a bounded subset of X and if
Then there exist gk ∈ A with Enk (gk ) ≥ ε, where we can assume that (due to the
relative compactness of A, cf. Exercise 2.3.2) gk −→ g ∗ for k −→ ∞ and for some
g ∗ ∈ X. Let k be sufficiently large, such that gk − g ∗ < ε2 . Then, for fnk ∈ Xnk ,
ε
ε ≤ fnk − gnk ≤ fnk − g ∗ + g ∗ − gnk < fnk − g ∗ +
2
implying that 2ε ≤ fnk − g ∗ for all fnk ∈ Xnk and all sufficiently large k. Hence,
∞
taking into account Xn ⊂ Xn+1 , we have ε
2 ≤ f − g ∗ for all f ∈ X0 := Xn ,
n=1
which contradicts the assumed density of X0 in X.
Let E be a compact metric space and denote by C(E) the Banach space of all
continuous functions f : E −→ C, where the norm is given by
Exercise 2.3.6 Let (E, d) be a metric space. A family F ⊂ C(E) is called (locally)
equicontinuous in x0 ∈ E, if for every ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that
Show that, for a compact metric space (E, d), a set F ⊂ C(E) is equicontinuous if
and only if it is equicontinuous in every x0 ∈ E.
Exercise 2.3.7 For I = [−1, 1], I = [0, ∞], or I = [−∞, ∞], by (I, db ) we
denote the respective metric spaces defined by db (x, y) = | arctan(x) − arctan(y)|
π
with arctan(±∞) = ± . Prove that (I, db ) is a compact metric space.
2
Exercise 2.3.8 Show that, if E is one of the (compact) metric spaces from
Exercise 2.3.7, then the Banach space (C(E), .∞ ) is given by
⎧
⎪
⎪ C[−1, 1] : I = [−1, 1] ,
⎪
⎨
C(I) = {f ∈ C[0, ∞) : ∃ f (∞) := limx→∞ f (x)} : I = [0, ∞] ,
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
{f ∈ C(−∞, ∞) : ∃ f (±∞) := limx→±∞ f (x)} : I = [−∞, ∞] ,
Lemma 2.3.11 Assume that X and Y are Banach spaces, An , A ∈ L(X, Y),
An −→ A strongly, and M ⊂ X is relatively compact. Then
L(Y∗ , X∗ ). Using this and taking into account Corollary 2.3.12, prove the following:
If X, Y, Z, and W are Banach spaces, T ∈ K(X, Y), An , A ∈ L(Y, Z), and if
An −→ A strongly, as well as Bn , B ∈ L(W, X) and Bn∗ −→ B ∗ strongly, then
lim An T Bn − AT BL(W,Z) = 0. (For the definition of the adjoint operator B ∗
n→∞
of B, see Sect. 2.5.)
2.4.1 Lp -Spaces
is finite. In case p = ∞, by L∞ (I )
the space of all (classes of) measurable and
essentially bounded functions equipped with the norm
f L∞ (I ) = ess sup {|f (x)| : x ∈ I } := inf {sup {|f (x)| : x ∈ A} : A ⊂ I, m(A) = 0}
α,β
where pn (x) denotes the normalized Jacobi polynomial with respect to v α,β (x) of
degree n (cf. Sect. 5.1). Equipped with the inner product
∞
α,β
f, gα,β,s := (n + 1)2s f, pnα,β α,β
g, pn α,β
(2.4.2)
n=0
and the respective norm f α,β,s := f, f α,β,s , the space L2,s
α,β is again a Hilbert
2,0
space. Note that Lα,β = L2α,β .
Exercise 2.4.1 Show that L2,s α,β , ., . α,β,s is a Hilbert space.
Remark 2.4.2 It is well-known that, for 1 < p < ∞ and p1 + q1 = 1, the map J :
1
∗
Lq −→ Lp with (J g)(f ) = f (x)g(x) dx is an isometric isomorphism. For
p ∗ −1
this, we write L = Lq . Consequently, in the same way of identification we have
∗ 1
p q
Lv α,β = Lv −α,−β . Moreover, if we use (Jα,β g)(f ) = g(x)f (x)v α,β (x) dx,
∗ −1
q p
then Jα,β : Lα(q−1),β(q−1) −→ Lα,β is also an isometric isomorphism.
Example 2.4.3 Let −1 < α, β < 1, p > 1, and p1 + q1 = 1 and consider the integral
operator K defined by
1
(Kf )(x) = K(x, y)u(y)v α,β (y) dy , −1 < x < 1 ,
−1
|K(x, y)| ≤ c|x − y|−η , (x, y) ∈ (−1, 1)2 \ {(x, x) : x ∈ (−1, 1)} ,
p
for some η ∈ 0, q1 . By Hölder’s inequality we get, for f ∈ Lα,β and −1 < x < 1,
1 q1 1
−ηq α,β − −
f α,β,(p) ≤ c v −α ,−β (x)
q
|(Kf )(x)| ≤ c |x − y| v (y) dy f α,β,(p) ,
−1
where α± = max {0, ±α}, β± = max {0, ±β}, and where we took into account
Lemma 5.2.10. Consequently,
1 q1 1 q1
q −α,−β −α + ,−β +
Kf −α,−β,(q) = |(Kf )(x)| v (x) dx ≤c v (x) dx f α,β,(p) ,
−1 −1
p + +
1
≤ c v −α ,−β Lq 1 (−1,1).
q
i.e., K ∈ L Lα,β , L−α,−β with KLp q
α,β →L−α,−β
∞
1
! "2 2
f α,β,s,∼ := (m + 1) 2s−1 α,β
Em (f )2 ,
m=0
2.4 Function Spaces 19
α,β
where Em (f )p := inf f − P α,β,(p) : P ∈ Pm with Pm being the set of
α,β
polynomials of degree less than m and E0 (f )2 := f α,β . Since, in case γ ≤ α
and δ ≤ β, L2γ ,δ is continuously embedded into L2α,β , we have also the continuous
embedding L2,s 2,s
γ ,δ into Lα,β in this case.
Consequently,
∞
∞
2 ∞ 2
n
f 2α,β,s,∼ = (m + 1)2s−1 f, pnα,β α,β = f, pnα,β α,β (m + 1)2s−1 ,
m=0 n=m n=0 m=0
n n
1
1 m + 1 2s−1 1
lim (m + 1) 2s−1
= lim = x 2s−1 dx
n→∞ (n + 1)2s n→∞ n+1 n+1 0
m=0 m=0
2,1
with domain D(E) = Lα,β (cf. [18, Chapter III, §6.9]). Hence, these spaces have
the interpolation property, i.e., if the linear operator A is bounded from L2,s 1
α1 ,β1
2,s (τ )
into L2,s 2,t1 2,t2
α2 ,β2 and from Lα1 ,β1 into Lα2 ,β2 , then A is also bounded from Lα1 ,β1 into
2 1
2,s (τ )
2
Lα2 ,β 2
, where sj (τ ) = (1 − τ )sj + τ tj and 0 < τ < 1 [18, Chapter III, §6.9,
Theorem 6.10].
Lemma 2.4.6 (cf. [20, Lemma 4.2]) If h(x, .) ∈ L2α,β for all (or almost all) x ∈
[−1, 1] and h(., y) ∈ L2,s
γ ,δ uniformly with respect to y ∈ [−1, 1], then the linear
operator H : L2α,β −→ L2,s
γ ,δ defined by
1
(Hf )(x) = h(x, y)f (y)v α,β (y) dy , −1 < x < 1 ,
−1
is bounded.
20 2 Basics from Linear and Nonlinear Functional Analysis
Proof For f ∈ L2α,β and m ∈ N0 , using Fubini’s theorem and the Cauchy-Schwarz
inequality we can estimate
2 1 1
2
= (y) dy pm (x)v (x) dx
γ ,δ γ ,δ
Hf, pm γ ,δ
h(x, y)f (y)v α,β γ ,δ
−1 −1
2
1
=
γ ,δ α,β
h(., y), pm γ ,δ
f (y)v (y) dy
−1
1 2
γ ,δ α,β
≤ h(., y), pm γ ,δ
v (y) dyf 2α,β .
−1
Hence,
∞
2
γ ,δ
Hf 2γ ,δ,s = (1 + m)2s Hf, pm γ ,δ
m=0
∞
1 2
γ ,δ α,β
≤ (1 + m)2s h(., y), pm γ ,δ
v (y) dyf 2α,β
−1 m=0
1
= h(., y)2γ ,δ,s v α,β (y) dyf 2α,β ≤ c f 2α,β ,
−1
III
Vamos con calma y método, que hay aquí mucho que contar.
María Juana me dijo que pensaba fijar los lunes para invitar á su
mesa á seis ó siete personas, y recibir después á los amigos.
Deseaba ella que en estas reuniones reinase una media etiqueta,
con lo cual contrariaba al bueno de Cristóbal, que renegaba de las
farsas y enaltecía la confianza como flor verdadera de la amistad.
Gustábale á él la abundancia de las comidas españolas, y ponía el
grito en el cielo en tratándose de las fruslerías de la cocina francesa.
Su mujer, habilidosa como pocas, logró encontrar el justo medio, ó
mejor, componendas hipócritas, con las cuales aparentaba llevarle el
genio, y en realidad no hacía sino su santísimo gusto. El adorno de
la casa era un campo de maniobras en que lo elegante y lo cursi
andaban á la greña. Había cosas muy buenas, compradas
recientemente en casa de Ruiz de Velasco, y otras del gusto fiambre,
caobas y palisandros barnizados, papeles horribles con vivos de
negro y oro. Porque Cristóbal era de los que se empeñan en que
todo se ha de adornar con medias cañas; tenía fanatismo por este
sistema decorativo, y si lo dejaran pondría las tales medias cañas
hasta en la Biblia. Mi prima iba desterrando poco á poco antiguallas
é introduciendo el contrabando de los muebles de arte y gusto; y
como Medina la quería tanto, no le era difícil á ella triunfar en cuanto
se le antojaba, aunque hubo casos en que el esposo se mostró
inflexible. Tenían un portero leal, honradísimo, que llevaba veinte
años comiendo el pan de los Medinas, hombre que, al decir de
Cristóbal, no se pagaba con dinero. Pero aquel espejo de los
porteros tenía un gran defecto. No vayáis á creer que se
emborrachaba. ¡Era que usaba patillas, unas enormes zaleas negras,
revueltas y despeinadas, que caían tan mal con la librea...! La
señora les había declarado la guerra, las odiaba como si fuese ella
propia quien tuviera aquellos pelos en la cara. De buena gana habría
acercado un fósforo á la de su leal servidor, para incendiar aquel
matorral indecente. Pero Medina se opuso siempre á que se le
hablara al tal de raparse. Le parecía un ataque al libre albedrío y una
burla de la personalidad humana. Además, lo de las caras afeitadas,
tratándose de criados, le parecía farsa, comedia, «moda francesa,
hija; mariconadas que me revientan.» Defendido por su amo, el
portero continuó y aun continúa tan hirsuto como siempre. La casa
era una de las fundadoras del barrio de Salamanca. La compró
Medina al Crédito Comercial, y después de echarle mil remiendos y
composturas, porque estaba tan derrengada como todas las de su
tanda, la pintó muy bien por fuera, imitando ladrillo descubierto, con
ménsulas y jambas, figurando piedra de Novelda, y en el portal y
escalera púsole cuantas medias cañas cupieron. Arregló para sí el
principal, que era hermosísimo, con vistas á la calle de Serrano y al
jardín interior de la manzana. Las tales casas, mal construídas,
tienen una distribución admirable, un ancho de crujía y un puntal de
techos que me gusta mucho. Su única imperfección, para mí, es la
curva de las escaleras; defecto que también tenía mi finca de la calle
de Zurbano.
María Juana había engrosado bastante; pero siempre estaba
guapa. La gordura y los quevedos aumentábanle un poco la edad;
pero al propio tiempo dábanle aires de persona sentada y de buen
juicio, y hasta de mujer instruída con ribetes de filósofa. Eralo
realmente. Más de una vez la sorprendí bajando de su coche en las
librerías para comprar lo más nuevo de por acá, ó bien lo bueno y
nuevo de Francia. No tenía escrúpulos monjiles, y se echaba al
coleto las obras de que más pestes se dicen ahora. Estaba, pues, al
tanto de nuestra literatura y de la francesa; leía también á los
italianos Amicis, Farina y Carducci; apechugaba sin melindres con
Renan y otros de cáscara muy amarga, y algo se le alcanzaba de
Spencer, traducido.
Mostrábame la señora de Medina (líbreme Dios de llamarla
ordinaria), desde que nos vimos en San Sebastián, grandísima
consideración. Fuí el primero con quien contó para sus comidas; iba
también algunas tardes y hablábamos largamente. Descubrí á poco,
tras un tejido de subterfugios muy discretos, un sentimiento vivo de
curiosidad, deseo ardentísimo de conocer todo lo que había pasado
entre Eloísa y un servidor de ustedes. Se trataba poco con su
hermana; sus relaciones eran pura etiqueta de familia en casos de
enfermedad; de modo que yo solo podía ponerla al tanto de lo que
saber quería. Dirigíame pregunta tras pregunta. Y yo no me paraba
en barras: ¿para qué? Si saciando aquella curiosidad sedienta y mal
disimulada la hacía feliz, ¿por qué privarla de un gusto tan arraigado
en su naturaleza? Preguntábame asimismo mil pormenores de la
casa que ella tenía por el non plus ultra de la elegancia. ¿Cómo era
el servicio del comedor? ¿Conservaba yo algunos menús de las
comidas? ¿Cuántas veces se vestía Eloísa al día? ¿Se vestía por
completo, de ropa interior ó nada más que cambiar de traje? ¿Usaba
esas camisas de seda que ahora han dado en usar las...? ¿Sus
camisas de hilo eran abiertas por delante y ajustadas como batas?
¿Cuántas docenas de pares de medias de seda de color tenía? ¿A
qué hora se peinaba? ¿Era cierto que se daba baños de leche de
burras para conservar la tersura terciopelosa del cutis? ¿Traía el
calzado de París? Los jueves, ¿cuántos vinos servían? ¿Compraba
Champagne de Reus, haciéndole poner etiquetas de la Viuda
Cliquot? ¿Era cierto que debía á Prats más de seis mil duros? ¿Y á
qué jugaban en la casa, al whist, á la besigue ó al monte limpio?
¿Era verdad que no pagaba nunca cuando perdía? ¿Era cierto que
anunciaba á los amigos con quince días de anticipación el día de su
santo para que fueran preparando los regalos?... A este bombardeo
contestaba yo como Dios me daba á entender, unas veces
categórica, otras ambiguamente, cuidando de no poner en ridículo á
la que me había sido tan cara... en todos los terrenos.
Por supuesto, María Juana no perdonaba ocasión de echarme en
cara la más grave de mis faltas. ¡Oh! no me la perdonaría
fácilmente, porque yo había envilecido á su hermana y á toda la
familia. Verdad, que si no hubiera sido conmigo, habría sido con
otro, pues Eloísa tenía en su naturaleza el instinto de la disipación.
Tratando de esto á menudo, dióme á conocer María Juana que no
eran un misterio para ella las flaquezas de mi carácter; hablóme
como hablan los médicos con los enfermos á quienes de veras
quieren curar, y concluía con exhortaciones cariñosas, inspiradas en
sus lecturas; todo muy discreto, juicioso y hasta un tantillo erudito.
¡Vaya si tenía talento mi prima! Varias veces promulgó cosas muy
sabias sobre los males que nos produce el no vencer nuestras
pasiones. «Somos débiles en general; pero vosotros los hombres,
sois más débiles que nosotras las mujeres, y os chifláis más pronto y
con caracteres más graves. Así vemos que personas de talento
hacen mil locuras por dejarse ilusionar de una cualquier cosa... Tú,
que en tus negocios, según dice Medina, eres una cabeza firme,
¿cómo es que se te va el santo al cielo por unas faldas? Enigmas del
hombre de nuestros días, mejor dicho, del hombre de todos los
días.» Por fin, una noche, después de larga conferencia, antes de
comer, me espetó la siguiente conclusión: Yo estaba enfermo, yo
estaba desquiciado. Para ponerme bueno, era preciso administrarme
una medicina, en la cual se combinaran dos salutíferos ingredientes:
el trabajo y el himeneo. Agradecí mucho la intención y admiré el
talento de María Juana; pero no podía mostrarme conforme con la
segunda de las drogas recomendadas por ella. El trabajo me
convenía realmente, y ya me había metido en él; ¡pero el
matrimonio...! Mi alma estaba tan llena de Camila, que ni una
hilacha, ni una fibra de otra mujer podían entrar en ella.
Hubiérame guardado bien de revelar á María Juana la pasión que
Camila me inspiraba, porque de fijo le habría dado un mal rato.
Debo hacer constar que aquella señora miraba á su hermana menor
con cierta indiferencia parecida al menosprecio, y teníala por mujer
vulgar y sin mérito alguno. Firme en sus trece, es decir, en que yo
debía trabajar y casarme, la ordinaria (sin querer se me escapa este
mote) me dijo aquella misma noche con gracia mezclada de
protección:
—Estate sin cuidado, que yo te buscaré la novia, mejor dicho, ya
te la tengo buscada. Verás qué joya.
—No, prima, no te molestes —repliqué—. No hay mujer para mí.
Es una desgracia; pero no lo puedo remediar. No creas, también yo
he pensado en esto, y sólo saco en claro una cosa; y es que no
tengo media naranja. Si me fijo en una que tiene buena planta,
resulta con una educación deplorable. La bien educada es fea como
un mico, y la bonita y lista me sale con perversidades y resabios que
me aterran. Si es pobre, me parece que me quiere por el dinero; si
es rica, tiene un orgullo que no hay quien la aguante. Por más
vueltas que le des, la tostada no parece... Y por fin, si quieres que te
diga la verdad, en mí hay un vicio fisiológico, una aberración del
gusto, que no puedo vencer, porque ha echado ya sus raíces muy
adentro, confabulándose con estos pícaros nervios para
atormentarme. Es, te reirás, es que no me agradan más que las
cosas prohibidas, las que no debieran ser para mí. Si alguna que no
esté en estas condiciones me gusta, al punto la idea de que sea yo
quien la prohiba á ella me quita toda la ilusión. Ríete todo lo que
quieras; llámame loco, enfermo, despreciable y hasta ridículo; pero
no me digas que me case.
Mirábame sonriendo con majestad, como segura de vencer
aquella manía tonta. El gesto de su mano acompañaba
admirablemente la frase cuando me decía:
—Estate sin cuidado, que yo te quitaré esas telarañas de los ojos,
mejor dicho, esos cristales, porque son falsos prismas. Eres un
vicioso. Déjate estar, que cuando conozcas á la candidata...
II
III
IV