RESEARCH METHODS

ICT 392
 INTRODUCTION
Meaning of Research

Attributes of a good research

Objectives of Research

Motivation in Research

Types of Research

Importance of Research

Research Methods versus Methodology

2
Meaning of Research
Research = Re + search

Re – meaning again, anew or over again

Search – to examine closely and carefully

to test and try
or to probe

3
Meaning of Research
Research is a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some
field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles, Thyer,
2001.

4
 Meaning of Research

• According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a

systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

• Research is “creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the

stock of knowledge”. OECD (2015). Frascati Manual.

5
 Meaning of Research
• A systematic approach to finding answers to questions,
Hatch and Farhady (1982).

• Purpose (questions)
• Process (a systematic approach)
• Product (answers)

6
 Attributes of a good research
• It is prearranged / structured enquiry
• It utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems.
• It should create new knowledge that is generally applicable.
• It is creative process to develop better understanding of
mankind, social and cultural and economical issues.
• Application of findings should benefit the public.

7
 Ensuring good / quality Research

• Purpose should be clearly defined.

• Common concepts should be used that can be understood by

all.

• Research procedures should be explained in detail.

• Research design should be carefully planned.

8
Ensuring good / quality Research (Cont’n)
• Researcher should declare all the possible errors and their
possible impact on findings.
• Analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal
significance.
• The methods of analysis should be appropriate.
• The validity and reliability of the data should be checked
carefully.
• The researcher should be experienced
9
 Objectives of Research
• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it
(exploratory or formulative research studies);
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group (descriptive research studies);
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which
it is associated with something else (diagnostic research studies);
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
(hypothesis-testing research studies)

10
 Motivation in Research
• Get a degree
• Face the challenge of solving unsolved problems
• Get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
• Be of service to society
• Get respectability
• Government directive
• Employment conditions

11
 Classification of Research
• Basic Research

• Applied Research

12
Basic Research
Also called Theoretical / Experimental

• Allows understanding of fundamental processes

• Yields new knowledge which may have no particular / immediate
application / use
• Extends base of knowledge in a discipline
• Usually take long time

13
Applied Research
• Explain or solve defined problems

• Usually to address practical aims and objectives

• Findings are of immediate use

• It is problem driven, common and popular

14
 Types of Research
• Non-scientific

• Scientific

15
 Types of Research
• Non-Scientific
➢ Based on personal experiences, trial and error / logical
reasoning

➢ Do not follow any reproducible / repeatable plan of study.

16
 Types of Research
• Scientific
➢Well defined problem / hypothesis
➢Critical and controlled investigation of a hypothesis /
phenomenon
➢Systematic gathering of data
➢Statistical analysis and interpretation
➢Data maybe primary or secondary

17
 Approaches to Research
• Qualitative

• Quantitative

• Mixed methods (qualitative and quantitative)

18
 Approaches to Research

Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive,

naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative
researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense
of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to
them. Denzin and Lincoln (1994).

19
Approaches to Research

Quantitative research involves the process of objectively collecting and

analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of
interest.

20
Importance of Research

• Expands your knowledge base

• Gives you the latest information

• Helps you know what you are up against

• Builds your credibility

• Helps you narrow your scope

21
Importance of Research (Cont’n)

• Teaches you better discernment

• Introduces you to new ideas

• Helps with problem-solving

• Helps you reach people

• Encourages curiosity
22
Research Methods versus Methodology

• Research methods may be understood as all those

methods/techniques that are used for conducting research.

• Research methodology is the science of systematically

answering a research question along with the logic behind
them.
23
 FORMULATING RESEARCH TOPIC

Research Topic

Research Problem
Research Objectives

Research Questions / Research Hypothesis

Research Proposal

24
 Research Topic
A subject / issue a researcher is interested in
investigating / conducting a research

25
 Research Topic (cont’n)

• Intuitive thinking and human philosophy

• Suggestions by lecturer / senior colleague(s)
• Findings from a previous study by other researchers
• Be of interest to the researcher

• Other considerations

26
 Research Topic (cont’n)
➢Relevance
➢Avoidance of duplication
➢Feasibility
➢Political acceptance
➢Applicability
➢Cost effectiveness
➢Timeliness
➢Ethically acceptable

27
 Research Topic (cont’n)
Characteristics of a good research topic
➢Feasible
➢Interesting
➢Novel
➢Ethical
➢Relevant

28
 Research Problem
The issue that leads to the need for the study, Creswell (2009).

The reason why the research is important, Tannor (2011).

29
 Research Objectives

• Clear and concise statement of the specific goals and aims of a

research study.

• It outlines what the researcher intends to accomplish and what

they hope to learn or discover through their research.

30
 Characteristics of research objectives
SMART
Specific: Clarify the specific goal or objective you would like to achieve.

Measurable: Include criteria for measuring success.

Achievable: Set realistic and attainable objectives.

Relevant: Ensure they are relevant to your research.

Time-bound: Include a timeframe for achieving each objective.

31
Characteristics of research objectives (cont’n)
Specific and Clear: Precise and unambiguous. They should clearly state
what the study aims to achieve, leaving no room for misinterpretation.

Align with Research Questions or Hypotheses: Ensure that your

research objectives directly align with the broader research questions or
hypotheses that guide your study.

Use Action Verbs: Use action verbs to describe what you intend to do.
E.g. “to investigate,” “to analyze,” “to examine,” “to compare,” “to
determine,” etc.

32
Characteristics of research objectives (cont’n)
Focus on Measurable Outcomes: Formulated to make it measurable and
easy to evaluate.

Be Realistic and Feasible: Attainable within the constraints of your

study, including available time, budget, and resources.
NB: Unrealistic objectives can lead to frustration and failure.

Consider the Scope of the Study: should neither be too broad nor too
narrow. They should be manageable within the context of your study.

33
Characteristics of research objectives (cont’n)
• Prioritize Objectives: Identify which objectives are most crucial to the
success of your study and allocate resources accordingly.
• Ensure Relevance: Should be directly related to the research topic and
purpose of the study.
• Consider the Target Audience: Should be understandable to both
experts in your field and non-experts.
• Be Open to Adaptation: Objectives may evolve as your study
progresses and new information emerges.

34
Characteristics of research objectives (cont’n)
Document Your Objectives: Keep a clear record of your research
objectives in your research proposal, plan, or protocol.

35
 Types of Research Objectives
Descriptive: provide a detailed and accurate description of a
phenomenon, event, or subject. Answers questions like “what”, “who”,
“where”, and “when”.

Exploratory: seek to gain a better understanding of a topic. It involves

preliminary investigations.

Explanatory: designed to identify the relationships between variables.

36
Types of Research Objectives (cont’n)
Comparative: comparing two or more variables, groups, or situations to
identify similarities, differences, patterns, or trends.

Predictive: aim to forecast or predict future outcomes or trends based on

existing data or patterns.

Normative: involve establishing standards, guidelines, or

recommendations for a specific area of study.

37
 Types of Research Objectives (cont’n)
Qualitative: explore and understand experiences, perceptions, and
behaviors in-depth
Quantitative involve the collection and analysis of numerical data to
measure and quantify specific phenomena
Longitudinal: studying the same subjects or entities over an extended
period to track changes or developments.
Cross-sectional: the study of a sample at a single point in time to gather
data about a population’s characteristics or attitudes.

38
 Research Questions / Research Hypothesis

Hypothesis is a prediction of the sequence of the result to be

observed deriving down the manipulation of the independent
and the dependent variable. Hypotheses are probable answers to
the problems the researcher sets out to solve, Aboh and
Obidigbo (1998).

39
 Research Hypothesis
Two types of Hypothesis
• H1: the hypothesis that existed before the research (Alternate
Hypothesis )
• Ho: a negation of H1 (Null Hypothesis)

The essence of hypothesis testing is to determine whether the

evidence on the basis of available data tends to refute Ho
40
 Research Hypothesis
• Ho can be true / false
• Ho can be rejected / fail to reject

➢Reject Ho when it is true (wrong decision – Type I error)

➢Reject Ho when it is false (Correct decision)
➢Fail to reject Ho, when it is true (Correct decision)
➢Fail to reject Ho, when it is false (Wrong decision – Type II error)

41
Research Proposal
• Consists of
➢Rationale
➢Plan
➢Conduct
➢Analysis

42
REVIEWING LITERATURE

43
 REVIEWING LITERATURE
Introduction

Purpose of Literature Review

Sources of Literature

Conducting Developing a Theoretical Framework

Developing a Conceptual Framework

Paraphrasing and Plagiarism

Referencing (In-text and end-text)

44
Introduction
Literature review summarizes and analyzes what has been
written on a particular topic and identify gaps or
disagreements in the scholarly work on that topic.

• Identify sources most relevant to your research question

45
Introduction (Cont’n)
A literature review surveys scholarly articles, books and other
sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory.

Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of

sources you have explored while researching a particular topic
and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits into
the larger field of study, Fink (2005), Hart (1998) and Jesson
(2011)

46
Purpose of Literature Review

• Provides a foundation of knowledge on a topic

• Prevents duplication and give credit to other researchers
• Identifies gaps in research, conflicts in previous studies, open
questions left from other research
• Identify the need for additional research (justifying your
research)
• Identify the relationship between works in the context of their
contribution to the topic and other research done
47
Purpose of Literature Review (Cont’n)
• Ascertain key researchers’ working on this topic
• Notice main methodologies & research techniques
• Show relationships between previous studies / theories
• Explore existing information in the fields of research
• Place each work in the context of its contribution to the
understanding of the research problem being studied.

48
Sources of Literature
• Computerised databases
• Bibliography
• Journal articles
• Books
• Monthly compilation of abstracts
• Experts

49
Conducting /Developing a Theoretical Framework

A theoretical framework consists of concepts, together with their

definitions, and existing theory/theories that are used for a
particular study. The theoretical framework must demonstrate an
understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the
topic of a research paper and that will relate it to the broader
fields of knowledge in the class being taken, Trochim (2006).

50
Conducting /Developing a Theoretical Framework

• Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand

phenomena and, in many cases, to challenge and extend existing
knowledge, within the limits of the critical bounding assumptions.

• It is the structure that holds or supports a theory of a research

study.

• It introduces and describes the theory which explains why the

research problem under study exists.
51
Importance of Theoretical Framework
• Permits the reader to evaluate the theoretical assumptions critically.
• It connects the researcher to existing knowledge.
• Articulates the theoretical assumptions, questions such as why and
how of a research study can be addressed. Hence permits a
researcher to move from simply describing to generalization of a
phenomenon
• Helps specify which key variables influence a phenomenon of
interest, Trochim (2006)
52
Importance of Theoretical Framework (Cont’n)
• A theoretical framework is used to limit the scope of the
relevant data Torraco (1997), Sutton and Staw (1995).

53
Strategies for Developing the Theoretical Framework

• Examine your thesis title and research problem.

• Brainstorm on what you consider to be the key variables in your
research.
• Review related literature.
• List the constructs and variables that might be relevant to your study.
• Review the key social science theories
• Discuss the assumptions or propositions of this theory and point out
their relevance to your research.

54
Developing a Conceptual Framework

55
Conceptual Framework
• An argument about why the research topic needs to be done,
and why the means proposed to study it are important and
rigorous, Ravitch and Riggan (2017).

• An explanation either graphically or in narrative form of the

main things to be studied – the key factors, variables or
constructs – and the presumed relationship among them Miles
et al., (2014).

56
Conceptual Framework
The actual ideas and beliefs that a researcher holds about
a phenomenon being studied, whether these are written
down or not; this may also be called “theoretical
framework” or “idea context” for the study, Maxwell
(2013).

57
Purpose Conceptual Framework
• Clarifies a research problem and purpose
• Assists to refine research questions
• Guides data collection

It is the tool that ties all the aspects of the study together hence,
offering a coherent perspective for the researcher and readers a
understand the research holistically.

58
Factors to consider
The conceptual framework;

• should be derived from and aligned with the theoretical

framework.

• should resonate with research questions, problems or purpose

and be applicable to the specific population / context
understudy.
59
Questions to consider
• How does the framework relate to the research topic?
• Can the framework effectively address the research questions?
• Does this framework resonate with the population and context
being studied?
• Can the construct in this framework be feasibly operationalized
in the study?

60
Steps
• Identify the key constructs / variables

• Clarify the relationships among the constructs / variables

• Define each construct / variable

• Create visual representation

61
Paraphrasing and Plagiarism

62
Paraphrasing

• Putting another person’s sentences / or ideas into your own

words by using your own sentence structure

NB

• Does not shorten passage much, if at all

• Must be attributed to original source

63
Paraphrasing
How ?
• Change key words
• Change structure of sentence
• Change structure of paragraph
• Use quotation marks for key words or phrases that you cannot put in
your own words.
• Try to paraphrase without looking at the original text

64
Plagiarism
• Taking the works / words of someone and presenting them as your own.
• Intentional, dishonest
➢Copying, buying, downloading someone else’s paper
➢Cutting and pasting without using quotation marks
• Unintentional, often results from lack of skill
➢Distinguishing types of knowledge
➢Paraphrasing and summarizing
➢Incorporating quotations into one’s own sentences
➢Note-taking procedures

65
Plagiarism
Avoid plagiarism by citing whenever;

• you borrow words or ideas,

• you use quotes,
• you paraphrase,
• you use an idea that someone else has already expressed,
• you make specific reference to the work of another,
• someone else's work has been critical in developing your own ideas.

66