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ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
( EENG 312 )

2024/2025

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METHOD OF ASSESSMENT

Attendance 5%
Assignments 5%
Classwork 5%
Tests 15%
Final Exam 70%
TOTAL 100%

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Lesson 1: WAVEFORMS

A waveform is a representation of how an alternating voltage or current varies with time

(a) (b)

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Simple Sine Waveform Equations

The standard form of an alternating voltage

𝟐𝝅
e = Em sin θ, or e = Em sin ω t or e = Em sin 2 π f t or e = Em sin t
𝑻

e = Im Z sin ωt, Z = √(R2 + ω2L2)

Em = Im √(R2 + ω2L2) and

the frequency f = ω/2π Hz.

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EC-2020/21
Question 7.
(7a) An alternating wave has a maximum voltage of 415 volts and produces a current of 25 A when subjected to
a capacitive load. At time t=0, the instantaneous values of the voltage and current are 240 v and 15 A
respectively while they are increasing positively. If the two waves are operating at 50 Hz,

(i) Write the expression for the voltage and current at time t.
(ii) Determine the power consumed by the circuit. [10 Marks]
Ans.
(i) The general expression for an a.c. voltage is given by:
v = Vm sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
Where 𝜑 is the phase difference with respect the point where t = 0.
For an instantaneous voltage v = 240 v, and maximum voltage V = 415 v, the above equation would
become:
240 = 415 sin ((𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

At time t = 0, 240 = 415 sin (𝜔(0) + 𝜑) 240 = 415 sin 𝜑

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Sin 𝜑 = , 𝜑 = sin-1 0.578 = 35.332o (ii) Power:
P = IV cos ∅
Where I and V are the rms values and ∅ is the
Hence equation (i) would become phase difference between the voltage and
current.
240 = 415 sin (𝝎𝒕 + 35.332o) I = Im/ 2
and V = Vm/ 2
Similarly, the current equation is ∅ = (𝜃 - 𝜑)

i = Im sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) ∗
P= cos (36.87 – 35.33)
i.e. 15 = 25 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝜃 = 36.87o
Hence the equation: P = 5187.5 cos 1.54

15 = 25 sin (𝝎𝒕 +36.87o) P = 5186 W, P = 5.186 kW

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EC-2020/21
(7b) Determine the resultant of the following two currents by adding them as waves and verify your
answer as vectors addition.
i1 = 12 sin 𝜔t, and
i2 = 15 sin (𝜔t + 60o) [10 Marks]
Ans.
The resultant sum of the two currents is
ir = i1 + i2 Z
ir = 12 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 15 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 60o) 13
ir = 12 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 15 [sin 𝜔𝑡cos60 +sin 60cos 𝜔𝑡] 𝛼
19.5
ir = 12 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 15 [0.5sin 𝜔𝑡 + 0.866cos 𝜔𝑡]
ir = 12 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 7.5 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 13 cos 𝜔𝑡 Z = 19.52 + 132 = 23.44

ir = 19.5 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 13 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝛼 = 33.69o

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ir = 19.5 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 13 cos 𝜔𝑡
.
ir = 23.44 [ sin 𝜔𝑡 + cos 𝜔𝑡 ]
. .

15 Z
ir = 23.44 [cos 𝛼 sin 𝜔𝑡 + sin 𝛼 cos 𝜔𝑡 ]
13
. 60o 𝛼
Where cos 𝛼= and sin 𝛼 =
. . 12 19.5
Hence ir = 23.44 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼 )
Vector diagram
and ir = 23.44 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 33.69o )

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EC-2020/21
(6b) An e.m.f. whose instantaneous values at time t is applied to a coil (L), having some internal
resistance (R). The e.m.f and the current in the circuit are given by:

v = 283 sin (314t + ) volts

i = 5.66 sin (314t - ) amps

Determine:
(i) the frequency of the e.m.f.
(ii) the resistance and the inductance of the circuit
(iii) the power consumed by the load.
(iv) sketch the two sine waves. [10 Marks]
Ans.
(i) The angular velocity 𝜔 = 2𝜋f = 314
f = = 49.975 Hz. f ≅ 50 Hz

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(ii) Lets consider a time t = 0, The impedance
v = 283 sin [314(0) + ] 200.11∠ 45o
Z= , Z= 4∠ −30o
v = 283 sin 45o
The rms voltage
Z = 50 ∠ 75𝑜
V= = = 200.11∠ 45o
√ √ Z = 50 cos 75o + j50 sin 75o
Similarly,
Z = (12.94 + j48.30 ) Ω
i = 5.66 sin [314(0) - ]
i = 5.66 sin Hence the resistance
R = 12.94 Ω and
The rms current
.
I= = = 4∠ -30o The inductive reactance
√ √
XL = 48.0 Ω

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The inductance

. (iv)
L= =
( ) I,V V

L = 0.154 H I
(iii)
The power consumed by the circuit
0 75o
P = I2R 180o 360o t
P = 42 * 12.94
P = 207 W

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Lesson 1: WAVEFORMS

Any waveform that is not sinusoidal is a complex wave

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Lesson 2.4. Complex Waveform
Fundamental
3rd Harmonic
5th Harmonic
Resulting COMPLEX WAVE

0 𝜋 2𝜋

A complex waveform is the result of combining the instantaneous amplitudes of two (or more) sine waves

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(a) (b)

The first harmonic is also called the FUNDAMENTAL (50 Hz)

The 2nd harmonic has a frequency of 2 x 50 Hz = 100 Hz
The 3rd harmonic has a frequency of 3 x 50 Hz = 150 Hz
The 4th harmonics with frequencies 4 x 50 Hz = 200 Hz

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 The two halves of the complex wave are identical in shape. In other words, there is no
distortion. This is always the case when only odd harmonic (3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th etc.) are
present. Fig (b) above.
 The two halves of the complex wave are not identical. It is always so when even harmonics
(2nd, 4th, 6th etc.) are present. Fig (a) above.

(C)
 Sometimes, a combination of an alternating and direct current ID, flows simultaneously
through a circuit. Fig (c) above.

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Causes of HARMONICS waveforms

 Harmonics are the result of nonlinear loads that convert AC line voltage to DC.
 Harmonics flow into the electrical system because of nonlinear electronic switching
devices, such as variable frequency drives (VFDs), computer power supplies, and
energy-efficient lighting.
 The second harmonic causes a negative sequence
 The third harmonic causes zero sequence leading to an increase in the neutral
 The fourth harmonic causes more current flow than normal and hence more heat
 The fifth harmonic causes an opposite rotation of motors
 3, 6, and 9 do not cancel each other therefore Reactors are used in power systems as a
control measure.

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Complex waveforms

The instantaneous voltage waveform maybe represented by:

e = Em sin (ω t + ∅) volts,
where ∅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡.
Consider a complex wave which is made up of the fundamental and few harmonics
and of which has its own peak values and phase angles as follows:

e1 = E1m sin (ω t + ∅𝟏)

e2 = E2m sin (ω t + ∅𝟐) The equation for the instantaneous
e3 = E3m sin (ω t + ∅𝟑) complex voltage waveform is given by:

e = e1 + e2 + e3 ............... en volts
en = Enm sin (ω t + ∅𝐧)

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Hence

e = E1m sin (ω t + ∅𝟏) + E2m sin (ω t + ∅𝟐) + E3m sin (ω t + ∅𝟑) … … Enm sin (ω t + ∅𝐧) Volts

With the knowledge that Enm are the maximum voltage values and ∅𝐧 are the individual phase shifts
Similarly, the complex current waveform would be:

i = I1m sin (ω t + 𝝋𝟏) + I2m sin (ω t + 𝝋𝟐) + I3m sin (ω t + 𝝋𝟑) + ….. Inm sin (ω t + 𝝋𝒏) 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒔

Apparently, (∅𝟏 - 𝝋𝟏) is the phase difference between the harmonic voltage and current for the
fundamental,
(∅𝟐 - 𝝋𝟐) for the second harmonic,
(∅3 - 𝝋3) for the third harmonic,

(∅𝐧 - 𝝋n) for the nth harmonic.

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Harmonics in a single-phase circuits

When a complex alternating voltage wave, i.e., one containing harmonics, is applied to a single-phase
circuit containing resistance, inductance and/or capacitance (i.e., linear circuit elements), then the
resulting current will also be complex and contain harmonics.

PURELY RESISTIVE LOADS

The impedance of a pure resistance R is independent of frequency and the current and voltage are in
phase for each harmonic. Thus the general expression for current i is given by

The percentage second harmonic content to the fundamental is given by:

𝑽𝟐𝒎
𝑹
𝑽𝟏𝒎 * 100% i.e *
100%
𝑹

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Example 1. Using KVL

Determine the instantaneous current flowing in the
circuit below.
10Ω i=Σ , i= + +

i
i= sin 𝜃 + sin 2𝜃 + sin 3𝜃

i = 5 sin 𝜃 + 2.5 sin 2𝜃 + 3 sin 3𝜃 Amps

v = 50 sin 𝜃 + 25 sin 2𝜃 + 30 sin 3𝜃 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
Ans. 1.
The percentage 3rd harmonic current to
50 sin θ … … … … . fundamental voltage the fundamental is:
25 sin 2𝜃 … … … . . 2nd harmonic voltage
30 sin 3𝜃 …………. 3rd harmonic voltage * 100% = 60%

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PURELY INDUCTIVE LOADS

 Consider a voltage wave without harmonics as

v = Vm sin 𝜔𝑡.
 If such voltage is applied to a pure inductor (L), the current wave will be
i = Im sin (𝜔𝑡 - )
 If the applied voltage is complex, given by:
v = Vm sin 𝜔𝑡 + V2m sin 2𝜔𝑡 + V3m sin 3𝜔𝑡 + ………………..
 The impedance of a pure inductance L, i.e., inductive reactance XL = 𝜔L, varies with the
harmonic frequency when voltage v is applied to it.

 The current i is given by:

 Also, for every harmonic term, the current will lag the voltage by 90° or /2 rad.

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Example 1. For the fundamental.
Determine the instantaneous current flowing in the XL1 = 2𝜋 ∗ 50 ∗ 15.9
circuit below at 50 Hz frequency. X = 5Ω
L1
7.96 mH For the 2nd harmonic frequency
XL2 = 2𝜔𝐿
XL2 = 2 * 5 = 10 Ω
i For the 3rd harmonic frequency
XL3 = 3𝜔𝐿
XL3 = 3 * 5 = 15 Ω

v = 50 sin 𝜃 + 25 sin 2𝜃 + 30 sin 3𝜃 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 i = sin (𝜃 − ) + sin (2𝜃 − ) + sin (3𝜃 − )

Ans.
i = 10 sin (𝜃 − ) + 2.5 sin (2𝜃 − ) + 2 sin (3𝜃 − )
The inductive reactance
XL = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 Note. 𝜽 = 𝝎𝒕

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PURELY CAPACITIVE LOADS

 The impedance of a pure capacitance C, i.e., capacitive reactance XC = 1/2𝜋fC, varies with the
harmonic frequency when voltage v is applied to it.

 The current i is given by:

Hence,

 Notice that for each harmonic term the current will lead the voltage by 90° or /2 rad.

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Example 1. For the fundamental.
Determine the instantaneous current flowing in the 𝜔𝑐 1 = (2𝜋 ∗ 50 ∗ 0.159 ∗ 10 )
circuit below at 50 Hz frequency. 𝜔𝑐 1 = 0.05 Ω
For the 2nd harmonic frequency
25 𝜇F 𝜔𝑐2 = 2 * 𝜔𝑐 1
𝜔𝑐2 = 2 * 0.05 = 0.10 Ω
For the 3rd harmonic frequency
i
𝜔𝑐3 = 3 * 𝜔𝑐 1
𝜔𝑐3 = 3 * 0.05 = 0.15 Ω

i = (50*0.05) sin (𝜃 + ) + (25*0.1) sin (2𝜃 + )

v = 50 sin 𝜃 + 25 sin 2𝜃 + 30 sin 3𝜃 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
+ (30*0.15) sin (3𝜃 + )
Ans.
i = 2.5 sin (𝜃 + ) + 2.5 sin (2𝜃 + )
The capacitive reactance
+ 4.5 sin (3𝜃 + ) A
XC = 1/2𝜋𝑓𝐶 = 1/𝜔𝐶 Note. 𝜽 = 𝝎𝒕

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Example 4. The inductive reactance
Determine the instantaneous current flowing in the XL = 𝜔𝐿,
circuit below. XL = 377 * 16 * 10-3, XL = 6.032 Ω
12 Ω 16 mH 170 𝜇F
The capacitive reactance XC = 1/𝜔𝑐,
XC = 1 / (377 * 170 * 10-6 )
XC = 1 / (0.0641), Xc = 15.6 Ω
i
The impedance, Z = √[𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 2]
Z = √[122 + 15.6 − 6.03 2]
Z = √[122 + 9.57 2]
v = 250 sin 377t + 50 sin (1885t + π/3) v Z = √[144 + 91.585]
Z = 235.585 , Z1 = 15.349 Ω

Ans. .
𝜑1 = tan-1 = -38.57o
The angular displacement 𝜔 = 377 rad/s 𝜑1 = -38.57 = -0.673 rad

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For the next harmonic frequency .
𝜑5 = tan-1
1885
= 5th
377
Hence, its inductive reactance 𝜑5 = 66.07o [66.07 = 1.15 rad ]
XL5 = 5𝜔𝐿,
XL5 = 5 ∗ 6.032, XL5 = 30.16 Ω
i=
Its capacitive reactance
XC5 = 1/5𝜔𝑐,
XC5 = 1 / (5*377 * 170 * 10-6 ) i= sin(377t + 𝜑1 ) + sin(1885t + π/3- 𝜑5 )
XC5 = 1 / (0.32), XC5 = 3.125 Ω

The 5th harmonic impedance i= sin(377t + 0.673) + sin(1885t + 1.05 – 1.15)

. .
Z5 = √[𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿5 − 𝑋𝐶5 2]
Z5 = √[122 + 30.16 − 3.125 2]
Z5 = √[122 + 27.035 2]
Z5 = √[144 + 730.89] i = 16.29 sin(377t + 0.673) + 1.69 sin(1885t – 0.1)
Z5 = 874.89 , Z5 = 29.58 Ω

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Homework 1.
Determine the instantaneous current (i) flowing in
the circuit below.
20 Ω 35 mH 200 𝜇F

i
To be submitted on
Tuesday, Nov. 5
v = 50 sin (1885t + π/6) + 250 sin 377t v

Ans.

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