EPCE3209 2022

Contents
CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................................................... 2

INTRODUCTION TO ILLUMINATION .............................................................................................................. 2

1.1 Basic of Lighting ............................................................................................................................ 2

1.2 Terms used in Illumination............................................................................................................ 3

1.3 Lighting Terminology and Laws ..................................................................................................... 4

There are two major laws: ........................................................................................................................ 4

1.3.1 Inverse square law: ............................................................................................................... 4

1.3.2 Cosine Law ............................................................................................................................ 5

1.4.1 Incandescent lamps .............................................................................................................. 7

1.4.2 Starters ................................................................................................................................ 10

1.5 PRACTICAL LIGHTING SCHEMES ................................................................................................ 13

1.6 Design of lighting schemes.......................................................................................................... 15

1.7 Methods of lightning calculation ................................................................................................ 17

1.8 Introduction to Dialux and Relux ............................................................................................... 18

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO ILLUMINATION
1.1 Basic of Lighting

Light is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body, which produces the visual sensation
upon the human eye. The sensation of color is due to the difference in wavelength
of the light radiations. White light, such as given by the sun, is composed of different colors each
having different wavelengths. These are:

0.300 – 0.436 micrometer-----------Violet

0.436 - 0.495 >> ------------Blue

0.495 - 0.566 >> -------------Green

0.566 - 0.589 >> --------------Yellow

0.589 - 0.627 >> ---------------Orange

0.627 - 0.780 >> ---------------Red

In general, light is an electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves, x-rays e.t.c. We can classify
electromagnetic waves as visible and invisible waves.

 Visible waves: daylight, radiations from candles and lamps.

 Invisible waves: x-rays, gamma rays, radio waves.

We know that, v = fλ (v is speed of light, f is frequency and, λ is wave length )

Angstrom unit (Ǻ): 1Ǻ = 10-8cm = 10-10m

λ of red light = 7500 Ǻ

λ of violet light = 4000 Ǻ

λ of blue light =5000 Ǻ

λ of yellow light =6500 Ǻ

Those colors of white light having wave lengths of less than 0.3 micro meter
belongs to the ultra violet range and those with wave lengths greater than 0.8 micro meter
belong to the infrared range. The visible spectrum ranges is from 0.4 to 0.7 micrometers.
Human eye is most sensitive to light having wavelengths of about 0.555 micrometer in the green
portion of the spectrum.

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Maximum power of light is radiated when the wavelength is about 0.5 micrometer which is
approximately the wavelength at which the human eye is most sensitive.

Illumination refers to the provision of sufficient lighting either by natural means

(e.g. sun light, Stars, Firefly, and Electricity from Storms) or artificial light sources (e.g. electric
lamps, Candles traffic Light, Lantern, Fire Works, Laser and Head Light).

Light source is anything that gives off light

1.2 Terms used in Illumination

1. Luminous Flux: It is the total quantity of light energy radiated/ produced from a luminous
body in the form of light waves. It is measured in lumens. It is represented by symbol φ.
2. Luminous Intensity (I): It is the amount of luminous flux emitted by a source per unit
solid angle. The illuminating power of a light source. It is measured in candela or lumens
per Steradians. i.e.
I = φ / ω,
1Candela = 1 Lumen / Steradians

Where, (ω) - the solid angle is measured in Steradians. It is the angle generated
by the surface passing through the light point in space and periphery of the area. It was
denoted by ω. Solid angle was given by the ratio of the area of the surface
to the square of the distance between the area and the point. I.e. A / r 2 . Since the
surface of a sphere has an area equal to 4πr2; andthe surface area of a Steradians is r2.

∴ Total angle of a sphere in Steradians, = 4πr2 / r2 = 4π Steradians

3. Illuminance (intensity of illumination) (E) - it is the luminous flux received by a surface

per unit area of the surface. Its unit depends upon the units in which area is measured. It is
measured in lumens per square meter or lux or meter candle. Mathematically,
E = φ/A
4. Luminous efficiency (k): a measure of unit lumens per watt (lm/W). It can be thought of
as the ‘efficiency’ of the light source.
5. Luminance, L: The luminous intensity (I) per unit of the apparent area
of the source of light (or illuminated areas). The measured brightness of a surface.

L = I/A [cd/m2 ]

6. Coefficient of utilization: This is a factor showing the ratio of the lumens reaching on the
working plane to the total lumens generated by the source. It depends on the dimension of
the room to be illuminated, the reflectance of the walls, ceilings, and floors, the lamp
output of reflectors and diffusers used and the position of the lamp.

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7. Maintenance Factor: The light obtained from a light source may be
affected by variables due to dire (obstacles, terrible), ageing of the lamp, e.t.c. The
maintenance factor (MF) takes in to account such effects.

1.3 Lighting Terminology and Laws

There are two major laws:

1. Inverse square law
2. Cosine law

1.3.1 Inverse square law:

The illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the distance

between source & surface, provided that the distance between the surface &
the source is sufficiently large so that the source can be regarded as a point source.
This is known as Inverse square Law.

9A

4A
A
P

1d
2d
3d

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Let, E1 be the illumination on surface A1,

E2 be the illumination on surface A2,
Since exactly the same luminous flux falls on A1& A2 we can have the relation,
φ = E1A1= E2A2
E2 = E1A1/A2 = E1 (d1/d2)2

i.e., E ~ 1/d2, where d is the perpendicular distance from the light source.

Thus, the illumination of a surface varies inversely as the square of the distance from the light
source.

1.3.2 Cosine Law

Cosine law states that, reflected energy from a small surface area in a particular direction is
proportional to the cosine of the angle between that direction and the surface normal

Ey = IcosӨ/h2 =I/ h2 at point y Ө =

b
cosӨ = h/d, d = h/cosӨ c

This method allows us to calculate the θ

illuminance with one or more lamps or with
reflection from surroundings.
I
Ex  cos  a
d2
I
Ex  2
cos 
 h 
 
 cos  
This is Lambert’s
I cosine Law
Ex  cos 3 
h2

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Thus illumination depends not only on the perpendicular distance from the light source but also
on the angle that the light falls on the area to be illuminated.

Example: -A standard incandescent lamp having a luminous intensity of 100 cd in all

directions gives an illuminance of 40 lux at the surface of a bench vertically below the lamp.
What distance is the lamp above the bench?
Solution: -
I
E
d2
I 100
d   1.58m
E 40

Example: A 250W sodium-vapor street lamp emits a light of 22,500 cd and is situated 8m above
the road. Calculate the luminance.

a) Directly below the lamp

b) At a horizontal distance along the road of 6m.

Soln: Given I=22,500 cd,h=8m ,ox=6m

d=√ =10m

a) E= I*cosӨ/h2 but cosӨ=1 because Ө=0

E= 22,500*1/64=351.56 lm/m2
b) Ex=I*cosӨ/d2 and cosӨ=h/d=8/10=0.8
Ex=22,500*0.8/100=180 lm/m2

Exercise: Two light sources each having a uniform intensity of 64,000 cd is mounted 8m high. If
the illumination midway between the lamps on ground level is same as the illumination level
produced by one of the lamp vertically below it, calculate the distance between the poles.

1.4 Light Schemes and Types

Light is a form of energy, which is radiated or sent out from a source in a waveform. It is part of
a whole family of electromagnetic wave. Light sources can either be natural (sun)
or artificial (e.g. electric lamps). When an electric current passes through a fine metallic
wire, heat is produced and the temperature of the wire increases. At low temperature the
wire radiates heat energy. As the temperature of the wire increases due to heating, it radiates heat
as well as light energy. Generally, electric lamps can be classified in to:

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a) Incandescent lamps

b) Discharge lamps.

1.4.1 Incandescent lamps

The incandescent lamp consists of a glass globe completely evacuated or gas filled and a fine
wire known as filament, which is heated to white heat by the passage of electric current. The
filament of modern lamps is normally made of tungsten since this material has a very high
melting point (3400C) and can be manufactured in the form of a suitably thin wire. The bulbs of
smaller lamps are evacuated to prevent oxidization of the filament. But, in many lamps, an inert
gas such as argon is introduced. This enables the filament to operate at a higher
temperature without undue deterioration due to the evaporation, which tends to take place in a
vacuum.

The materials, which can be used as a filament are; carbon, osmium, tantalum and tungsten.
These metals are selected due to their high melting points.

The main advantages of incandescent lamps are:

a) The filament has a more compact formation.

b) Heat losses due to conviction currents in the gas are reduced, thus giving
a higher efficiency.

There are two types of incandescent lamps:

1. Vacuum lamps

 Air is evacuated from the glass bulb.

 Operates only up to around 20000 c.

2. Gas-filled

the glass bulb is filled with inert gases(Ne or Ar)

operates up to around 2500 c
In gas-filled lamps, the bulb is so bright that it is given an opaque
coating internally.
 The light output of incandescent lamps is about 10 to 15 lm/W. Thus,
 a 25W incandescent lamp produces about 250 to 375 lm
 a 40W incandescent lamp produces about 400 to 600 lm
 a 60W IL produces about 600 to 900 lm
 The average lifetime of incandescent lamps is about 2000 hours when operating at rated
voltage.
 An incandescent lamp gives out light at all frequencies including ‘DC’.
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 Incandescent lamps suffer from two disadvantages;
- Low efficiency and
- Colored light.

1.4.2
Discharge
lamps.
Fluorescent lamp (Low pressure mercury vapour lamps):

Certain materials, such as calcium phosphate, emit visible light whenever they absorb ultra-
violet light. This phenomenon is known as fluorescence and may be used to produce a very
efficient type of lamp. If a tube of a discharge lamp containing mercury vapour is coated
internally with an even layer of fluorescent material a considerable proportion of the ultra-violet
light caused by the discharge is converted into useful visible light.

Low- pressure mercury vapour lamp consists of:

 Glass tube filled with mercury vapour at low pressure.

 Is provided with two electrodes coated with electron emissive material.
 The inner wall of the tube is coated with fluorescent powder which
transforms Ultraviolet radiation in to visible radiation or light.
 The light output of a fluorescent lamp is 70 lm/w and has an average life of about 7500 hrs.
 The application includes lighting of shops, homes, factories, streets, ships, transport (buses
and trains), e.t.c.
 Using these tubes is quite possible to achieve high lighting intensity without
excessive temperature rise and, owing to the nature of light sources; the danger of glare is
minimized.
 The efficiency of fluorescent lamp is about 40 lumens per watt, which is about three times
the efficiency of an equivalent tungsten filament lamp.

Fluorescent tubes are available in different sizes:

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When the supply is switched ON with the starter switch, s, closed; a current flows through the
inductor, L, and through the lamp electrodes. The initial current heats the lamp electrodes in
readiness for striking the lamp. The starting switch is now opened making a sudden
interruption in the current flowing through the inductor and so causing a high voltage to be
momentarily induced (Note that breaking an inductive circuit causes high voltage
to appear across the break in contacts, and energy is released in the form of an arc. in this case,
however, there is an easiest way for the energy to dissipate- via the gas, and the high voltage
appears across the end of the tube). This voltage starts a discharge between the two lamp
electrodes and the current rapidly rises to a value determined mainly by the inductance of the
inductor. The starter left open while the lamp is lighting; the electrodes maintain their operating
temperature as long as they continue to pass the discharge current.

In practice, the starter switch is made to operate automatically, switching ON when the supply is
first ON, then switching OFF to strike the lamp and remaining OFF all the time the lamp is
lighting. Due to the inductor, the lamp current lags the supply voltage (at approximately 0.5 PF)
thus, a capacitor, C, is usually connected between the lamp terminals to improve
the overall power factor to an acceptable value.

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1.4.2 Starters

Three methods are commonly available for starting the discharge in a fluorescent tube: the
thermal start, the glow start and the quick start.

 Thermal type start: The thermal type starter switch has two contacts mounted on bi-metal
strips, a small heating coil being fitted very close to the bi-metal strips but with no electrical
contact between them. The contacts are normally closed so that the main supply is first
switched ON and the full heating current passes through the lamp electrodes. The current
also flows through the starter heater and so warms the bi-metal strips. After a short period of
time, the bi-metal strips warm sufficiently to bend and
open the contacts, thus striking the lamp. As long as
the lamp remains lighting, current flows through the
starter heater keeping the contacts apart. A small
capacitor is often connected in parallel with the starter
switch contacts to suppress radio interference.

Fig. 3.3 Thermal type starter

 Glow type start: The glow type starter switch consists of a small bulb filled with inert gas
(Argon, helium) and containing two contacts, one of which is mounted on a bi-metal strip.
The contacts are normally open so that when the main supply is firs switched on full main
voltage is applied to the starter contacts. This causes a glow discharge, which warms the bi-
metal strip making it to bend and close the starter contacts. The closing of the starter
contacts allows full heating current to pass through the lamp electrodes and also
extinguish the glow discharge. After a short time, the bi-metal strip cools sufficiently to
open the circuit thus striking the lamp. As long as the lamp remains a light, the voltage

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applied to the starter is insufficientto initiate a glow discharge and so the starter contacts
remains open until the next starting operation. A small capacitor is often
connected in parallel with the starter switch contacts to suppress radio interference.

Stages in striking of a fluorescent tube, using glow-type starter switch

(a) Contacts snap open, causing arc to strike between electrodes

(b) Glow discharge between bimetal contacts

(c) Bimetal heated; contacts close, bimetal then cools

Quick start or Instant type start

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In the case of quick start or instant start, starting is achieved by the use of autotransformer and
an earthed metal strip in close proximity to the tube. When the supply is switched on, mains
voltage appears across the end of the tube, and the small part of the winding at each end of the
transformer energizes the filaments, which heat up. The difference in potential between
the electrodes and the earthed strip causes ionization, which spreads along the tube.

Fig. 3.4 Quick type starter

Stroboscopic Effect

The disadvantage of fluorescent lamp is that, as the alternating discharge current passes through
zero twice every cycle, the light produced tend to flicker at twice of main frequency,
although this effect is not noticeable to the eye, machinery rotating at certain
speed may appear to be stationary or moving more slowly than it really is. This
is known as the stroboscopic effect and is obviously a cause of danger in situations such as
workshops where rotating machinery is in use.

If a three-phase supply is available the stroboscopic effect can be minimized by connecting

lamps to alternate phases. As the lamps in the circuit attains their maximum and minimum
values, the light output in sequence of overall illumination is kept practically constant thereby
keeping the stroboscopic effect to a minimum.

If only a single-phase supply is available then the ‘lead lag’ circuit may be us

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1.5 PRACTICAL LIGHTING SCHEMES

A good lighting system should produce uniform illumination of not less than the
required value. It should be free from glare and hard shadows. In fact attempt should be made to
have quality of light as close to day light as possible.

The interior lighting schemes may be classified as: -

1. Direct light: - the most commonly used type of lighting scheme. In this scheme more
than 90% of total light flux is made to fall directly on the working plane with the help of
deep reflectors. Though it is more efficient but causes hard shadows and glare. It is
mainly used for industrial and general out-door lighting.
2. Semi-direct lighting: - in this lighting scheme 60-90% of the total light flux is made to
fall down wards directly with the help of semi-direct reflectors. The remaining light is
used to illuminate the ceiling and walls. Such a lighting scheme is best suited to rooms
with high ceiling where there is a high level of uniformity of illumination is desired.
Besides, this scheme avoids glare, it also improves the efficiency of the system
with reference to the working plane.
3. Semi indirect lighting: -in this scheme 60-90% of total light flux is thrown up wards to
the ceiling for reflection and the rest reaches the working plane directly
except for some absorption by the bowl. This lighting scheme has soft shadows and is
glare free. It is mainly used for indoor decoration purpose.
4. Indirect lighting scheme: - in this scheme more than 90% of total light
flux is thrown upwards the ceiling for diffuse reflection by using inverted or bowl
reflector. In this scheme the glare is reduced to minimum. The resulting illumination is
soft and more diffused. The shadows are less prominent and the appearance of the room
is much improved. It is used for decoration purpose in cinemas, theatres and hotels
etc. and in areas where troublesome shadows are produced if direct light in lighting is
employed.
5. General lighting: - in this scheme lamps made of diffusing glass are used,
which gives nearly equal illumination in all directions. All fittings may be
reduced to five basic types according to their light distribution as shown in Fig
below.

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1.6 Design of lighting schemes

The lighting scheme should be such that it should provide,

1. Adequate illumination.
2. Light distribution all over the working plane as uniform as possible.

3. Light of suitable color.

4. Avoid glare and hard shadows as far as possible.

a) Illumination level: - In order to see the details of the things that surround us, the light source
has to illuminate them very well in order the objects take the necessary brightness. For each
type of work there is a range of brightness most favorable to output in terms of quality and
quantity. Level of illumination, which gives necessary brightness to objects depends upon:

i. The size of the object and distance of the observer.

ii. Contrast between the object and background. Greater the contrast greater will be
the illumination required to distinguish the object properly.
iii. The speed of the object - Speedy object requires more illumination.
iv. Duration of gazing (looking) - Object seen for long duration of time require
more illumination.

b) Uniformity of Illumination: - It has been found that visual performance is best if the range
of brightness within the field of vision is not greater than 3:1, which can be achieved by
employing general lighting in addition to localized lighting. Otherwise due to the frequent
accommodation of pupil or iris of the eye, fatigue is caused and it creates
psychological felling of loneliness, gloom and unfriendliness.

c) Color of light: - The appearance of the body color entirely depends upon the color of the
incident light. In general, the composition of the light should be such that the color appears
natural.
d) Shadows: - In lighting installation, formation of long and hard shadows causes
fatigue(tiredness) and are undesirable. However a certain amount of shadow is desired as it
helps to give shapes to solid objects and make them easily recognized. But there is one
exception to these i.e. in drawing offices, where we are to see flat surfaces. Hard and long
shadows can be avoided by:

i) Raising a large number of luminaries mounted at a height not less than 2.5m.
ii) By using wide surface of light - using globes or indirect lighting system.

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e) Glare: - Glare is generally produced by very bright sources of light, which
emit light directly or at very low angle towards the viewer. This causes the
person to neglect the other surrounding objects, as they appear darker and is a major
cause of road accidents. Glare is also caused by highly polished surfaces when the angels
are incorrect. This also tends to damage retina of the eye. Glare may be direct or indirect.
Motorcar headlights produces direct glare.

In designing a good lighting scheme which fulfills the above requirements, we have to consider

5.1 The intensity of illumination required

5.2 The selection of the required lamps and fittings

5.3 The size of the room

5.4 The conditions under which the illumination is used etc. The following are some of the
conditions that should be considered when the illuminations are used:

 Utilization Factor (ηβ) - the whole light radiated by the lamps doesn’t reach the
working plane. The ratio of lumens reaching the working plane to the total light given out by
the lamp or lamps, when the installation is new, is known as utilization factor or
coefficient of utilization. The value of utilization factor depends upon :
ii) The mounting height of lamps
iii) Area to be illuminated
iv) Type of lighting scheme
v) Color of the surrounding, etc.
 Spacing Luminaries: - correct spacing is of great importance to provide uniform
illumination over the whole area. The ratio of the horizontal spacing between
rows to the height of the luminaries above the working plane, called space to height ratio,
depends quite on luminous output, type of lighting scheme and on the extent
of candlepower distribution curve of the luminaries. Mounting height is largely
governed by the type of the building and type of lighting scheme employed.
 Color of Surrounding Walls:- the illumination in a room depends upon the light reflected
from walls and ceilings. White walls and ceilings reflect more light as compared to colored
ones.
 Maintenance Factor - as we are to continue to use the installation, the illumination produced
considerably decreases due to ageing of the lamps and accumulation of dusts on the lamps,
reflectors, ceiling and walls. Its value is more if there is much as the ageing problem
increases, etc. The value is mostly ranges between 0.8 and 1. The other term used is
depreciation factor, which is merely the inverse of the maintenance factor. Its value is more
than unity.

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1.7 Methods of lightning calculation

In order to estimate the number and the type of light fittings required to suit a particular
environment, it is necessary to know what level of luminance is required, the area to be
illuminated, the maintenance factor and the coefficient of utilization, and the efficiency of the
lamps to be used. A number of methods have been employed for lighting calculations among
which may be mentioned:

1. Watts per square meter method

2. Lumen or Light flux method

Watts per Square Meter method: - applicable for rough calculations. It consists in making an
allowance of watts per square meter of area to be illuminated accordingly to the illumination
desired on the assumption of the average figure of an overall efficiency of the system.
According to NEC 220- standard illumination is about 3 watt per ft2.

Example: - A house has an external dimension of 30ft by 50ft. If an 80w fluorescent lamps,
and 220V supply is used, determine the size of the service wire and the number of
lamps required.
Solution:
A = 30ft X 50ft
= 1500ft2
Total wattage required = 1500 X 3w
= 4500w
⇒ 4.5Kw
No of lamps required = 4.5Kw/80w
= 56.1
⇒ 56 lamps - each 80w
Current carrying capacity = 4.5Kw/220V
= 20.5A
Therefore, the size of the cable will be conductor if there is no any correction
factor.

Lumen or Light flux method: - it is the most advisable method to be used. Lumens' reaching
the working plane is calculated as:

Required Level of

Illumination in the room =

OR

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Required Level of

Illumination in the room = /

OR

Required Level of

Illumination in the room =

E – Required Illumination level

N  n    CF Where,
Thus,
E
A N – no of fixtures

n – no of lamp /fixture
E A
N A - Working surface area in m2
n    CF
φ - Luminous flux of one lamp in lm

CF - Correction factor; (Utilization

factor x Maintenance Factor)

1.8 Introduction to Dialux and Relux

Dialux is currently the leading online marketing tool in the lighting industry and used for Plan,
calculate and visualize lighting for indoor and outdoor areas. From entire buildings and
individual rooms to parking spaces or road lighting.
Relux is a high-performance application for simulating both artificial light and daylight. It allows
users to simulate lighting and sensors for detailed renderings.

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