International Journal of

Geo-Information

Article
The Physical Density of the City—Deconstruction of
the Delusive Density Measure with Evidence from
Two European Megacities
Hannes Taubenböck *, Ines Standfuß, Martin Klotz and Michael Wurm
Taubenböck, German Aerospace Center (DLR), German Remote Sensing Data Center (DFD), Oberpfaffenhofen,
Wessling 82234, Germany; [email protected] (I.S.); [email protected] (M.K.); [email protected] (M.W.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Academic Editors: Jamal Jokar Arsanjani and Wolfgang Kainz

Received: 6 June 2016; Accepted: 4 November 2016; Published: 9 November 2016

Abstract: Density is among the most important descriptive as well as normative measures in urban
research. While its basic concept is generally understandable, approaches towards the density
measure are manifold, diverse and of multidimensional complexity. This evolves from differing
thematic, spatial and calculative specifications. Consequently, applied density measures are often
used in a subjective, non-transparent, unspecific and thus non-comparable manner. In this paper, we
aim at a systematic deconstruction of the measure density. Varying thematic, spatial and calculative
dimensions show significant influence on the measure. With both quantitative and qualitative
techniques of evaluation, we assess the particular influences on the measure density. To do so, we
reduce our experiment setting to a mere physical perspective; that is, the quantitative measures
building density, degree of soil sealing, floor space density and, more specifically, the density of
generic structural classes such as open spaces and highest built-up density areas. Using up-to-date
geodata derived from remote sensing and volunteered geographic information, we build upon
high-quality spatial information products such as 3-D city models. Exemplified for the comparison of
two European megacities, namely Paris and London, we reveal and systemize necessary variables to
be clearly defined for meaningful conclusions using the density measure.

Keywords: building density; soil sealing; floor space density; open spaces; 3-D model; structural
classes; remote sensing; volunteered geographic information; comparative urban research

1. Introduction
Density is one of the most crucial characteristics of urbanity (e.g., [1]). Walking through London’s
City district, this becomes immanently perceptible through diverse simultaneous observations: masses
of people and vehicles moving vibrantly through the complex arrangement of space; through close-knit
streets, alongside a mix of building types with different functionalities, passing open spaces within a
comparatively small area. No doubt, this typical urban scenery implies density, the embodiment of
city life.
The term density is popular as it is generally understandable and seems to be self-explanatory.
Burdett et al. [2] found that a majority of people naturally understand the concept of urban density.
Beyond its natural perception, its scientific rationale, its simple mathematical derivation, its apparent
comparability and its possibility for verification put it among the most important descriptive,
explanatory as well as normative measures in urban research [3]. However, the density measure
is delusive; there is a lack of clarity about how to measure and how to use density within the scientific
debate [4,5]. Consequently, its application often lacks clearness and consistency that derives from its
multidimensional nature, i.e., from different thematic (population, jobs, buildings, etc.) and spatial

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206; doi:10.3390/ijgi5110206 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijgi

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 2 of 24

dimensions (administrative boundaries, postcode areas, districts, blocks, etc.) as well as from the
application of different aggregation functions (gross vs. net densities, etc.).
We exemplify the delusiveness of the density measure using a classical thematic variable in
geography-population: Based on 2011 census data [6], the megacity Paris has a population density of
21,258 people per km2 . London’s population density is, in contrast, only 5432 people per km2 . While
such contrasting realities are often used for comparing cities, in this case their usage neglects that
these data are de-facto not comparable: the Paris example refers to an area of 105.4 km2 , while the
London case refers to a significantly larger reference area of 1572 km2 , an issue commonly known as
the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP) [7]. Consequently, the arbitrariness of the two reference
units affects results and triggers misleading interpretations with ineligible applications of the density
measure. In this case, the inherent delineation issues that arise from the employment of artificial
administrative city boundaries limit the density measure to a simple rhetorical medium that is prone
to misconception. Such conceptual issues implicitly introduce the complexity that comes along
with its usage and explain why an internationally accepted standard for the density measure is yet
inexistent [5,8].
We believe a better understanding of the various conceptual and empirical aspects of the
density measure is of crucial importance for the scientific debate; especially as the measure has
evolved—beyond demographics—to a sort of self-referential system that is frequently employed
in a multitude of disciplines, including geography (e.g., [9,10]), planning (e.g., [11,12]), economics
(e.g., [13,14]), social science (e.g., [15,16]), or politics (e.g., [2]), among others. All these thematic aspects
feed the complex interplay of flows of information, flows of resources, and political regulations which
are all together underpinning the spatial organization and structure of cities hitherto [17]. Density is
one of the most commonly used measures to quantify these thematic aspects in space. The focus of such
works concentrates on density gradients or patterns relative to urban cores [18] analyzing patterns of
specific subsystems such as population, jobs, economic productivity, amenities, or traffic, among others
(an overview on commonly applied density indicators and their meaning is presented by [19]); in any
of these studies intrinsically the built urban environment is addressed. Indicators applied to explicitly
describe the physical urban structures are for instance the street network density (e.g., [20]), density
of impervious surfaces (e.g., [21]), building density (e.g., [22]) or related parameters such as the floor
space density—as a measure for 3D building density (e.g., [23]). Analytical approaches on the physical
density of cities use, e.g. gradient analysis (e.g., [24–26]), exploratory approaches (e.g., [27–30]) or
spatial metrics (e.g., [31–33]). In these studies, the density measure is used as a descriptive, empirical
variable for physical urban structure as well as an explanatory variable for issues such as energy
consumption, commuting times, work patterns, etc. However, an agreed definition on how to address
physical urban morphology or urban form is inexistent [34]. Thus, empirical studies on physical
density of a city are fraught with challenges that are conceptual, as clearness on aggregation functions,
spatial or thematic dimensions is mostly absent ([4,35,36]). Beyond, empirical studies on physical
density are fraught with restrictions on data availability. Consequently, density studies are mostly
carried out for individual cities or few case studies with a conceptual vagueness that impedes the
demand for international comparative density analyses.
In this study, we aim to add to the literature by deconstructing the (conceptual and empirical)
delusiveness of the density measure. By considering multiple aspects of the density concept (from
aggregation functions to spatial and thematic dimensions) a framework is set that systemizes
the variables to be considered when applying density measures. Based on this framework, we
systematically analyze the influence that particular thematic, spatial or calculative concepts have on
results; with it, we reveal that disregarding these aspects inevitably leads to misleading, inappropriate
or simply incorrect usages and interpretations of the density measure.
The multitude of thematic density dimensions—as shown above—is inexhaustible; to reduce
complexity we focus on a mere physical perspective, i.e., variables that describe the physical
arrangement of the built environment; these are the established quantitative measures building density,
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 3 of 24

degree of soil sealing, floor space density and, more specifically, the density of generic structural classes
such as open spaces and highest built-up density areas. Hence, we argue that this family of variables and
the respective analyses (using various spatial dimensions and calculation techniques) can be seen as a
blueprint to deconstruct the delusiveness of the measure and, by this, allows highlighting the fragility
of the concept. In turn, this family of variables constructs a framework directing future studies to
meaningful applications and conclusions using the density measure.
The remainder of the work is structured as follows: Section 2 briefly presents the two cities
studied in this work; in addition, the spatial data sources are introduced. In Section 3, the conceptual
framework is presented introducing the thematic and spatial dimensions of the density measure along
with the respective calculus. In addition meaningful evaluation techniques to deconstruct physical
density are shown. The quantitative and qualitative evaluations of the density measure for the studied
cities are presented in Section 4 followed by their discussion in Section 5. Section 6 concludes with a
final perspective.

2. Study Sites and Data

2.1. Study Sites

Two European cities, Paris, France and London, UK, are selected as study sites. We choose these
two cities because they are comparable from geographic, demographic and organizational perspectives.
Located just 340 km apart, both cities are capitals of their countries, and are, with 12.34 (Paris) and
13.61 (London) million people, as per definition, megacities [37].

2.2. Spatial Data Sets

For a systematic deconstruction of the physical density for the two European megacities,
we employ available state-of-the-art geo-information products derived from original remote sensing
data, standardized Earth observation layers and volunteered geographic information (VGI).

1. 3-D city models: For London, we use the UKMap building inventory which provides information
on building footprints and their respective height. Height and footprint information of the
buildings are derived from Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) measurements with a vertical
accuracy of 0.5 m (95%-confidence limits) [38]. For Paris, we produce a 3-D model of similar
thematic and geometric quality. We use building footprint data obtained from the VGI source
OpenStreetMap [39]. To obtain building height information we use a normalized digital surface
model (nDSM) originating from Cartosat-1 digital elevation models. The approach has been
tested against independent ground truth measurements with a mean lateral and vertical accuracy
of 6.7 m and 5.1 m, respectively [40]. From the combination of OSM building footprints and the
Cartosat height information, we derive the 3-D city model for Paris at the level of detail 1, i.e.,
a model that represents buildings by generalized blocks comprising prismatic buildings with
flat roof structures. The object-based methodology and the accuracies derived for the 3-D model
(with a mean absolute error of 3.2 m in vertical direction when compared to LIDAR data) are
described in detail by [23].
2. Soil sealing information: We use the pan-European soil sealing layer [41] that is derived from
high resolution optical remote sensing imagery. This layer measures the continuous degree of
soil sealing at a spatial resolution of 20 m, i.e., the percent fraction of areas covered by buildings,
streets and other artificial surfaces.
3. Administrative/spatial units: From the European Urban Atlas [42] we use the geometry of building
blocks as a reference system. These data are provided for a map scale of 1:10,000 with a minimum
mapping unit of 0.25 ha (cp. Section 3.1.2). As administrative boundaries we utilize the accepted
standard of Level-2 Local Administrative Units (LAU-2). These entities entail municipalities or
the like as a common statistical unit across the 28 EU member states [43].
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 4 of 24

Figure 1 gives an overview of all data sets compiled.

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 4 of 24

Figure 1. Spatial input data: (a) Soil Sealing Layer; (b) Block units of the European Urban Atlas and
Figure 1. Spatial input data: (a) Soil Sealing Layer; (b) Block units of the European Urban Atlas and
Local Administrative Units (LAU); (c) Building footprints from OSM (comparable to the building
Local Administrative Units (LAU); (c) Building footprints from OSM (comparable to the building
footprint of the UKMap dataset, respectively); (d) Normalized digital surface model from Cartosat-1
footprint of the UKMap dataset, respectively); (d) Normalized digital surface model from Cartosat-1
satellite data; and (e) Perspective view of the derived 3-D city model, exemplified for Paris.
satellite data; and (e) Perspective view of the derived 3-D city model, exemplified for Paris.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 5 of 24

3. Concepts and Methods

We introduce a framework for this study to deconstruct physical density of cities (Figure 2). It
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 5 of 24
relates on the one hand to the Concept and Methods Section (Sections 3.1 and 3.2, respectively). In
this, various conceptual dimensions of physical urban density, i.e., the thematic (Section 3.1.1), the
spatial
3. (Section
Concepts and3.1.2) and the calculative (Section 3.1.3) dimensions, are addressed and defined.
Methods
Subsequent analyses of the derived density measures are categorized by means of qualitative or
We introduce
quantitative a framework
evaluation methodsfor this study
(Section 3.2). to
Ondeconstruct physical
the other hand, thedensity of cities
framework (Figure
relates 2).
to the
It relates on the one hand to the Concept and Methods Section (Sections 3.1 and
Results Section (Sections 4.1–4.3). Map appearance (Section 4.1) and the quantitative deconstruction 3.2, respectively).
In
of this,
the various
density conceptual
measure are dimensions
contrasted of from
physical urban density, (city
non-site-specific i.e., the thematic
scale) (Section
(Section 4.2.1)3.1.1),
and
the spatial (Section 3.1.2) and the calculative (Section 3.1.3) dimensions, are addressed
site-specific (zonal model) (Section 4.2.2) perspectives. Ultimately, densities of generic structural and defined.
Subsequent analyses by
types are evaluated of the derived of
techniques density measures
statistical are categorized
classification, by means
zonal statistics andof by
qualitative
the visualor
quantitative evaluation
impression from discretemethods
mapping (Section 3.2).
(Section On the other hand, the framework relates to the Results
4.3).
Section
Due to the multidimensionality of the density 4.1)
(Sections 4.1–4.3). Map appearance (Section and the
measure, anquantitative deconstruction
exhaustive presentation of of the
every
density measure are contrasted from non-site-specific (city scale) (Section
possible conceptual specification (combination of any thematic, spatial and calculative 4.2.1) and site-specific (zonal
model) (Sectionis 4.2.2)
specifications) perspectives.
not intended. Ultimately,
Nevertheless, we densities of generic
systematically structural
present types are
every possible evaluated
specification
by techniques of statistical classification, zonal statistics and by the visual impression
for at least one representative case to evaluate the respective influence of the particular variable from discrete
mapping
combination(Section
on its4.3).
application and interpretation.

Figure 2. Conceptual framework for a qualitative and quantitative deconstruction of physical urban
Figure 2. Conceptual framework for a qualitative and quantitative deconstruction of physical
density.
urban density.

3.1. Conceptual Dimensions of Density

Due to the multidimensionality of the density measure, an exhaustive presentation of every
possible
3.1.1. Theconceptual specificationof
Thematic Dimensions (combination
Density of any thematic, spatial and calculative specifications)
is not intended. Nevertheless, we systematically present every possible specification for at least one
From a spatial
representative case perspective, density
to evaluate the can beinfluence
respective calculated
offor
theany object with
particular a physical
variable extent. on
combination Here,
its
we reduce the various thematic
application and interpretation. possibilities to characteristics of the built environment. We describe
the “physical configuration” by: (1) three different physical density variables; and (2) more specifically,
by two
3.1. generic Dimensions
Conceptual structural types.
of Density

3.1.1.1.TheWe use two

Thematic dimensional
Dimensions (soil sealing and building density) and three dimensional (floor
of Density
space density) variables:
From a spatial perspective, density can be calculated for any object with a physical extent. Here,
we reduce the various thematic possibilities to characteristics of the built environment. We describe
the “physical configuration” by: (1) three different physical density variables; and (2) more specifically,
by two generic structural types.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 6 of 24

1. We use two dimensional (soil sealing and building density) and three dimensional (floor space
density) variables:

• Building density: This variable corresponds to the cumulative two dimensional extent of all
buildings per given reference unit.
• Soil-sealing: This variable reflects the share of impervious surfaces, i.e., the cumulative land
cover classes “buildings” and “traffic area” (including parking lots, squares, etc.), per given
reference unit.
• Floor space density: This variable derives from the cumulated building ground floor multiplied
by the particular number of stories per given reference unit; it is thus a measure for the
vertical density of a city.
2. Generic structural types are a certain morphological element within the urban landscape and
are thus neither continuous nor area-wide. We exemplify this for discrete classes for two generic
structural types: (a) Highest built-up density: we classify this generic structural type using all
three variables introduced above. Thus, the respective target class consists of a combination
of high density values for each variable. (b) To grasp a concept like density, there is implicitly
also the thematic negative, i.e., open spaces, involved [44]. Open spaces do not intrinsically
convey the feeling of density but rather the opposite. We explicitly address this perception
by including the variable density of open spaces. This measure relates to the spatial share of
areas without buildings within the spatial configuration of the city. This parameter thus aims to
reflect the publically accessible side of urban space. It shall complement our understanding of
spatial density.

3.1.2. The Spatial Dimensions of Density

The physical configuration of a city is reflected in a hierarchy of different centers and sub centers
or clusters across many scales, from the entire city region to neighborhoods [17]. This complex
pattern of diverse, multiscale densities shows that an “objective scale” for the calculation of density
is inexistent [4,45]. In this regard the modifiable area unit problem (MAUP) (e.g., [7]) produces a
statistical bias by aggregation units that are arbitrary, modifiable, and subjective. We confront this
issue by the introduction of a well-defined multiscale spatial concept to deconstruct the sensitivity
of analytical results to the definition of the selected reference unit. To do so, we define the spatial
dimensions based on the scale of analysis (Section 3.1.2.1) and various reference units (Section 3.1.2.2).

3.1.2.1. Scale of Analysis

The common imagined model of the physical configuration of a city relates to a dense center
surrounded by a more or less complex halo of lower-rise buildings and decreasing densities in suburbs.
To allow for a differentiated picture of this imagination, we use a multi-scale concept to describe
the urban fabric: On the one hand, we use the city scale; we define an 11-km radius circle around
a pre-defined center point for the particular city as uniform area of interest. The 11-km radius is
triggered by the consistently available geodata for both cities at the respective extents. We are aware
that this spatial unit neither covers the entire metropolitan areas of Paris and London, nor is this unit
congruent with the morphologic borders or the respective administrative city limits; nevertheless, this
unit allows for a consistent and comparable spatial baseline. Beyond, we believe it captures both, the
historic urban cores as well as a significant spatial share of the areas of urban expansion.
On the other hand, we use a more site-specific (zonal) approach for a differentiation of
density gradients. Therefore, we apply a ring zone model using one-kilometer rings around the
respective center. Due to the definition of our study site based on the spatial data coverage, 10 rings
are existent with increasing distance to the center (cp. Figure 3). The center points are pre-defined as
the historical centers of both cities: For Paris we use the location of the Notre Dame Cathedral and for
London we use the location of St. Paul’s Cathedral.
geometry. We evaluate the influence of varying grid sizes onto the density measure (cp. Section 3.2).
In this regard, the initial standard edge length (285 m) is derived from the mean size of the block
units in the EUA for the test sites.
Figure 3 gives an overview on the two scales of analysis applied in our concept as well as on the
definition
ISPRS Int. J. of spatial
Geo-Inf. 2016,reference
5, 206 units. Beyond, differences with regard to the aggregation functions
7 ofof
24
net and gross densities are visualized which are described in the subsequent Section 3.1.3.

Figure
Figure 3.
3. The
Thespatial
spatialscales
scales(a);
(a);and
andreference
referenceunits
units(b−d)
(b–d) for
for measuring
measuringdensity
densityfor forthe
thecity
cityscale
scaleand
and
the
the ring (b−d) Units
ring model. (b–d) Unitsofofmeasurement
measurementwith:
with:(b)(b) administrative
administrative units;
units; (c) (c) block
block units;
units; and and (d)
(d) grid
grid units.
units. (e) The
(e) The differentiation
differentiation between
between grossgross anddensities
and net net densities is visualized.
is visualized.

3.1.3. The
3.1.2.2. Calculation
Reference of Density
Units
Density (D) double
The spatial is the relation
strategybetween a entire
using the certainstudy
type area
of class (or object)
(11-km buffer)to thea respective
and site-specificreference
gradient
unit. That(1-km
analysis is in percent
ring model) is often used for density analysis. However, these two spatial scales do not
take the variability of density within the respective ∑ 𝑎 reference units into account.
D(a) = ∗ 100%
To do so, we calculate density measures using 𝐴 three types of reference units commonly used in
the literature: (1) administrative units; these often historically shaped units are man-defined through
where a is process
a political a certainand
thematic
are thusclass
oftenwith a spatialfrom
decoupled extent
theand A is the
complex spatialconfiguration
physical extent of the of
reference
the city.
unit.
Here Specifically,
we use LAU-2 we calculate
units; three
(2) block thematic
units; density
in contrast to themeasures: building
administrative density,
units, percentage
the block of soil
units derived
sealing, and floor space density. Beyond, we derive measures of two generic structural
from the European Urban Atlas are small spatial entities delineated through the close meshed street types, i.e.,
highest
network.built-up
Whiledensity and
they do notdensity of opencontain
necessarily space, asadefined in Tableurban
homogeneous 1. morphology, we assume that
they are the most appropriate spatial proxy to contain homogeneous physical characteristics within
the complex urban environments; and (3) grid units; we use a standard grid geometry. We evaluate the
influence of varying grid sizes onto the density measure (cp. Section 3.2). In this regard, the initial
standard edge length (285 m) is derived from the mean size of the block units in the EUA for the
test sites.
Figure 3 gives an overview on the two scales of analysis applied in our concept as well as on the
definition of spatial reference units. Beyond, differences with regard to the aggregation functions of
net and gross densities are visualized which are described in the subsequent Section 3.1.3.

3.1.3. The Calculation of Density

Density (D) is the relation between a certain type of class (or object) to the respective reference
unit. That is in percent
∑a
D(a) = ∗ 100%
A
where a is a certain thematic class with a spatial extent and A is the spatial extent of the reference unit.
Specifically, we calculate three thematic density measures: building density, percentage of soil sealing, and
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 8 of 24

floor space density. Beyond, we derive measures of two generic structural types, i.e., highest built-up
density and density of open space, as defined in Table 1.

Table 1. Overview of the parameters for measuring physical density.

Physical Parameter Equation Variables

Ab = Building Area
n
R = Block/Grid/Administrative Unit
Building density ∑ i=R1A bi
AR = Block/Grid/Administrative Area
BDR = AR
nR = Number of buildings per reference
unit [i, . . . , n]
Ap = Per-pixel area
SSp = Per-pixel soil sealing
n
∑ i=R1 SS pi × A pi R = Block/Grid/Administrative Unit
Soil Sealing SSR = AR AR = Block/Grid/Administrative Area
nR = Number of pixels per reference unit
[i, . . . , n]
Fb = Floor count per building
Ab = Building Area
n
∑ i=R1 ( Fbi × Abi ) R = Block/Grid/Administrative Unit
Floor space density FSDR = AR AR = Block/Grid/Administrative Area
nR = Number of buildings per reference
unit [i, . . . , n]
AHBD = Area of highest built-up density
R = Block Unit
Highest built-up n
∑ i=R1 A HBDi
HBDR = AR = Entire/Ring Area
density AR
nR = Number of blocks of highest
built-up density [i, . . . , n]
AOS = Area of an open space
n
R = Block Unit
Density of open spaces ∑ i=R1
AOSi
AR = Entire/Ring Area
DOSR = AR
nR = Number of blocks classified as open
space [i, . . . , n]

The calculation of density seems mathematically straightforward; however, the following three
specifications shall explain special scenarios:

1. We differentiate between net and gross density; net density refers to densities where the reference
units applied exclude certain areas. In our case, we calculate net density only using all reference
units which contain “buildings”. Thus, administrative units, blocks or grids not featuring the
respective object “buildings” are excluded from the calculation and the subsequent analysis.
In comparison, gross densities operate on the total number of reference units [5]. Figure 3d,e
(for gross density and net density, respectively) visualize this differentiation.
2. The density measures may vary significantly with respect to the population of data used. As
example, when referring to generic structural types in cross-city comparisons their spatial
classification differs depending whether one refers to the global population of data (e.g., across
all considered cities) or if their classification relates to only one population (e.g., per city) at a
time. The resulting density measures may reveal significant differences.
3. For the zonal model we test two different strategies: The calculation of density measures per
individual ring and for a cumulative reference; the latter means we calculate density measures
for the reference unit of the first ring, then for the first and second rings combined, and so on.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 9 of 24

3.2. The Evaluation of Density

The manifold parameters possibly combined to derive the measure density—may it
be thematically, spatially, or calculative—make its application complex. We introduce an
evaluation procedure that combines mapping, quantitative, thematic, spatial and intrinsically
geographic approaches.
We qualitatively examine city configurations by mapping the calculated density measures for a visual
comparison and interpretation. In doing so, we also contrast the influence of various reference units.
Geographically we compare the spatial configurations of cities with regard to different considered
physical density variables. With it we aim at demonstrating the fuzziness of density maps and their
related meaning. Additionally, we visualize examples of typical generic structural types in ground
figure plans.
We employ several statistical techniques for a quantitative deconstruction of urban density for
both the city and zonal scale:
First, we calculate the distribution of density values and visualize them as boxplots. The boxplots
are defined by the standard statistical measures median, interquartile range and standard deviation.
With this, we aim to evaluate absolute and relative influences of possible conceptual specifications
(combination of thematic variables, scales of analysis, reference units, and calculation methods) onto
the density measure.
Second, we extend the quantitative analysis by the examination of correlations between thematic
variables. In this, we empirically determine the coefficient of correlation for the series of measurements
at the various spatial units [46]. The robustness of correlation between independent and dependent
variables can be evaluated by means of the coefficient of determination R2 . The measure describes the
explained variance of a dependent variable utilizing a specific regression model [47]. In our case, the
coefficient of determination (R2 ) is described by a linear regression model of first order [46].

RSS
r2 = 1 − (1)
TSS
n
2
RSS = ∑ (di − dˆ) (2)
i =1
n  2
TSS = ∑ di − d (3)
i =1

where RSS and TSS are the residual and total sums of squared errors between two density measures,
respectively; n is the number of observations; di is an observed value; d is the mean of all observations;
and dˆ is the response of the regression model. R2 equals 1 if all points in the scatterplot show a
perfect linear relationship between the two considered data sets. We visualize the scatterplots of these
bivariate distributions. This allows for an evaluation of the deviations of the thematic dimensions
regarding density.
Third, we systematically analyze the effects of reference units (the MAUP problem) onto the
density measurements. Therefore, we calculate on the one hand the variability of the reference units
for the London and Paris test cases in terms of their spatial extents. The variabilities of these aerial
measures are presented as boxplots. With it, we aim at an interpretation of how meaningful those
units may be. On the other hand, we systematically analyze the influence of the applied grid sizes on
the calculated density measures. We use the grid width of 285 m as a standard within the analysis.
However, to analyze the influence of varying grid sizes, we additionally calculate smaller (35 m, 85 m,
135 m, 185 m, 235 m) as well as larger grid widths (500 m, 750 m, 1000 m, and 1500 m) to reveal the
effects on the density measure.
Ultimately, we analyze density measures for generic structural classes, which are in contrast to
the other variables not area-wide and continuous. This may add to the understanding of the density
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 10 of 24

measure, as e.g., a city may have on average a higher building density than another; however, it is not an
obligatory consequence that the share of open spaces is in turn lower. The generic structural classes are
a spatial selection of areas from the global population. Thus, we compare here only spatial shares of the
entire city configuration. Our analysis here is two-fold: For the class highest built-up density, we identify
areas with values higher than the 85th quantile for all the three continuous variables—building density,
soil sealing and floor space density. However, to account for the variability of the density measure
with respect to the population of data used, we relate the analysis to both the global population of
variables across cities, and the per-city populations. For the analysis we use zonal statistics to evaluate
results based on the two different calculation methods. Regarding the class open spaces, we define
that an open space has a building density lower than 1%. We furthermore specify whether the open
space is a natural open space (e.g., a park) or a sealed surface by using a threshold based on the soil
sealing layer. In particular, we consider any open space identified as natural if the share of soil sealing
is lower than 10%. We are aware that those thresholds may be subjective. However, as we apply them
in a consistent manner for both cities, we argue that this is appropriate for a cross-city comparison.
The analysis on open spaces then uses zonal statistics to evaluate the density measure.

4. Results
In this section, we deconstruct the density measure to evaluate its fragility in dependence of
selected dimensions and methods of calculation.

4.1. The Mapping of Density

The cartographic visualization of density is a powerful tool in urban planning. However, when
mapping densities, it becomes obvious that map appearances vary significantly with respect to the
thematic dimension, the scale of analysis, the applied reference unit or the method of calculation.
Figure 4 illustrates the variability of the density measures regarding building density, soil sealing and
floor space density for the entire areas of investigation in Paris and London at block level.
In general, both cities show maximum building densities in their respective geographic centers.
However, the cities also reveal differences in density patterns: The extent of highest building densities
is significantly larger for Paris. Within the Boulevard Périphérique—an administrative (and obviously
also a morphological) demarcation line in Paris’ city configuration—densities are continuously very
high. Outside this area, building density decreases as function of the distance to the city center.
For London the spatial extent of high building densities are significantly smaller and basically limited
to the central areas north of river Thames, between the so-called “City” (east) and Hyde Park (west).
Soil sealing densities show a partly different spatial pattern. Similar to building densities, high
soil sealing densities are mapped for the urban centers. However, the decrease in soil sealing with
rising distance to the urban center is by far less distinct. In Paris the decrease of soil sealing even
outside the Boulevard Périphérique is marginal. For London, areas of high soil sealing comprise a
significantly larger area than high building densities; however, the decrease to the peripheral areas
is apparent.
The floor space density reveals a different, more complex spatial pattern: While a generally
decreasing floor space density from the center to peripheral areas is also given, this gradient is
significantly interrupted by local maxima of urban mass concentration. As examples, the La Defense
area northwest of the city center in Paris (a planned business district with an agglomeration of
high rise buildings) clearly reveals an urban mass concentration outside the Boulevard Périphérique.
For London, peripheral business districts such as Canary Wharf east of the City reveal the existence of
morphological sub-centers.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 11 of 24
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 11 of 24

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Density
Density maps
maps at
at block
block level
level for
for Paris
Paris and
and London:
London: (a)
(a) Building
Building density;
density; (b)
(b) Soil
Soil Sealing;
Sealing; and
and
(c) Floor Space Density.
(c) Floor Space Density.

The mapping of three different spatial variables underpins the variability of density with respect
to the particular thematic measure. This is even true, if parameters relate to the same physical
ground objects such as buildings as it is the case in terms of building and floor space density. While
Figure 4 presents the map appearances of thematic density measures on block level, Figure 5 illustrates
the variability of density measures with regard to the choice of particular reference units. This is
 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 12 of 24

exemplified by the thematic parameter building density mapped on the level of administrative and
ISPRS
grid Int.
unitsJ. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206
for Paris. 12 of 24

Figure 5. Building density maps related to different reference units: grid vs. administrative units.
Figure 5. Building density maps related to different reference units: grid vs. administrative units.

Thecomparison
The comparisonof ofmap
mapappearances
appearancesfor forthe
theparameter
parameterbuilding
buildingdensity
densityin independence
dependenceof ofthe
the
reference units (grid level vs. administrative unit (Figure 5) vs. block level (presented
reference units (grid level vs. administrative unit (Figure 5) vs. block level (presented in Figure 4)) in Figure 4))
illustrates their
illustrates their significant
significantinfluence.
influence.DueDueto to
thethe
chosen
chosengridgrid
dimension, whichwhich
dimension, is related to the average
is related to the
average size of block units, both reference units reveal a similar spatial density pattern.conclude
size of block units, both reference units reveal a similar spatial density pattern. One might One mightthat
both block
conclude thatlevel
bothandblock
the used
levelgrid
andlevel
the capture
used grid thelevel
change of complex,
capture small-scale
the change urban morphology.
of complex, small-scale
In contrast, administrative units blur the real physical configuration of
urban morphology. In contrast, administrative units blur the real physical configuration ofthe city. While thethe
general
city.
decrease in building density from the city center to peripheral areas is preserved,
While the general decrease in building density from the city center to peripheral areas is preserved, the true urban
morphology
the true urbanconfiguration
morphologyisconfiguration
hidden due toisthe large due
hidden size to
of spatial
the largeunits
sizeand their inappropriateness
of spatial units and their
inappropriateness to represent the true urban morphology. Thus, the selection of anmeasurement
to represent the true urban morphology. Thus, the selection of an appropriate scale of appropriate
is crucial.
scale of measurement is crucial.

4.2. Quantitative Deconstruction of the Density Measure

4.2. Quantitative Deconstruction of the Density Measure
4.2.1. The City Scale
4.2.1. The City Scale
We start the quantitative deconstruction of density using the three variables building density, soil
We start the quantitative deconstruction of density using the three variables building density, soil
sealing and floor space density for three reference units (administrative, grid and block units) as well as
sealing and floor space density for three reference units (administrative, grid and block units) as well as
for two calculation methods (gross and net density). Figure 6 illustrates these results as boxplots at
for two calculation methods (gross and net density). Figure 6 illustrates these results as boxplots at
city level.
city level.
Figure 6 allows the following conclusions: (1) Naturally, net densities are consistently higher than
gross densities. Consequently, the application of either of the measures has influence on the absolute
values of density measured. The differences vary between 0% and 4%. Thus, whenever used for
cross-city comparisons the specification of the measurement of density is imperative. (2) Per definition,
soil sealing density values are significantly higher than building density values. It is interesting to
note, that for the specific cases of Paris and London, the cross-city differences in soil sealing values are
significantly higher (in the range of 20% depending on the reference unit) than for building density
(in the range of 4%). (3) The administrative units result in the comparably lowest density values.
In contrast, the block units reveal the highest values. The assumption suggests that this is due to the
larger sizes of administrative units. However, as Figure 7 contrasts the dimensions and variabilities of
block and administrative units, this assumption is only partly true. Indeed, the administrative units
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 13 of 24

for Paris are significantly larger than the block and the used standard grid units. For London, the
opposite case of smaller LAU-2 units is given. Although the spatial dimension of grid and block units
is similar, their difference in spatial form reduces the density values for grid units by a range of 10%.
This can be explained by the spatially unspecific form and location of grids neglecting the real urban
physical configuration (which is supposed to be better in block units). (4) Geographically the results
clearly reveal that at city level Paris is denser than London, both in terms of the observed medians and
the peak values. This holds true for the thematic dimension of the parameters building density, soil
sealing as well as the floor space density. It holds true for both net and gross densities across all three
reference units applied. Furthermore, the variance of density values is commonly higher in Paris—with
ISPRS
soil Int. J. Geo-Inf.
sealing 2016, as
densities 5, 206
the only exception. 13 of 24

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Density
Density measures
measures illustrated
illustrated as
as boxplots
boxplots forfor three
three thematic
thematic dimensions—building density,
soil sealing,
soil sealing, and
and floor
floor space
space density—and
density—and the the influence
influence ofof the
thereference
referenceunits—administrative,
units—administrative, grid
grid
and block
and block units—calculated
units—calculated forforgross
grossand
andnet
netdensities
densitiesat atcity
cityscale
scalefor
forParis
Parisand
andLondon.
London.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 14 of 24

Figure 6 allows the following conclusions: (1) Naturally, net densities are consistently higher
than gross densities. Consequently, the application of either of the measures has influence on the
absolute values of density measured. The differences vary between 0% and 4%. Thus, whenever
used for cross-city comparisons the specification of the measurement of density is imperative. (2) Per
definition, soil sealing density values are significantly higher than building density values. It is
interesting to note, that for the specific cases of Paris and London, the cross-city differences in soil
sealing values are significantly higher (in the range of 20% depending on the reference unit) than for
building density (in the range of 4%). (3) The administrative units result in the comparably lowest
density values. In contrast, the block units reveal the highest values. The assumption suggests that
this is due to the larger sizes of administrative units. However, as Figure 7 contrasts the dimensions
and variabilities of block and administrative units, this assumption is only partly true. Indeed, the
administrative units for Paris are significantly larger than the block and the used standard grid units.
For London, the opposite case of smaller LAU-2 units is given. Although the spatial dimension of
grid and block units is similar, their difference in spatial form reduces the density values for grid
units by a range of 10%. This can be explained by the spatially unspecific form and location of grids
neglecting the7.real
Figure The urban physical
The influence
influence configuration
of varying grid sizes on(which
density is supposed
measures to be better
calculated in densities.
for gross block units). (4)
Geographically the results clearly reveal that at city level Paris is denser than London, both in terms
From
of the the previous
observed mediansresults,
and the it is already
peak obvious
values. that no
This holds linear
true correlation
for the thematicbetween
dimension the of
three
the
spatially
parameters continuous thematicsoil
building density, variables
sealing applied
as well asinthe
ourfloor
study exists.
space Figure
density. 8 plots
It holds truepairwise
for boththe
net
respective thematicacross
and gross densities dimensions
all threeagainst each
reference other
units at block
applied. level.
Furthermore, the variance of density values
is commonly higher in Paris—with soil sealing densities as the only exception.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 14 of 24

In addition to the explanation above, Figure 7 reveals the high spatial variability of administrative
units across
Figurecities. This factofemphasizes
7. The influence varying grid the
sizesconclusion that administrative
on density measures calculated forunits
gross are not suitable
densities.
entities for density measures and their comparison across cities.
From the previous results, it is already obvious that no linear correlation between the three
spatially continuous thematic variables applied in our our study
study exists. Figure 8 plots pairwise the
exists. Figure
respective thematic dimensions against each each other
other at
at block
block level.
level.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8.
Figure 8. (a)
(a)Floor
Floorspace
space density
density as function
as function of building
of building density;
density; (b) Soil(b) Soil sealing
sealing as function
as function of
of building
building density; and (c) Floor space density as function of soil sealing; all examples are presented
density; and (c) Floor space density as function of soil sealing; all examples are presented at block level at
block level using gross densities
using gross densities for Paris. for Paris.

Although all applied variables belong to one family describing physical characteristics of the
Although all applied variables belong to one family describing physical characteristics of the
urban landscape, no linear correlation is evident. However, the coefficients of correlation show
urban landscape, no linear correlation is evident. However, the coefficients of correlation show positive
positive relationships. Especially the two variables that describe the building stock—building
relationships. Especially the two variables that describe the building stock—building density and floor
density and floor space density—show a high correlation with an r² of 0.66 in linear regression.
space density—show a high correlation with an r2 of 0.66 in linear regression. However, this does not
However, this does not mean knowing either of the two variables is a reliable predictor for the other.
mean knowing either of the two variables is a reliable predictor for the other. Regarding soil sealing
Regarding soil sealing and building density a medium correlation (r² = 0.42) and for soil sealing and
and building density a medium correlation (r2 = 0.42) and for soil sealing and floor space density a
floor space density a low correlation (r² = 0.28) is calculated from linear regression. This
low correlation (r2 = 0.28) is calculated from linear regression. This quantitatively confirms criticism
quantitatively confirms criticism on the EUA for hiding information on the true urban morphology
on the EUA for hiding information on the true urban morphology (e.g., [48]), as its density classes are
(e.g., [48]), as its density classes are based solely on soil sealing. Thus, conclusions on the urban
based solely on soil sealing. Thus, conclusions on the urban morphology based on one variable may
morphology based on one variable may be misleading.
be misleading.
All previous analyses in our study have been done on a fixed standard grid size, or on the
All previous analyses in our study have been done on a fixed standard grid size, or on the
invariable sizes of blocks or administrative units. Addressing the MAUP problem, we aim at
invariable sizes of blocks or administrative units. Addressing the MAUP problem, we aim at evaluating
evaluating the effects of varying grid sizes on density measures. Therefore we systematically
the effects of varying grid sizes on density measures. Therefore we systematically quantify the variation
quantify the variation of density values with alternating grid sizes. Figure 9 illustrates the variation
of density values with alternating grid sizes. Figure 9 illustrates the variation of density values at city
of density values at city level for three thematic dimensions in dependence of varying grid sizes.
level for three thematic dimensions in dependence of varying grid sizes.
The analysis reveals a natural trend of decreasing density variances across thematic dimensions
with increasing grid sizes. Rising grid sizes obviously are more likely to contain a mixture of structural
types leveling local variations of density throughout urban morphology. At the specific thematic levels,
a clear trend is only given for the variable soil sealing: with increasing grid sizes, median density
values decrease. This trend is only marginal for the other two thematic layers. For building density
and the floor space density, median values are unpredictable with respect to the applied grid sizes.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 15 of 24
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 15 of 24

Figure 9. The influence of varying grid sizes on density measures calculated for gross densities for
Figure 9. The influence of varying grid sizes on density measures calculated for gross densities for
London and
London and Paris.
Paris.

The analysis reveals a natural trend of decreasing density variances across thematic dimensions
4.2.2. The Zonal Scale
with increasing grid sizes. Rising grid sizes obviously are more likely to contain a mixture of
The high
structural variance
types levelingof local
density values for
variations of the entire
density study areasurban
throughout implies an uneven At
morphology. distribution
the specificof
physical
thematic density
levels, ainclear
the city
trend configuration.
is only givenFigure 10 variable
for the illustrates thesealing:
soil site-specific
with gradient analysis
increasing that
grid sizes,
reflects
medianthis uneven
density spatial
values distribution
decrease. This more
trendclearly.
is onlyWhile the zonal
marginal for thestatistics calculated
other two for layers.
thematic individual
For
rings are density
building presentedandfor
thethe three
floor thematic
space dimensions
density, at block
median values are level, for one example—building
unpredictable with respect to the
density—the cumulative gradient analysis is carried out to evaluate its influence on the density
applied grid sizes.
measure. Furthermore, to account for the variance of density measures due to the chosen reference
4.2.2. The
units, twoZonal Scale examples are presented: for the thematic variable soil sealing at the level of
additional
administrative units and for the thematic variable building density at grid level.
The high variance of density values for the entire study areas implies an uneven distribution of
The basic imagination of the physical configuration of a city—high dense center and decreasing
physical density in the city configuration. Figure 10 illustrates the site-specific gradient analysis that
densities with rising distances—is generally confirmed. Based on the median, we find with rising
reflects this uneven spatial distribution more clearly. While the zonal statistics calculated for
distances to the centers predominantly a constant decrease of gross densities values regardless of the
individual rings are presented for the three thematic dimensions at block level, for one
thematic dimension or the calculus (ring vs. cumulative gradient analysis). While this is generally
example—building density—the cumulative gradient analysis is carried out to evaluate its influence
true for block as well as grid units, it is interesting to note that the administrative units reveal high
on the density measure. Furthermore, to account for the variance of density measures due to the
irregularities to this trend; it is an additional proof for the spatial units to be inappropriate for
chosen reference units, two additional examples are presented: for the thematic variable soil sealing
measuring density—which goes along with the blurring effect in map appearance. Furthermore, it is
at the level of administrative units and for the thematic variable building density at grid level.
interesting to note that for the cumulative gradient analysis, the decrease of density is not as distinct,
and naturally the absolute density values are higher. This is of course founded in the alternative
reference units constantly integrating the center; however, with more than 10% higher values in the
outer areas, this calculation method reveals the fragility of the measure and its interpretation.
Geographically, the result again reveals that at all thematic and spatial dimensions Paris is denser
than London. On a closer look, significant differences in density configurations between Paris and
London can be identified as well. While the urban center in London reveals the highest median
densities measured for building density as well as for floor space density, in Paris the highest median
densities are not found in the center but in the 1–2 km distance. Beyond this, the highest variance
and peak values are identified for the inner 2–3 rings (depending on the variable) with a decrease in
both, variance and peak, with rising distance. For Paris, neither the highest variance nor the highest
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 16 of 24

peak density values are found in the inner three rings. This implies a more heterogeneous density
structure for Paris in the outskirts and vice versa for London in the downtown area. In Paris, the
highest variances are identified in a distance from 3–6 km distance for both, building density and floor
space density. For example, in a distance of 4–5 km, the median building density in Paris is with 56%
compared to 32% in London significantly higher. Last but not least, the density in Paris is significantly
higher within the first 5–6 rings compared to London, while in the outer rings the densities assimilate
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 16 of 24
across cities.

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Gradient
Gradient analysis
analysisforforthree
threethematic
thematicdimensions
dimensionsillustrated
illustratedbyby site-specific boxplots
site-specific on:on:
boxplots (a)
building
(a) density;
building (b)(b)
density; floor space
floor density;
space density;and
and(c)(c)soil
soilsealing
sealingatatblock
blocklevel
levelforfor London
London and Paris.
Paris. (d)
(d) For
For
one example,
one example, soil
soil sealing,
sealing, the
the gradient
gradient analysis
analysis isispresented
presentedat atadministrative
administrative units.
units. For
For two
two other
other
examples, using
examples, using building
building density,
density,the
thecumulative
cumulative gradient
gradient analysis
analysis is
is illustrated
illustrated for:
for: (e)
(e) block
block units;
units;
and(f)
and (f)grid
gridunits.
units.

TheDensity
4.3. The basic imagination of the physical
of Generic Structural Classes configuration of a city—high dense center and decreasing
densities with rising distances—is generally confirmed. Based on the median, we find with rising
To this point of the study, all results on density are related to an area-wide, continuous
distances to the centers predominantly a constant decrease of gross densities values regardless of the
understanding of the city configuration. However, as introduced in Section 3.2, the measure of
thematic dimension or the calculus (ring vs. cumulative gradient analysis). While this is generally
density can also be applied to specific parts of the city. In our case, we exemplify this by the analysis of
true for block as well as grid units, it is interesting to note that the administrative units reveal high
two generic structural classes, which naturally exhibit a limited area of the entire city: highest built-up
irregularities to this trend; it is an additional proof for the spatial units to be inappropriate for
densities and open spaces.
measuring density—which goes along with the blurring effect in map appearance. Furthermore, it is
Figure 11 illustrates the map appearances of the two classified generic structural classes at block
interesting to note that for the cumulative gradient analysis, the decrease of density is not as distinct,
level. Furthermore, the gradient analysis of the two classes is visualized. For the class highest built-up
and naturally the absolute density values are higher. This is of course founded in the alternative
density the differences with respect to the population of data used (globally, i.e., across cities, and per
reference units constantly integrating the center; however, with more than 10% higher values in the
outer areas, this calculation method reveals the fragility of the measure and its interpretation.
Geographically, the result again reveals that at all thematic and spatial dimensions Paris is
denser than London. On a closer look, significant differences in density configurations between Paris
and London can be identified as well. While the urban center in London reveals the highest median
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 17 of 24

city) are plotted. For the class open spaces an additional specific sub-classification in sealed open spaces
and
ISPRSgreen open spaces
Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, is
206calculated and plotted. 18 of 24

Figure11.
Figure 11.Mapping
Mapping appearance
appearance of generic
of generic structural
structural classes
classes (open (open
spaces spaces and built-up
and highest highest density)
built-up
density)
at at block
block units; units;
gradient gradient
analysis analysis
of the of thestructural
two generic two generic structural
classes classes
(specified (specified
for open forsealed
spaces in open
spaces
and in sealed
green and green open spaces).
open spaces).

With regard to open spaces, our natural perception of this structural class does not correspond
The following conclusions can be drawn from Figure 11: Regarding the generic structural class
to density. Nevertheless, the spatial share of open spaces is also an expression of density. Here, open
highest built-up densities, the applied statistical approach drawing from the global population of data
space density is higher in London, with a share of 15.09% within the area of interest compared to
for both cities allows for a direct approach comparing cities. While the analyses above reveal that
10.73% for Paris. The difference mainly relates to the share of green open spaces: While the share of
built-up density of Paris is significantly higher, this type of analysis emphasizes this result. The share
open spaces with impervious surfaces is more or less equal across cities (2.20% for Paris; 2.30% for
of these areas is in Paris with 5.91% of the entire study area significantly higher than for London,
London), the share of green open spaces is significantly higher in London (8.53% = 32.43 km² for
where it amounts only 0.25%. In Paris, this specific generic structural type is dominant within the
Paris; 12.79% = 48.62 km² for London). In zonal statistics, the share of total open spaces generally
Boulevard Périphérique and covers a large share of the inner city. In London, this class is only slightly
increases with rising distances to the city center, revealing its inverse spatial character with regard to
represented in the central parts north of river Thames. In absolute numbers the difference in density
the analyzed measures on the built-up. While this increasing trend is generally true for the share of
between both cities based on this specific structural type becomes even clearer: with 22.5 km2 we
green open spaces, the share of sealed open spaces contains about the same small share (around 1%–
identify 23 times as much in extent for Paris (2670 blocks) than for London (0.95 km2 ; 221 blocks).
2%), more or less independent from the location. This effect is evident for both cities. On a closer
Regarding zonal statistics, it becomes obvious that the urban mass concentration in the center of Paris
look, the share of sealed open spaces from the total share of open spaces is only higher in the central
is significantly higher and covers larger spatial extents than in London. When changing the applied
areas (first four rings for Paris and first two rings for London); with rising distance to the city center
statistical approach by drawing from the population of data for one city at a time, the results are
natural open spaces are dominating (e.g., 17.5% in the peripheral ring in London for natural open
reversed. The share of areas in London is then with 3.12% of the area of interest higher than for Paris
spaces vs. 1% for impervious surface open spaces).
The deconstruction of density has been conducted on two scales of analysis. While the original
data sources are 3-D building models, density has been analyzed on aggregated units. In a final
analysis, we aim to capture the original urban morphology at building level to visually illustrate
density not in an abstract manner but in the real building configuration. Therefore we visualize
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 18 of 24

(2.63%). With 11.86 km2 , it is larger than that of Paris (9.98 km2 ). The analysis reveals that London also
has—compared to the surrounding urban morphology—a distinct urban mass concentration in the
city center. This particular result reveals the methodological and analytical fuzziness of the density
measure. It shows that varying calculation methods may lead to contradictory results. It shows that
the spatio-structural manifestation of density always needs to be seen in a relative manner.
With regard to open spaces, our natural perception of this structural class does not correspond to
density. Nevertheless, the spatial share of open spaces is also an expression of density. Here, open
space density is higher in London, with a share of 15.09% within the area of interest compared to
10.73% for Paris. The difference mainly relates to the share of green open spaces: While the share
of open spaces with impervious surfaces is more or less equal across cities (2.20% for Paris; 2.30%
for London), the share of green open spaces is significantly higher in London (8.53% = 32.43 km2 for
Paris; 12.79% = 48.62 km2 for London). In zonal statistics, the share of total open spaces generally
increases with rising distances to the city center, revealing its inverse spatial character with regard
to the analyzed measures on the built-up. While this increasing trend is generally true for the share
of green open spaces, the share of sealed open spaces contains about the same small share (around
1%–2%), more or less independent from the location. This effect is evident for both cities. On a closer
look, the share of sealed open spaces from the total share of open spaces is only higher in the central
areas (first four rings for Paris and first two rings for London); with rising distance to the city center
natural open spaces are dominating (e.g., 17.5% in the peripheral ring in London for natural open
spaces vs. 1% for impervious surface open spaces).
The deconstruction of density has been conducted on two scales of analysis. While the original
data sources are 3-D building models, density has been analyzed on aggregated units. In a final
analysis, we aim to capture the original urban morphology at building level to visually illustrate
density not in an abstract manner but in the real building configuration. Therefore we visualize typical
generic structural types in ground figure plans as well as 3D city models, taking examples from both
cities. With it, we aim to qualitatively illustrate the building pattern and their intrinsic density—as a
representation of physical reality. Figure 12 exemplifies three generic structural types per city: highest
building density, average building density and low building density and gives perspective views on
these three structural types using the 3-D city models.
In Paris, the highest building densities are found in the quartiers near the city center in the
8th and 9th arrondissements. Closed block structures consisting of 6–7 story town houses with
additional buildings in the respective inner courtyards mainly show building densities higher than 70%.
These block developments are ordered between the structuring boulevards laid out by Haussmann’s
reorganization of the city morphology (Figure 12a). Medium building densities of row and detached
houses in Villetaneuse, Paris (Figure 12b). Low building density north of the city center. The area
shows a morphological transition from 4–5 story buildings made with precast concrete slabs in winding
formations of a planned banlieue in Saint Denis, Paris (west) to two story row houses with private
gardens (east) (Figure 12c). Wilhelminian style quarter between London Soho and Mayfair. The
high building density in the city center of London is defined by large buildings in traditional block
perimeter development (Figure 12d). Typical row-house settlement in Battersea Borough, London. The
compact development with terraced two to three-story row houses leads to medium building densities
in that area (Figure 12e). Low density residential area in Tottenham, London. The unique typology of
two-story townhouses that contain private gardens is a characteristic London housing style resulting
in low density urban morphology (Figure 12f). 3D city models for: an agglomeration of high rise office
buildings at business district La Defense, Paris (Figure 12g); medium dense housing development
with detached, semi-detached and apartment buildings in Vésinet, Paris (Figure 12h); and low density
settlement with scattered row house structures including medium sized private gardens in Purley,
London (Figure 12i).
typical generic structural types in ground figure plans as well as 3D city models, taking examples
from both cities. With it, we aim to qualitatively illustrate the building pattern and their intrinsic
density—as a representation of physical reality. Figure 12 exemplifies three generic structural types
per city:
ISPRS Int. J. highest building
Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 density, average building density and low building density and19gives
of 24
perspective views on these three structural types using the 3-D city models.

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Ground
Ground figure
figure plans
plansfor
forcharacteristic
characteristic generic
generic structural
structural types:
types: High
High building
building density
density for
for
(a) Paris
(a) Parisand
and(d)(d) London;
London; Medium
Medium building
building density
density forParis
for (b) (b) Paris
and (e)and (e) London;
London; Low building
Low building density
density
for for and
(c) Paris (c) Paris and (f)(g)
(f) London; London; (g) space
High floor High floor space
density and density and density
(h) medium (h) medium density
housing housing
development
in Paris; and (i)
development inrow house
Paris; and structures in suburbs
(i) row house (Purley)
structures of London.
in suburbs (Purley) of London.

In Paris, the
5. Discussion andhighest building densities are found in the quartiers near the city center in the 8th
Conclusions
and 9th arrondissements. Closed block structures consisting of 6–7 story town houses with
Density as term and as measure is complex, fuzzy and delusive. While density is used in manifold
additional buildings in the respective inner courtyards mainly show building densities higher than
studies for diverse purposes, our study quantitatively reveals that when using density measures a
70%. These block developments are ordered between the structuring boulevards laid out by
careful and clearly defined application is necessary:
Haussmann’s reorganization of the city morphology (Figure 12a). Medium building densities of row
First, the thematic dimension applied needs an unambiguous definition. When talking about
and detached houses in Villetaneuse, Paris (Figure 12b). Low building density north of the city
density theoretically an uncountable amount of varying measures (people, jobs, built-up, etc.) could
center. The area shows a morphological transition from 4–5 story buildings made with precast
be used. Even as we reduced our understanding of density to a mere physical perspective on the
concrete slabs in winding formations of a planned banlieue in Saint Denis, Paris (west) to two story
city in this study, we are aware that the thematic variables used—building density, soil sealing, floor
row houses with private gardens (east) (Figure 12c). Wilhelminian style quarter between London
space density and the two generic structural types—must be seen as an incomplete proxy for the
Soho and Mayfair. The high building density in the city center of London is defined by large
multidimensionality of the measure and for reality. The analysis of physical density of a city could be
buildings in traditional block perimeter development (Figure 12d). Typical row-house settlement in
easily extended with parameters such as density of streets (by length, nodes, etc.), density of traffic,
and density of office space, among many others for a more comprehensive picture. As an example,
the street intersection density derived for London in 2010 by [20] reveals the area between the City
and Hyde Park as the dominant center areas, which corresponds well with our results; however,
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 20 of 24

the high density street intersection pattern extends to south of river Thames in their analysis; this is not
reflected by our building density or floor space density pattern. Thus, in every analysis the thematic
dimension must be understood as fragmentary for the density of the entire (physical) city system.
Furthermore, the thematic definition of density is crucial as even related dimensions such as building
density and floor space density are not linearly correlating (r2 of 0.66 in linear regression; r2 = 0.42 for
soil sealing and building density; r2 = 0.28 for soil sealing and floor space density). Although there
is a certain correlation measurable, these thematic objects are not interchangeable. It becomes clear
that the usage of density in one way or the other needs a specific reference to the particular object. For
example, the EUA data sets are criticized for hiding information on the urban morphology [47] and
therefore pose an obstacle to the application in the domain of physical urban structure research; this is
sometimes leading to a misunderstanding, when the density measures in the EUA are misinterpreted
as building density instead of soil sealing.
Second, the spatial dimension needs an unambiguous definition. We approach this issue by:
(a) applying a monocentric city model conceptualized by one defined center point; (b) applying a spatial
concept using city scale and zonal scale as spatial baseline to account for city-wide and site-specific
statements; and (c) using various reference units—block, grid and administrative units—to measure
median and variance of density within the area of investigation. For a valid cross-city comparison, a
consistent level for all spatial dimensions needs to be determined.

(a) The simplified conceptual monocentric city model applied for this study allows for comparative
empirical tests to evaluate the density measure and its conceptual issues. However, numerous
studies show that formerly monocentric cities transformed into ploycentric city configurations
(e.g., [49,50]). Consequently, future studies on density measures should consider the particular
structural configuration of the study sites.
(b) In our case, the city scale definition is data driven. However, this approach is exchangeable to any
spatial unit, as long as the spatial baseline of the cities under test can be considered comparable.
In turn, this implies that for cities featuring more complex extents (e.g., triggered by topographic
situations) a challenge arises from defining appropriate and comparable spatial units beyond the
simple ring model applied in this study.
(c) Furthermore, the spatial dimensions of applied reference units inherit significant impact on
the results: Block and grid units show minor deviations regarding the relative distribution of
density values; however, they determine the absolute density values significantly (grids lower the
absolute measure by about 10% in our examples). Administrative units disqualify as reference
unit, as their inherent delineation issues results in non-comparable numbers. An additional, but
fundamental question is how appropriate grid and block units really are: It is obvious that the
grids (the administrative units emphasize this effect) are at risk to spatially blur the real physical
configuration by chance of their location (especially change-overs between high dense areas and
open spaces level density values not representing either one of these structural type). The result
shows that the grids consistently lower the absolute density values measured. Regarding the
block units, the question remains, whether these units really meet their original intention: to
capture homogeneous built-up structures. A general statement regarding this issue is also difficult
due to the site specific nature of the analysis. Taubenböck et al. [51] delineated in their study
homogeneous morphologic units via a data-driven approach using building density. Testing the
influence of those homogeneous morphologic units relative to the block or gird units is suggested
for future studies.

Third, the aggregation function has significant influence on the absolute measured density values
and requires an unambiguous definition. On the one hand the calculation of gross or net densities is
crucial. For example, we have demonstrated that net densities are naturally higher than gross densities;
in our specific example the measured absolute values for gross densities are lower in the range of 4%.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 21 of 24

On the other hand, when using generic structural classes, the population of data (drawing from all
cities vs. one city at a time) is crucial.
Geographically the two areas of investigation—Paris and London—clearly reveal that the physical
built-up configuration of Paris is significantly denser than in London. While this result is based on
a systematic and clearly defined multidimensional analysis, less systematic approaches may lead to
contradicting results. If we had calculated building density for both cities at a grid size of 35 m, London
would be in median denser than Paris. The conclusion London is denser then Paris would be logical;
especially as the parameter is calculated for both cities at the same spatial extent, the same reference
unit with the same calculation method and thus, in an ostensibly comparable way. Our systematic
deconstruction of the measure density, however, lets us remark, this conclusion would be at least
questionable due to its random selection of parameters. This example reveals how delusive density
measures can be when based on random, unsystematic conceptions without sensitivity analyses.
In contrast, for this specific case, all other grid sizes calculated confirm the original statement that
Paris is denser than London. From another perspective on density measures, the statement Paris is
denser than London is also misleading. If we take e.g., the parameter “density of open spaces” London
has a higher density then Paris. Admittedly, open spaces are not intrinsically representing what the
perception of density is. However, this example unmasks the complexity that comes with the use of
various density measures. Moreover, the evaluation of the measure density of open spaces is justified
as it also addresses the physical configuration of the city.
Beyond the specifically addressed research questions, this study has only become possible at a
thematically and geometrically highly resolved level—even including the third dimension—due to
recent advancement in geodata availability from remote sensing and VGI sources. We are aware that
geodata derived from remote sensing and VGI are not cadastral data sets as they have to deal with
accuracy issues. However, the accuracies of these data sets reveal consistency in themselves, typically
having 80%–90% accuracy (e.g., [23,38]). Thus, we assume the influences of classification mistakes on
the analysis of density measures are especially in a relative sense insignificant.
As concluding remark, this study reveals, whenever density is used as indicator, it is advisable to
scrutinize the definition and calculation of density—with respect to the thematic and spatial dimensions
as well as the calculus, and thus to verify the related interpretation. Current and past literature shows
that an internationally accepted density measure is difficult to achieve as only a mixture out of a
multitude of density perspectives may characterize the complex, multidimensional city configuration
in a comprehensive and systematic way. This study systemizes conceptual issues and variables to be
considered for transparent analyses, well-defined applications and meaningful interpretations. While
we reduce our analysis to a physical approach of urban density, we argue that this concept can be seen
as a blueprint for usage, understanding and interpretations for any other thematic approach such as
population density.

6. Outlook
The expectations of global urban populations rising to 66% in 2050, which equals additional
2.5 billion new city dwellers in the upcoming three decades [37], can be regarded an urban imperative
to rethink which structure and morphology cities in the future can or should have. In spite of
the dynamically growing amount of city dwellers (and the related dynamic spatial expansion of
settlements (e.g., [52]), Angel et al. [31] discover a systematic decrease in density of global cityscapes
in the twentieth century; that means, although the medial, cultural or scientific focus is often on
high density vertical city centers or on high density informal settlements, horizontal urban growth
with subsequent low densities (often described as “sprawl” (e.g., [53]) is the dominant global urban
growth form. This implicitly has immense effects on available agricultural land, costs of public
transport, ecologic footprints, etc. This development sets the tone for the need to better understand
today’s existing urban morphology and is a plea for intensified empirical evidence for the formation of
informed opinions.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 206 22 of 24

As Hillier [54] stated the “spatial organization through buildings and built environments becomes one of
the principle ways in which culture is made real for us in the material world, and it is because this is so that
buildings can, and normally do, carry social ideas within their spatial forms”. This emphasizes the need for
systematically and consistently monitoring and analyzing the morphology of our cities on our planet,
which is to date still done only in a very exemplary, often inconsistent way. This study supports this
challenge by deconstructing the density measure and exemplifies its complexity and meaning along a
comparative study between Paris and London. However, we do not evaluate density in normative
terms. Instead we aim to add to the scientific debate giving a clear concept of how density measures
can be defined, used, understood and which meaning they deliver. With it, we aim to approach a
better documentation and thus understanding of the rigid physical structures of our cities, what was
demanded e.g., by [55], as basis to better explain people’s life situation.

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to specifically thank Prof. Dr. Peter Reinartz and Dr. Pablo D’Angelo
for preprocessing and providing the Cartosat-1 nDSM data. We would also like to thank the three reviewers for
their valuable comments that helped to significantly improve the manuscript.
Author Contributions: Hannes Taubenböck was responsible for the research design, the conceptual framework,
the data analyses and wrote the initial manuscript. Ines Standfuß performed the data analyses and visualization,
and contributed to the conceptual framework as well as to the written manuscript. Martin Klotzcollected the
geodata and contributed to the conceptual framework as well as to the written manuscript. Michel Wurm
processed the satellite dataand contributed to the conceptual framework as well as to the written manuscript. All
authors discussed the results and commented the manuscript at all stages.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The founding sponsors had no role in the design
of the study, the data collection, the analyses, the interpretation of results, the process of writing of the manuscript
or the decision to publish the results.

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