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 Power Quality in
Power Distribution
Systems

The comprehensive textbook will help readers to develop analytic reasoning of

power quality aspects in distribution power systems. It will as an ideal study ma-
terial for senior undergraduate and graduate students in the field of electrical
engineering, electronics and communications engineering.

• Provides explanation of transformations and power theories for single phase

and three-phase systems.
• Discusses concepts illustrating power quality aspects in power distribution
network.
• Examines detailed derivations and analysis of voltage and current compensa-
tion techniques.
• Discusses custom power devices such as DSTATCOM, DVR and UPQC.
• Presents solved examples, theoretical and numerical exercises in each chapter.

This textbook comprehensively covers fundamentals concepts of power quality

with the help of solved problems. It provides basic understanding of power qual-
ity aspects in power systems, especially in power distribution networks and ex-
plains issues related to power quality problems, their quantification, analysis and
interpretation. It covers important topics including single phase circuits, three
phase circuits, theory of fundamental load compensation, instantaneous reactive
power theory, theory of instantaneous symmetrical components, dynamic volt-
age restorer (DVR) and unified power quality conditioner. Pedagogical features
including solved problems and unsolved exercises are interspersed throughout
the text for better understanding.The textbook is primarily written for senior un-
dergraduate and graduate students in the field of electrical engineering, electron-
ics and communications engineering for courses on power quality/power system/
power electronics. The textbook will be accompanied by teaching resource in-
cluding solution manual for the instructors.
 Power Quality in
Power Distribution
Systems
Concepts and Applications

By Mahesh Kumar Mishra

First edition published 2024
by CRC Press
2385 NW Executive Center Drive, Suite 320, Boca Raton FL 33431

and by CRC Press

4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2024 Mahesh Kumar Mishra

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and pub-
lisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use.
The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced
in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not
been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so
we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information stor-
age or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com
or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923,
978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact [email protected]

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN: 978-0-367-75091-6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-61729-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-61730-5 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781032617305

Typeset in Nimbus font

by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
Dedicated to my parents: Late Shri Gendan Lal Mishra
and Late Smt. Ramkali Mishra
Contents

About the Author ....................................................................................................xiii

Foreword .................................................................................................................. xv

Preface....................................................................................................................xvii

Chapter 1 Introduction to Power Quality in Power Distribution System......... 1

1.1 Introduction............................................................................. 1
1.2 Power Quality ......................................................................... 2
1.3 Power Quality Problems ......................................................... 4
1.3.1 Transients ................................................................... 6
1.3.2 Short-Duration Variations .......................................... 8
1.3.3 Long-Duration Variations .......................................... 9
1.3.4 Imbalance................................................................. 11
1.3.5 Waveform Distortion................................................ 11
1.3.6 Voltage Fluctuations................................................. 13
1.3.7 Power Frequency Variations .................................... 13
1.4 Mitigation Techniques .......................................................... 14
1.4.1 Network Re-configuring Type ................................. 14
1.4.2 Compensating Type ................................................. 17
1.5 Power Quality Monitoring .................................................... 19
1.6 Power Quality Indices........................................................... 20
1.7 Power Quality Standards ...................................................... 24
1.8 CBEMA and ITIC Curves .................................................... 26
1.9 Summary............................................................................... 27
1.10 Problems ............................................................................... 27
References...................................................................................... 28

Chapter 2 Single-Phase Circuits: Power Definitions and Components.......... 31

2.1 Introduction........................................................................... 31
2.2 Power Terms and Definitions in Single-Phase Systems ....... 31
2.3 Phasor Representation of Electrical Quantities .................... 35
2.4 Sinusoidal Voltage Source Supplying Non-linear Load
Current .................................................................................. 41
2.5 Non-sinusoidal Voltage Source Supplying Linear and
Non-linear Loads .................................................................. 48

vii
viii Contents

2.5.1 Active Power............................................................ 50

2.5.2 Reactive Power......................................................... 51
2.5.3 Apparent Power ....................................................... 52
2.5.4 Non Active Power .................................................... 54
2.5.5 Distortion Power ...................................................... 54
2.5.6 Fundamental Power Factor ...................................... 54
2.5.7 Power Factor ............................................................ 55
2.6 Summary............................................................................... 62
2.7 Problems ............................................................................... 62
References...................................................................................... 69

Chapter 3 Three Phase Circuits: Power Definitions and Various

Components................................................................................... 71
3.1 Introduction........................................................................... 71
3.2 Three-phase Balanced System.............................................. 72
3.2.1 Three-phase Instantaneous Power............................ 72
3.2.2 Three Phase Instantaneous Reactive Power............. 74
3.2.3 Power Invariance in abc and αβ 0 Coordinates ....... 76
3.3 Instantaneous Active and Reactive Powers for
Three-phase Circuits............................................................. 78
3.3.1 Three-Phase Balance System................................... 78
3.3.2 Three-Phase Unbalanced System............................. 80
3.4 Symmetrical Components..................................................... 83
3.4.1 Power Invariance in Symmetrical Components
Transformation, Vector and Arithmetic
Apparant Powers ...................................................... 89
3.4.2 Effective Apparent Power ........................................ 94
3.4.3 Positive Sequence and Unbalance Powers............... 95
3.5 Three-phase Balanced Nonsinusoidal System.................... 107
3.5.1 Neutral Current ...................................................... 108
3.5.2 Line to Line Voltage............................................... 108
3.5.3 Apparent Power with Budeanu Resolution:
Balanced Distortion Case....................................... 110
3.5.4 Effective Apparent Power for Balanced
Non-sinusoidal System .......................................... 110
3.6 Three-phase Unbalanced and Non-sinusoidal System ....... 115
3.6.1 Arithmetic and Vector Apparent Power with
Budeanu’s Resolution ............................................ 118
3.6.2 Effective Apparent Power ...................................... 119
3.7 Summary............................................................................. 127
3.8 Problems ............................................................................. 127
References.................................................................................... 135
Contents ix

Chapter 4 Theory of Fundamental Load Compensation .............................. 137

4.1 Introduction......................................................................... 137
4.2 Theory of Fundamental Load Compensation ..................... 137
4.2.1 Power Factor Correction ........................................ 138
4.2.2 Voltage Regulation................................................. 140
4.2.3 An Approximation Expression for the Voltage
Regulation .............................................................. 143
4.3 Some Practical Aspects of Compensator used as
Voltage Regulator ............................................................... 151
4.4 Phase Balancing and Power Factor Correction of
Unbalanced Loads .............................................................. 154
4.4.1 Three-phase Unbalanced Loads............................. 154
4.4.2 Representation of Three-phase Delta Connected
Unbalanced Load ................................................... 157
4.4.3 An Alternate Approach to Determine Phase
Currents and Powers .............................................. 160
4.4.4 An Example of Balancing an Unbalanced Delta
Connected Load ..................................................... 162
4.5 A Generalized Approach for Load Compensation using
Symmetrical Components................................................... 164
4.5.1 Sampling Method................................................... 172
4.5.2 Averaging Method.................................................. 173
4.6 Compensator Admittance Represented as Positive and
Negative Sequence Admittance Network ........................... 175
4.7 Compensation of Star Connected System with Grounded
Neutral ................................................................................ 188
4.8 Summary............................................................................. 198
4.9 Problems ............................................................................. 198
References.................................................................................... 202

Chapter 5 Control Theories for Load Compensation................................... 204

5.1 Introduction......................................................................... 204
5.2 Instantaneous Reactive Power Theory................................ 205
5.2.1 State Space Modeling of the Compensator............ 217
5.2.2 Switching Control of the VSI ................................ 219
5.2.3 Generation of Ploss to Maintain dc Capacitor
Voltage ................................................................... 220
5.2.4 Computation of Load Average Power.................... 221
5.3 Some Misconceptions in Instantaneous Reactive Power
Theory................................................................................. 222
5.4 Theory of Instantaneous Symmetrical Components........... 242
5.4.1 Compensating Star Connected Load...................... 242
5.4.2 Compensating Delta Connected Load ................... 251
x Contents

5.4.3 Compensation for Three-phase Three-wire

System Supplying a Passive Load ......................... 257
5.4.4 Equivalence Between the Passive and Active
Load Compensation for Three-phase
Three-wire System ................................................. 258
5.5 Summary.............................................................................269
5.6 Problems .............................................................................270
References.................................................................................... 275

Chapter 6 Voltage Compensation Using Dynamic Voltage Restorer ...........277

6.1 Introduction......................................................................... 277
6.2 Methods to Regulate Voltage.............................................. 278
6.3 Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) ...................................... 278
6.4 Operating Principle of DVR ............................................... 280
6.4.1 General Case ..........................................................282
6.5 Mathematical Description to Compute DVR Voltage ........ 285
6.6 Transient Operation of the DVR......................................... 289
6.6.1 Operation of Three Phase DVR with Unbalance
Voltages without Harmonics ..................................290
6.6.2 Operation of Three Phase DVR with Unbalance
Voltages with Harmonics ....................................... 291
6.7 Realization of DVR voltage using Voltage Source
Inverter................................................................................292
6.8 Maximum Compensation Capacity of the DVR without
Real Power Support from the dc Link ................................ 295
6.9 Summary.............................................................................310
6.10 Problems .............................................................................310
References.................................................................................... 314

Chapter 7 Unified Power Quality Conditioner............................................. 317

7.1 Introduction......................................................................... 317
7.2 UPQC Structure .................................................................. 318
7.3 Operation and Control of UPQC ........................................ 322
7.4 Extraction of Reference Currents for Shunt VSI using
Instantaneous Symmetrical Component Theory................. 323
7.4.1 Generation of Reference Currents for Shunt
VSI ......................................................................... 323
7.4.2 Control of Shunt Voltage Source Inverter ..............325
7.5 Control of Series Voltage Series Inverter............................325
7.5.1 Type-1 Control for Reference Voltage
Generation of Series VSI ....................................... 326
7.5.2 Type-2 Control for Reference Voltage
Generation of Series VSI ....................................... 330
7.6 Summary.............................................................................347
Contents xi

7.7 Problems .............................................................................348

References.................................................................................... 352

Appendix................................................................................................................ 355

Appendix A Fundamental and Positive Sequence Extraction.......................... 357

A.1 Fundamental Extraction......................................................357
A.2 Extraction of Positive Sequence Fundamental
Components ........................................................................ 358

Appendix B Answers to Numerical Problems ................................................. 361

Index ...................................................................................................................... 369

About the Author
Prof. Mahesh Kumar Mishra received the B.Tech. degree
from the College of Technology, Pantnagar, India, in 1991,
the M.E. degree from the Indian Institute of Technology,
Roorkee, India, in 1993, and the Ph.D. degree from the In-
dian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India, in 2002, all in
Electrical Engineering. He has 30 years of teaching and
research experience. For about ten years (1993–2003), he
was with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Visves-
varaya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur, India.
Prof. Mahesh has been with the Indian Institute of Technology Madras since 2003
and is currently a Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering. His research
interests include the areas of power quality, power distribution systems, power elec-
tronic applications in power systems, microgrids, and renewable energy systems.
Prof. Mahesh is a Life Member of the Indian Society of Technical Education and
received IETE Prof. Bimal Bose Award for his outstanding contributions to Power
Electronics Applications in Power Systems in 2015. He is a Fellow of the Indian
National Academy of Engineering (FNAE) and the Institute of Engineers (India).
He has completed a dozen of sponsored projects and consultancies. Under his re-
search supervision, 18 Ph.D. and 12 M.S. have been awarded. Prof. Mahesh and
his research scholars have been conferred with many International, National, and
Institute level awards. He has 250 research publications in International and National
peer-reviewed journals and conferences and delivered numerous expert talks in the
areas of power quality, distributed generation, and microgrid systems.
In his leisure, Prof. Mahesh loves to read and write on diverse subjects relating to
people, life, culture, the environment, and the world. He is passionate about making
music, tunes, and rhythms, and writing songs.

xiii
Foreword
Power Quality and Reliability are the two most crucial aspects for customers con-
nected to power distribution networks. While customers would like to have continu-
ity of power supply, they would also like to distortion-free, near sinusoidal voltages at
their supply inlets of specified voltage magnitude and frequency. With the increased
penetration of converter-interfaced renewable energy resources like rooftop photo-
voltaics and batteries, the power distribution systems are facing many power quality
challenges, such as voltage rise, harmonic distortion, phase imbalance, etc. There-
fore, the study of power quality problems are their mitigation techniques are becom-
ing extremely crucial for network planners and practicing engineers. This book is a
welcome addition to the literature as it covers all the basics of power quality prob-
lems and their mitigation techniques.
The author of the book, Professor Mahesh Kumar Mishra, has over 25 years of
research experience in related areas. He has developed the theories of some of the
mitigation techniques, developed laboratory prototypes, and implemented converter-
based power conditioning devices. His encyclopedic knowledge in the related areas
has resulted in this book. The topics are presented in a systematic manner, and the
most important topics are covered in depth. The book is organized into seven chap-
ters. Brief descriptions of the chapters are given below.

 Chapter 1 introduces the book, where different power quality problems in

power distribution systems, power quality mitigation techniques using power
electronic-based devices, power quality indices, standards, and power accept-
ability curves are discussed.
 Chapter 2 presents analyses of single-phase circuits, both in the presence and
absence of harmonic distortions. Some important concepts like displacement
power factor and active and reactive power in the presence of harmonic distor-
tions are presented.

 Analyses of three-phase circuits are presented in Chapter 3, where both bal-

anced and unbalanced circuits are considered. Some important concepts like
instantaneous real and reactive power, and apparent power for distorted and
unbalanced circuits are discussed.
 The fundamentals of load compensation are discussed in Chapter 4, where the
aspects of voltage regulation, power factor correction, and load balancing for
both delta and star-connected loads are discussed.
 Converter-based load compensation, along with converter control is discussed
in Chapter 5, where the load compensation using both the instantaneous re-
active power theory and the theory of instantaneous symmetrical components
are discussed.

xv
xvi Foreword

 Chapter 6 discusses the dynamic voltage regulator (DVR) and its operating
principles for both balanced sinusoidal and unbalanced non-sinusoidal cases.
The realization of a DVR through a power converter with associated results is
also presented.

 Chapter 7 presents unified power quality conditioner (UPQC), where both left
shunt and right shunt configurations are discussed. This chapter also includes
reference current and voltage generation and control of shunt current and series
voltage through back-to-back connected voltage source converters.
All the mathematical derivations of the underlying concepts are presented in
detail. Furthermore, numerous worked-out examples are presented to aid and en-
hance learning and problem sets are provided at the end of each chapter that are
useful for the students and their instructors. The depth and breadth of coverage of
the book make this an exceptionally valuable addition to power quality studies that
will help senior undergraduate and postgraduate students, instructors, and practicing
engineers.

Arindam Ghosh
Professor, School of Electrical Engineering
Computer and Mathematical Sciences
Curtin University, Australia
Preface
In last few decades, there is growing awareness of power quality in power industries
and residential usages. There is more concern about reducing the electricity bill for
its given usage and at the same time there is demand for high quality and reliability
of power supply. To meet these criteria in power system operation, a power system
engineer should be well aware of power quality concepts, terms, definitions, methods
to enhance power quality, mitigation techniques, and devices. This book is an attempt
to provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter in a simple way.
The book aims to provide a basic understanding of power quality aspects in
power systems, especially in power distribution networks. It brings clarity on various
issues related to power quality problems, their quantification, analysis, and interpre-
tation. In this course, students will develop skills to analyze power quality aspects in
power systems and provide appropriate solutions using custom power devices. First,
the concepts are presented from the basic principles, and then insightful expressions
have been derived, followed by examples. At the end of every chapter, there is a
sufficient number of questions to strengthen the knowledge. The book acts as an in-
terface between the conceptual understanding of the subject and advanced research.
After going through the book and studying it thoroughly, the student will have the
confidence to continue further research in this area. All concepts discussed in the
book are explained and analytic expressions are derived from the basic principles,
without assuming any expressions or formulae from other references. This makes
easy and direct understanding of the concepts and their applications. The insights
from the derived expressions are discussed and elaborated, which encourages stu-
dents to think analytically.
Although there are many books on power quality, they are not developed as text
books. Here is an attempt to understand power quality in a simple and lucrative way
to serve as text book for undergraduate and graduate students in electric power areas
at various technical universities and institutions. The book aims to develop a thought
process and strong analytic reasoning of power quality aspects in power systems.
The book has the following salient features.

 Insightful and clear understanding of various terms, definitions, transforma-

tions, and power theories for single-phase and three-phase systems.

 Lucid and clear illustration of power quality aspects in power distribution net-
work with examples.
 Detailed derivations and analysis of voltage and current compensation tech-
niques.

 Detailed explanation of custom power devices such as reactive network com-

pensators, DSTATCOM, DVR, UPQC.

xvii
xviii Preface

 Theoretical and numerical exercises to practice concepts described in each

chapter.

The book is written in seven chapters. Chapter 1 focuses on various aspects of

power quality, such as definitions of various terms in power quality, nature of power
quality mitigation devices, monitoring of power quality, and standards in power qual-
ity. Chapter 2 aims to understand various power terms relating to power quality in a
single-phase system with sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal voltage and current. Three-
phase systems, which are widely used in industries due to their high quality, reli-
ability, and efficiency, are explored in Chapter 3. It focuses on understanding the
behavior of the three-phase system under different conditions of voltages and cur-
rents. While analyzing three-phase circuits, αβ 0 transformation, and instantaneous
symmetrical components transformation are derived and explained from the basic
principles. Various types of apparent powers and the corresponding power factors
are explained with practical applications, such as the design of distribution lines or
feeders.
After having a good understanding of power quality aspects, the focus is moved
toward mitigation techniques. Chapter 4 discusses about voltage regulation and fun-
damental load compensation using purely reactive networks. The reader will learn
from the discussed concepts and examples, how a delta-connected load or three-
phase ungrounded system can be fully compensated using purely reactive elements
such as inductance and capacitance. The reader’s inquisitiveness is arisen by a sim-
ple question, whether these methods will work for three-phase grounded system?
The answer to this leads to exploring active power filters as compensators. Thus,
as a natural progression of flow, Chapters 5, 6, and 7 discuss methods employing
active power filters working as Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM), Dy-
namic Voltage Restorer (DVR), and Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC),
respectively, followed by the Appendix. The content of each chapter is summarized,
followed by set of problems and relevant references. The problems given at the end
of each chapter are thought stimulating and emphasize a deeper understanding of the
concepts described. The keys to numerical problems are provided at the end of the
book to verify the answers for the convenience of the readers.
The book’s content, structure, and flow make it ideally suitable as a textbook for
“Power Quality in Distribution Networks: Concepts and Applications” in many uni-
versities and institutions worldwide. Additionally, it can also be used as a reference
book on power quality.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to thank my department and the institute for render-
ing their support in writing the book. I thank all faculty colleagues in the Department
of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai. I am es-
pecially thankful to my colleagues Prof. R. Sarathi, Prof. B. Kalyan Kumar, Prof.
S. Krishna, Prof. K. S. Swarup, Prof. Lakshmi Narasamma, Prof. S. Srinivas, Prof.
Arun Karuppaswami, Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, and Prof. Kamalesh Hatua for their
Preface xix

lively discussion on various technical aspects of the subject area, which led to clar-
ity and fluidity in presenting the concepts. Their frank and freewheeling discussions
during meetings and tea time have been thought-provoking, thus serving food for
mind, body, and soul. I thank Prof. Srikanthan Sridharan, Engineering Design De-
partment, IIT Madras for proofreading the book and inspiring thoughtful discussions
in the subject area as well as in life matters.
I have no words to express my heartfelt gratitude to Prof. Arindam Ghosh and
Prof. Avinash Joshi, who motivated me on the path of exploration in the form of
research and teaching during my Ph.D. days at IIT Kanpur. Without their light of
knowledge, I would not have seen the shiner, brighter, and more affluent side of my
professional as well as subjective worlds. I am thankful to Prof. S. C. Srivastava and
Prof. Santanu Mishra at IIT Kanpur for their long association, encouragement, and
inspiration.
For about ten years (1993–2003), I was faculty at the Department of Electri-
cal Engineering, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology (VNIT), Nagpur. I
continue to have strong association and interaction with the institute and convey
thanks to Prof. H. M. Suryawanshi, Prof. M. S. Ballal, and Prof. D. R. Tutakne for
many interactive technical sessions through our research collaborations, as well as
philosophical discussions. Prof. Yashwant Katpatal at VNIT Nagpur has recorded
his friendship in my heart and has always been supportive as my own family.
I would like to thank all my current research students, namely, Rajarshi
Basu, Rohan Madnani, Nakka Pruthvi Chaithanya, Lokesh N, Hariharan R., Durga
Malleswara Rao, Nafih Mohammad, Tony Thomas, Nimitha Muraleedharan, Ajit
Upadhiya, Abhisek Panda, Leelavathi for their contributions to the book, by prepar-
ing circuit diagrams, verification of solutions, proofreading of the chapters and many
other tasks involved.
My graduated Ph.D. and M.S. scholars, D. K. Karthikeyan, Dr. G. Vincent, Dr.
Koteswara U., Dr. S. Sasitharan, Dr. Srinivas B. Karanki, Dr. Siva K. Ganjikunta,
Dr. Chandan Kumar, Dr. Sathish Kollimalla, Dr. Narsa Reddy Tummuru, Dr. Nagesh
Geddada, Dr. Manoj Kumar M.V., Dr. Sijo Augustine, Dr. T. Sreekanth, Dr. Jakeer
Hussain, Dr. Srikanth Kotra, Dr. R. Satish, Dr. S. Srikanthan, Dr. J. Suma, Dr. Nikhil
Korada, Dr. P. Harshvardhan, Dr. Linash P. K., Manik Pradhan, V. Leela Krishna,
Y.A.P. Ramshankar, Jaganath K., N. Karthikeyan, Anil Ramakuru, and K. Sridhar,
deserve their names to be mentioned for their exemplary research works, which di-
rectly or indirectly have been a great help to write the book.
I thank Mr. Gauravjeet Singh Reen, Senior Editor-Engineering, CRC Press, and
his team members for all their support to make this book in publication form.
My childhood passed in a small village Chausara, in the northern part of the coun-
try, surrounded by a beautiful canal and a river, enriched with greenery and agricul-
tural land. It is really difficult to forget childhood days with a large family, relatives,
and friends with all golden memories, good or bad. I thank them all from the bottom
of my heart for the rich and diverse experiences of my life, which provided me with
a subtle sense of music, an intuitive understanding of things, and feelings to know
about people, plants, birds, animals, and inanimate beings, endowing the capacity
to see the most primitive to the most evolved with the purity of connection among
xx Preface

them. For all this journey of life, I am indebted to my parents, late Shri Gendan Lal
Mishra and late Smt. Ramkali Mishra for their love and moral support in all my en-
deavors. I am grateful to my elder brother late Shri Jugal Kishore Mishra, younger
brother Dr. Sarvesh Kumar Mishra, and sister Smt. Kumkum Sharma and their fami-
lies for their love, support, and inspiration in all situations of my life. I also thank my
late father-in-law Shri Chhote Lal Sharma, and mother-in-law, Smt. Bina Sharma for
their unconditional love, inspiration, and motivation.
I thank my wife, Kumud Mishra, whose inspiration always shows the way to re-
main focused. I am thankful to my daughter Niharika Mishra and son Tanish Kumar
Mishra, who have been a constant source of enthusiasm and inspiration to complete
the venture of writing this book.
Last but not least, I am thankful to all known and unknown people, things, and
factors who directly or indirectly have led to this creation.
Mahesh Kumar Mishra
Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Chennai, India
 1 Introduction to Power
Quality in Power
Distribution System
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The evolution of electric power systems has taken over one and a half centuries, and
since then it has become an essential aspect of our lives. It started with the develop-
ment of the dc power system in 1881. The dc power system was simple to realize and
dealt with real quantities such as voltage, current, and resistance. However, the power
could not be transmitted efficiently at higher voltages, which is required to minimize
power losses over long-distance transmission. Around the same period, transformers
and three-phase induction machines were developed, which laid the foundation for
ac power system all over the world. Throughout the first half of the 19th century, with
the advent of synchronous generators, ac power system was in full development with
efficient power transfer over long distances at high voltage using step-up transform-
ers. Later on, many such generating units were pooled together using transmission
lines to form the ac grid as we know it today. This allowed bulk power transmission
over long distances and resulted in more efficient and flexible operation of power
system.
Initially, the main objective of the power system was to deliver power to everyone
and connect households. But in the late 1900s, with significant development of the
electronics industry, the use of power-sensitive electronics devices started increasing
rapidly in all sectors of the economy, such as daily household, industry, commerce,
business, trade, finance, and healthcare. However, these sensitive devices and prod-
ucts required a clean and reliable supply of power. Subsequently, industrial growth
had also started to increase rapidly, which led to increased use of advanced indus-
trial machines and equipment that also needed a clean and reliable supply of electric
power. This technological change led to growing concerns for electric utilities and
end-users about the quality of electric power. The modern ac power system is quite
flexible in terms of voltage an current levels. But at the same time, it has many chal-
lenging issues such as unbalance, harmonics, blackout, brownout, steady state and
transient stability, reactive power, harmonics power, etc. Over the years, with exten-
sive research in this domain, power engineers developed the existing power system,
which allowed us to monitor and control the power system parameters to maintain
reliable and good quality of power at all the power system levels, generation, trans-
mission, and distribution.

DOI: 10.1201/9781032617305-1 1
2 Power Quality in Power Distribution Systems: Concepts and Applications

1.2 POWER QUALITY

Power quality is a very general term used in power systems, and it has different
meaning for different parts of the power system. For the generation side, power qual-
ity refers to the protection of generator and generation system. It means to protect the
generator from over-rating in terms of real and reactive power. For the transmission
side, it means to have high transmission efficiency, less outage, good loadability of
transmission lines, requisite flow of power, and balanced sinusoidal quantities over
transmission network. For the distribution system, it indicates proper regulation of
voltage, compensation of unbalance, harmonics, and undesired variations in voltages
and currents. In general, power quality refers to a wide variety of electromagnetic
phenomena that characterizes the voltage, current at a given time and location in the
power system [1]. There are many variants of power quality definition. As per the
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) [2], “Power quality is a con-
cept of powering and grounding sensitive equipment in a matter that is suitable to
the operation of that equipment.” The definition predominantly focuses on the issues
affecting the operation and performance of the equipment. On the other hand, the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC 61000-4-30) defines power quality
as “Characteristics of the electricity at a given point of an electrical system evalu-
ated against a set of reference technical parameters” [3]. This definition gives more
emphasis on measuring and quantifying power system performance [4]–[17].
In a broad sense, power quality refers to maintaining the sinusoidal nature of
voltage and current of the fundamental frequency at all points of the power sys-
tem network. The power quality is also an important aspect of economic considera-
tion, as it saves electrical energy in appliances. In literature, the term power quality
is correlated to electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and electromagnetic interfer-
ence (EMI) [3]. Also, voltage quality implies current quality and vice-versa, because
voltage and current quantities interact through the transmission and distribution line
impedance. The product of voltage quality and current quality reflects the quality of
the power supply. While the quality of voltage is determined from the source side,
the current quality comes from the load side. To illustrate this, consider a balanced
three-phase system represented by a single-line diagram in Fig. 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Pertaining to voltage, current, and power quality

In Fig. 1.1, vs is the source voltage which reflects the quality of the source or
utility voltage. The current il (t) = is (t) is the load current (also equals to source
Introduction to Power Quality in Power Distribution System 3

current), which reflects the quality of the load current for the given supply voltage,
vs . It depends upon the nature of the load, i.e., balance, unbalance and harmonics,
etc. Now the voltage vt (t) is the voltage at the load terminal, and the quality of
vt (t) depends upon both the source voltage vs (t) and load current il (t). This is clear
from the relationship between the vs (t) and vt (t), through the voltage drop across the
feeder with resistance Rs and inductance Ls , as given in the following (1.1).
dil (t)
vt (t) = vs (t) − Rs il (t) − Ls (1.1)
dt
The instantaneous power pl (t), which is product of voltage, vt (t) and current, il (t),
at the load bus is given by,
pl (t) = vt (t) il (t) (1.2)
As clear from (1.1), vt (t) is influenced by the quality of vs (t), il (t), and the value
of the feeder resistance Rs and inductance Ls . Also, note that the resistive drop,
Rs il (t), and inductive drop Ls didtl (t) depend upon the load current and its rate of
change with time, respectively. The latter has a more serious effect on the quality
of vt (t) due to the derivative term didtl (t) , if the value of inductance is high. If il (t)
contains harmonics, such as the current drawn by a full bridge rectifier or any other
converter circuit, it has a worse effect on the quality of vt (t) producing notches, sharp
changes, non-sinusoidal variation, and consequently affecting the quality of power
at the load terminal, which is a product of voltage, vt (t) and current, il (t), as given
in (1.2). Once the terminal voltage is affected, the load current develops more dis-
tortion. This goes on till the three-phase load voltages, and load currents settle to
certain distorted waveforms, which may not meet the requirement of the connected
load resulting in its malfunctioning and erroneous operation.
It is observed here that the feeder length and its impedance are important param-
eters in affecting the power quality at any point between the source and the load.
For an ideal source, the connecting feeder to the load should have zero resistance
and inductance (Rs = 0 and Ls = 0). Such a system is known as a stiff source. For a
non-stiff source, resistance and inductance have some finite non-zero value, leading
to a few percentages of voltage drop of the rated voltage. Thus, the extent of “Non-
stiffness” of the voltage source is quantified by the magnitude of feeder impedance
and its X/R ratio. While non-stiff source has a drawback to affect the power quality at
the load bus, at the same time it gives the flexibility to control and regulate the volt-
age through some compensation schemes at the load bus [18]–[22]. The stiff systems
are strong and rigid; therefore, the load has to accept the available voltage quality at
its bus. It does not give the flexibility to control the parameters of the affected part
of the distribution network. Further, the following points illustrate the nature of the
feeder impedance, which helps to correlate the voltage, current, and power quality.
1. The typical value of the per-phase line inductance on a three-phase ac line can
be considered to be 1 µH/meter, equivalent to 1 mH/km/phase [5].
2. Also, it is found that the X/R ratio for the distribution lines is often close to
unity, with shunt capacitance largely ignored for calculations [23].
4 Power Quality in Power Distribution Systems: Concepts and Applications

3. From the above observations, we can conclude that the typical value of the
distribution feeder impedance can be taken around 0.31+ j0.31 Ω/km/phase. It
is to be noted that clear standards have not been established for the length of the
distribution line feeders. However, experience suggests that the typical feeder
mains of 11 kV level (primary distribution) can run between 1 and 25 km in
length.
4. In addition, it is suggested that the length of the low tension secondary distri-
bution lines leading to the customer premises (415 V L-L level) be kept to a
maximum of 1 km to avoid considerable voltage drops across the lines.
From the above discussion, it is clear that the feeder impedance plays a vital role
in co-relating voltage and current and hence power quality problems. For example,
if the quality of supply voltage is not good, it will result in poor quality of current
on the distribution side, through feeder interaction, as expressed in (1.1). Similarly,
poor quality of current on the load side will translate to poor quality of the voltage
on the supply side, again through feeder interaction. That is how voltage, current,
and power quality relate to each other. Based on this fundamental understanding,
the detailed power quality problems and their nature are discussed in the following
section.

1.3 POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS

To operate the distribution and transmission network in an acceptable way, the main
objective is to maintain power quality in power systems. To achieve this it is im-
portant to understand the nature of power quality problems that can occur, how
they originate, and their effects on the utility and the consumers. The majority of
the power quality problems originate in the distribution grid associated with various
kinds of loads used by the end-users. Any deviation in the voltage, current, and sup-
ply frequency from its nominal value generates a problem. Thus, it is necessary to
define and classify them in a meaningful way. Classification can be done based on
the magnitude and duration of the quantities like voltage, current, and frequency. In
the following description, power quality issues are classified based on the magnitude
and duration of the event. Table 1.1 lists various types of power quality phenomena
which are further explained in the following subsections:

 Transients
 Short-duration or rms variations
 Long-duration variations
 Voltage unbalances
 Waveform distortions
 Voltage fluctuations
 Power frequency variations
Introduction to Power Quality in Power Distribution System 5

Table 1.1
Categories and characteristics of power quality phenomena
Typical spectral Typical Typical voltage
Categories
content duration magnitude
• Transients
— Impulsive
• Nanosecond 5 ns rise < 50 ns
• Microsecond 1 us rise 50 ns–1 ns
• Millisecond 0.1 ms rise > 1 ms
— Oscillatory
• Low frequency < 5 kHz 0.3–50 ms 0–4 p.u.
• Medium frequency 5–500 kHz 20 us 0–8 p.u.
• High frequency 0.5–5 MHz 5us 0–4 p.u.
• Short-duration variations
— Instantaneous
• Sag 0.5–30 cycles 0.1–0.9 p.u.
• Swell 0.5–30 cycles 1.1–1.8 p.u.
— Momentary
• Interruption 0.5 cycles–3 s < 0.1 p.u.
• Sag 30 cycles–3 s 0.1–0.9 p.u.
• Swell 30 cycles–3 s 1.1–1.4 p.u.
• Voltage imbalance 30 cycles–3 s 2%–15%
— Temporary
• Interruption > 3 s–1 min < 0.1 p.u.
• Sag > 3 s–1 min 0.1–0.9 p.u.
• Swell > 3 s–1 min 1.1–1.2 p.u.
• Voltage imbalance > 3 s–1 min 2–5%
• Long-duration variations
— Interruption, sustained > 1 min 0 p.u.
— Undervoltages > 1 min 0.8–0.9 p.u.
— Overvoltages > 1 min 1.1–1.2 p.u.
— Current overload > 1 min
• Imbalance
— Voltage steady state 0.5–5%
— Current steady state 1–3%
• Waveform distortion
— DC offset steady state 0–0.1%
— Harmonics 0–9 kHz steady state 0–20%
— Interharmonics 0–9 kHz steady state 0–2%
— Notching steady state
— Noise broadband steady state 0–1%
• Voltage fluctuations < 25 Hz intermittent 0.1–7%
• Power frequency
< 10 s ±0.1 Hz
variations
6 Power Quality in Power Distribution Systems: Concepts and Applications

1.3.1 TRANSIENTS
Transients are defined as events which are undesired and momentary in nature in
the power system. On quantity-specific definition, transient describes a part of the
variable that disappears during the transition from one steady state to another. The
utility engineers view transients as surges from lightning strokes which are absorbed
by surge arrestors to protect the electrical equipments. The end users view transient
as anything unusual that might be observed in the power supply including voltage
sags, swells, and interruptions. It is characterized by its duration ranging up to about
a few tens of milliseconds, and its spectral content, i.e., its rise time and frequency.
Transients are further sub-divided into two categories, impulsive and oscillatory, de-
pending upon the waveform of the quantity involved, either current or voltage.

1.3.1.1 Impulsive Transient

Impulsive transients are defined as a sudden, non-power frequency change in the
steady-state characteristics of voltage or current or both, where the change or distur-
bance is unidirectional in nature, either in positive or negative polarity. These tran-
sients exhibit similar characteristics to that of a lightning strike. They are normally
characterized by their peak value, rise time, and duration of the disturbance.

Figure 1.2 Lightning stroke leading to voltage impulsive transients

For example, an impulsive transient described as 1.2/60 is interpreted in the fol-

lowing manner, 1.2 indicates the rise time of the waveform in microseconds, i.e., the
duration in which the magnitude rises from 10% to 90% of its peak value, and 60
indicates the duration in microseconds from the start till the point where the wave-
form magnitude decays to 50% of its peak value. Depending upon the time range
in which a transient rises and its duration, there are three categories of impulsive
transients, nanosecond, microsecond, and millisecond. Fig. 1.2 depicts the voltage
waveform under the occurrence of a lightning strike along with the zoomed portion
of the voltage impulse.
Introduction to Power Quality in Power Distribution System 7

Impulsive transients are typically caused due to lightning strikes and normally
damp out quickly due to high-impedance circuit elements. It may sometimes lead to
lightning flash-over on power line insulators, thus leading to momentary short cir-
cuits. Impulsive transients may give rise to oscillatory transients due to the presence
of resonance circuits in the power system.

1.3.1.2 Oscillatory Transient

Oscillatory transients can be defined as a sudden, non-power frequency change in
the current and voltage steady-state characteristics, with positive and negative values
of the amplitude. In these transients, the electrical quantity involved oscillates multi-
ple times, with its peak magnitude decaying over time. These oscillations are mainly
characterized by their magnitude, duration, and spectral content (frequency of oscil-
lations). Based on the frequency of spectral content, transients are further classified
as high-, medium-, and low-frequency transients. Table 1.1 mentions the frequency
range and duration for each category.
Transients with frequency components higher than 500 kHz and a duration mea-
sured in few microseconds are considered as high-frequency oscillatory transients.
It is caused by some switching events or appears as a local response to an impulsive
transient.
Transients with frequencies between 5 and 500 kHz and a duration of a few
tens of microseconds are considered medium-frequency transients. Energization of
back-to-back capacitor banks results in oscillatory current transients [1]. Transients
with frequency components less than 5 kHz and duration from 0.3 to 0.5 ms are
classified as low-frequency oscillatory transients. These transients occur very fre-
quently in the distribution system due to capacitor bank energization, which results
in an oscillatory voltage transient with a frequency range of 300–1600 Hz. This is
illustrated in Fig. 1.3. Ferroresonance phenomenon in transformer energization can

Figure 1.3 Low-frequency oscillatory transient caused by capacitor-bank energization

8 Power Quality in Power Distribution Systems: Concepts and Applications

also lead to low-frequency transients [1]. Ferroresonance refers to a situation where

the nonlinear magnetic properties of iron in the transformer iron core interact with
capacitance in the electrical network to produce a nonlinear tuned circuit with an
unexpected resonant frequency. This results in higher values of voltage and current
in the transformer.

1.3.2 SHORT-DURATION VARIATIONS

This category deals with power quality problems with anomalies in the voltage mag-
nitude for a duration ranging from 0.5 cycle to 1 min. Short-duration voltage varia-
tions are further categorized into three sets based on the duration of the disturbance,
instantaneous, momentary, and temporary. Table 1.1 depicts the time duration for
all three subcategories. Now looking into the types, there are three types of short
duration voltage variations, namely interruption, sag, and swell.

1.3.2.1 Interruption
An interruption occurs when the rms voltage magnitude decreases to less than 0.1
p.u. of its nominal value with a duration ranging from 0.5 cycle to 1 min. They are
caused due to faults occurring in the utility or distribution grids. Interruption can
occur as a standalone event or can be preceded by a voltage sag. The duration of
an interruption depends on the type and capability of the protective device used in
the utility system, i.e., faster re-closing of circuit breakers will lead to an instan-
taneous interruption, and delayed re-closing can lead to momentary or temporary
interruptions. Fig. 1.4 depicts a momentary interruption due to a fault, the upper plot
shows the instantaneous voltage variation, and the lower plot shows the rms voltage
variation.

Figure 1.4 Momentary interruption due to fault and subsequent recloser operation
Introduction to Power Quality in Power Distribution System 9

1.3.2.2 Sag
A voltage sag is characterized as a decrease in the rms voltage magnitude to between
0.1 and 0.9 p.u. of its nominal value, for a duration of 0.5 cycle to 1 min. As per
recommended practices, 60% voltage sag refers to the voltage drop to 60% of its
nominal value. To avoid any confusion, it is better to specify the nominal voltages
as well. Voltage sags are usually caused due to faults in the system, i.e., when there
is a fault on a phase, it experiences a sag. It can also be due to the starting of heavy
industrial loads like motors, which draws huge inrush currents leading to a voltage
dip. Many of us might have experienced this phenomenon in the form of flickering
of lights when heavy loads like air-conditioners and water pumps are turned on. Fig.
1.5 depicts a voltage sag caused due to a line-line to ground (LLG) fault. Various
sub-classifications of sag depending on the duration are given in Table 1.1.

Figure 1.5 Voltage sag caused by an LLG fault

1.3.2.3 Swell
A volatge swell is characterized by an increase in the rms voltage magnitude above
1.1 p.u., usually ranging from 1.1 to 1.8 p.u., for a duration of 0.5 cycle to 1 min.
Like sags, swells can also occur due to faults in the system. When faults occur on a
single-phase, there may be a rise in voltage in the other unfaulted phases. It can also
result from heavy load rejection in the system or switching on capacitor banks. Fig.
1.6 depicts the voltage swell phenomenon and is shown by instantaneous and rms
voltage values. The sub-classification of swell depending on the duration is given in
Table 1.1. Swells are very less common events and have varied effects on grounded
and ungrounded systems.

1.3.3 LONG-DURATION VARIATIONS

This category of power quality problems consists of deviations in voltage at power
frequency for more than 1 min. Long-duration voltage variations are of three types:
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Antonio
Agustín
Ambrosio
de
Morales 180
El
maestro
Juan de
Mal-Lara 196
Carlos V 208
Don Fray
Bartolomé
de las
Casas 220
Parte
Primera de
la crónica
del Perú
(de Pedro
de Cieza de
León) 227
Lope de
Rueda 256
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XCIX, págs. 270-310; III, Nachahmung, etc., en Archiv für das
Studium der neueren Sprachen und Literaturen (1907), t. CXIX,
págs. 309-350.

Stiefel (Arthur Ludwig). Notizen zur Geschichte und Bibliographie

des spanischen Dramas, en Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie
(1891), t. XV, págs. 217-227; (1906) t. XXX, págs. 540-555;
(1907) t. XXXI, páginas 352-370, 473-493.

Stuart (Donald Clive). Honor in the Spanish Drama, en The

Romanic Review (1910), t. I, págs. 247-258, 357-366.

Viel-Castel (Louis de). Essai sur le théâtre espagnol. París, 1882,

2 vols.

Yxart (José). El arte escénico en España. Barcelona, 1894-1896, 2

vols.
 "No hay, no ha habido,
ni habrá en la tierra
pueblo que en una
misma época presente
en igual grado de
desarrollo todas las
ramas del árbol de la
cultura...".

(Men. Pelayo).

ÉPOCA DE CARLOS V
EL RENACIMIENTO CLÁSICO Y EL
ERASMISMO. LA LÍRICA Y LA PROSA

(PRIMERA MITAD DEL SIGLO XVI,

1517-1554)

Literatura italiana.—Poetas: Ariosto (1474-1533). Orlando Furioso

(1516-1532). Rucellai (1475-1525). Michelangelo (1475-1564).
Trissino (1478-1550). Molza (1489-1544). Vittoria Colonna (1492-
1547). Berni (1498-1535). Bernardo Tasso (1493-1569). Aretino
(1492-1557). Alamanni (1495-1556). Anníbal Caro (1507-1566).
Tansillo (1510-1568).—Historiadores: Paolo Giovio (1483-1552).
Guicciardini (1483-1540). Machiavelli (1469-1527), el Príncipe
(1514-1518), Décadas (1515-1520), Historia de Florencia (hacia
1525). Vettori, Histor. de Italia (hacia 1527). Benedetto Varchi (1503-
65). Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1571). Vasari (1511-1574).—
Novelistas, moralistas, etc.: Bembo (1470-1547). Baldassare
Castiglione (1478-1529), Cortigiano (1528). Bandello (1485-1561).
Firenzuola (1493-1545). Giraldi Cinzio (1504-1573).—Dramáticos:
Bernardo Dovizi (1470-1520), La Calandria (1513). Alamanni,
Rucellai, Aretino, Machiavelli, Giraldi. Los Ingannati (1531). Cecchi
(1518-1587).

Literatura francesa.—Poetas: Clément Marot, Adolescence

Clémentine (1532), Psaumes (1541-1543). Marguerite de Navarre,
Poésies (1531-1547). Du Bellay, Défense et illustration de la langue
française (1549). Ronsard, Odes (1550), Hymnes (1555), Mystères
et Farces. La Pléyade.—Prosistas: Calvin (1509-1564), Institutio
(1536-1541), Sermones. La Boétie, Contr' un (hacia 1548-1550).
Despériers, Cymbalum mundi (1538), Joyeux Devis. Rabelais,
Pantagruel (1533), Gargantua (1535), 3.e livre (1546), 4.e livre
(1552).—Humanistas: Budé (1468-1540). Turnèbe († 1565). Robert
y Charles Estienne. Henri Estienne (1528-1598). Amyot (1513-
1593). Erasmo (1467-1536).

1. En la época de Carlos V sazonan los frutos de las

humanidades en los grandes maestros que
comenzaron á florecer en la época anterior y en los
que de nuevo en ésta florecen. Pero una no
esperada empresa, á más de las ya emprendidas en
Italia y América, se ofrece á los ojos de los
españoles, que no les deja vagar para entregarse de
lleno á los sosegados ocios de las letras, teniendo
que empuñar la espada á la vez que la pluma. El
Emperador desea emular el carácter de protector de
la Iglesia católica, que le imprimió la corona de hierro
de Carlomagno, y España, ganosa de aventuras, no
olvidando su recién acabada cruzada contra el Islam
en la misma patria, emprende otras dos de no menor
empeño: la una contra los moros africanos, que
habrá de extenderse después contra el poderío de
los turcos, el único que en Europa puede hacer
frente al español: la otra contra la naciente reforma
luterana. Este grito de guerra contra todos los
enemigos de la Fe católica, en que se aúnan las
gloriosas ambiciones de Carlos V con las
tradicionales costumbres de los españoles, ponen
nuevo y más fuerte valladar al paganismo que
consigo trae el renacimiento clásico, y al rechazar
sus ideas anticristianas hace nacer en el pecho del
Emperador y de España entera la contrarreforma,
esto es, la reforma interna de la Iglesia, de las
costumbres, mayormente de religiosos y
eclesiásticos, ya comenzada en parte por Cisneros.
El Emperador batalla sin tregua ni descanso con la
corrompida y paganizada Corte romana, hasta lograr
se convoque el Concilio de Trento (1545), en el que
nuestros grandes teólogos, tan sobresalientes en
aquel palenque del dogma y de la moral como
nuestros capitanes en los campos de batalla,
echaron los cimientos de la renovación de las
costumbres harto mejor que no pretendía hacerlo el
despicado é interesado Lutero con la befa y el
escarnio, encenagándose más y más él mismo en lo
propio que en los otros condenaba. Erasmo, el
renacentista del Norte, que sentía como los
protestantes la necesidad de la reforma eclesiástica,
aunque sin abandonar, por verla relajada, la propia
Fe, hubo de ser el dechado al cual miraron desde el
Emperador hasta el último de los españoles en este
nuevo renacimiento del Cristianismo, como le
miraban cual á dechado del renacimiento clásico.
Comúnmente hablando, los humanistas italianos,
entrando en esta cuenta hasta los Cardenales y el
mismo Sumo Pontífice, hallábanse tan
desmoralizados y mancillados del paganismo
anticristiano que abría nuevas brechas á la rotura de
costumbres, que los nuestros no podían poner en
ellos los ojos sin apartarlos al punto de asco.
Erasmo, en cambio, se presentaba á la vez como
humanista insigne y como verdadero reformador
dentro de los linderos del dogma, sin la parte pagana
ni el consiguiente enmollecimiento afeminado, antes
alzando bandera por la renovación de las austeras
costumbres de los viejos cristianos de otras edades.
El humanismo erasmiano señoreó en España, por
ser tan español, como española era la empresa que
había tomado sobre sus hombros de defender á la
Iglesia. Sólo así se explica el que toda persona culta,
arzobispos, obispos, clérigos, religiosos y seglares,
se hallasen de la noche á la mañana ser en España
verdaderos erasmistas. Y como para que campee lo
blanco necesario es que se dé lo negro, y para que
resplandezca la luz menester es que haya sombra,
tampoco ha de extrañar que hubiera en España no
pocos antierasmistas, aunque fuesen los menos.
Erasmo (1467-1536) es una representación histórica:
representa y personifica el Renacimiento, no italiano,
sino español; no pagano, sino cristiano. Fuera ó no
más allá de donde la cristiana caridad aconseja que
se llegue en las diatribas contra la parte gangrenada
de la Iglesia, fuera ó no demasiado cruel cirujano al
cortarla á cercén y sin piedad, gangrena había, y
espantosamente hedionda, en el cuerpo de la
Iglesia, y la literatura castellana de aquella época
solfea sin duelo y satiriza con no menor saña que
Erasmo los abusos de la gente eclesiástica. Que
alzasen el grito los miembros gangrenados al sentir
del cirujano feroz la legra desgarradora y la mano
forzosamente pesada, nada tiene que asombrar.
Erasmo, fuérase lo que se fuera, fué para los
erasmistas españoles símbolo de sana y noble
renovación, cifra de toda empresa grande y cristiana,
por más que en su persona hubiese de los
desfallecimientos y flaquezas, del sarcasmo cruel, de
la mengua de tino y mesura que cual fruta del
tiempo, recia y nada blandengue, como acaso sea la
de hoy, igualmente se daba entre católicos y
protestantes, italianos, alemanes y españoles. Fué
Erasmo cabeza de un nuevo Renacimiento, más
grandioso que el clásico, del cual no menos era para
los nuestros adalid: del renacimiento eclesiástico.
"Erudito insuperable—dice Bonilla en su excelente
estudio Erasmo en España (New-York, París, 1907)
—, comentarista sagaz, teólogo insigne, humanista
consumado, literato de amenísimo estilo, de fina
sátira, de profunda observación y delicado análisis.
Sin reducir el humanismo á la forma, como la mayor
parte de los renacientes italianos, y sin hacerlo
consistir tampoco en frío dogmatismo, supo dar el
justo matiz á su producción literaria, con tan buena
elección y tan atinado criterio, que se acreditó de
árbitro del buen gusto". Nadie le igualó en su tiempo
como teólogo; pero fuélo cual lo hubieran sido en
tiempo de Pericles ó en los jardines de Academo.
"¿Qué representa, pues, Erasmo en la historia
literaria del Renacimiento? El elemento de armonía y
de concordia entre las tendencias extremas: la
tolerancia y la paz, mezcladas con un sano
escepticismo, no exento de cierta interior ironía.
Erasmo es un creyente y al mismo tiempo censor
severo del fariseísmo; su empeño constante es: cum
elegantia litterarum pietatis christianae sinceritatem
copulare". Pero, además, para los españoles y para
Carlos V representaba Erasmo el renacimiento
cristiano, bien hermanado con el renacimiento
clásico. Como Ulrico de Hutten decía, Erasmo fué "el
comentador más laborioso y sagaz de la Biblia, el
restaurador de la verdadera religiosidad, el
exterminador de la superstición, el descubridor de
las supercherías de los papas, el restaurador de las
buenas costumbres antiguas, desfiguradas por
innovaciones inspiradas por la ambición y la codicia,
el apóstol é introductor de la libertad y el adversario
de los opresores tiránicos de la cristiandad". Por eso
no pudo excusar la enemiga de los Bedas, Lees,
Zúñigas y Escalígeros y de no pocos eclesiásticos
italianos y algunos españoles, que se sentían
heridos donde les escocía y no tenían suficiente
grandeza de alma para comenzar por sí mismos y en
sus propias casas la reforma, como la tuvieron la
mayor parte de los eclesiásticos españoles. Por eso
su eficacia en España fué mayor que no la de los
renacentistas italianos; fué más íntima, más
profunda, tocó más al fondo de la evolución que la
influencia italiana. Halló, por lo mismo, mayor
oposición que esta última y aparentemente fué
menos duradera: pero el impulso estaba dado y no
sólo señoreó el erasmismo en la época de Carlos V,
sino que sus efectos dieron color á la, al parecer,
contraria época de Felipe II.
2. Con lo dicho queda suficientemente declarado por qué en la
época de Carlos V tampoco pudo penetrar en España el paganismo
del renacimiento clásico, como había penetrado en Italia. El
erasmismo ó el españolismo defensor de la Iglesia y reformador de
las costumbres, que es todo uno, peleaba cabalmente contra la
descreencia y desenfreno de costumbres que el paganismo traía
consigo. Si por eso quieren decir algunos que no hubo en España
renacimiento clásico, porque no lo hubo á la italiana, juntamente con
renacimiento del paganismo, concedémoslo, y no fuera bueno lo
hubiera habido. Primero, porque no era tan para apetecer tan dañina
ponzoña. Segundo, porque sólo en pueblos entecos y amortecidos
prende el virus y ponzoña traída de fuera, y España estaba en
disposición de reaccionar contra ella, como reaccionó, robusta, cual
se veía de vida nacional y enarbolando la bandera contraria á la del
paganismo, entronizado en el mismo Vaticano. Tercero, porque
imitar enteramente, copiar, tomar á zurrumburrun lo extraño,
quédase para pueblos de menos valer. Bueno fuera que España no
supiera más que copiar á Italia y tomar el renacimiento como ella se
lo ofrecía. Los organismos sanos y recios aprópianse lo extraño,
asimilándoselo, mudándolo en su propio ser, no tragándoselo como
enfermo que ni sabe escoger ni mascar. España tomó del
Renacimiento lo que debía tomar, dejando lo malo y apropiándose lo
bueno conforme á su natural, bien así como no copió la pintura
italiana ni la arquitectura italiana, sino que, empapados en estas
artes italianas nuestros artistas, supieron crear la arquitectura
plateresca y la pintura española. Así la literatura española inspiróse
en la clásica é italiana, sin ser italiana ni clásica, sino genuinamente
española. El Renacimiento fué, pues, en España español, como fué
italiano en Italia, sin dejar de ser renacimiento clásico aquí y allá.
Pero ¡qué diferencia, santos cielos! Italia, desgarrada ya de antiguo
en jirones por sus propios hijos y los jirones en manos de gentes
extrañas, se consolaba con sus artes, que la entretenían para no
apesadumbrarse mirando á los que la tenían domeñada. Y esas
artes, pintura y literatura sobre todo, eran propias de cortesanos que
sirven á señores ajenos; eran de imitación, de hermosísima y á
veces mejorada imitación, pero de imitación al cabo, de griegos y
romanos. España, en cambio, de esclava ó medio esclava de los
moros, había venido á ser señora de moros y cristianos: ¿cómo
había de contentarse con serviles imitaciones? Los aceros de su
celo contra la morisma hallaban nuevos campos donde emplearse:
un nuevo mundo que evangelizar, un septentrión donde combatir las
nuevas herejías, que por momentos brotaban como de inmunda
gusanera; costumbres podridas que renovar en la misma
cristiandad, hasta en Roma, su propia cabeza. La fe cristiana,
arraigada y enardecida en los españoles por una cruzada de ocho
siglos, robustecíase más y más en el fragor de tantos combates
contra todos los enemigos de ella en el viejo y nuevo mundo. Este
celo cristiano, verdadero ideal y verdadero título de la epopeya que
emprendió la España del siglo xvi, la engrandeció tanto en sí y para
cuantos la contemplaban, que los mismos resplandores paganos
que el Renacimiento traía no la pudieron deslumbrar ni cegar,
desapareciendo ensombrecida su personalidad artística entre ellos,
como sucedió á Italia, sino que sobrepujándolos con los de sus
propias hazañas y altísimos intentos, recogiólos en sí y
apropióselos, para abrillantar más el arte y la literatura, que tamaña
preñez de grandezas no podía menos de producir. Ni la más mínima
de las ideas paganas que fuese contraria á nuestra religión hizo
asiento en la cabeza de nuestros escritores; empapados, en cambio,
todos ellos en la armonía elegante y ondulosa de la belleza clásica,
fueron desesquinando y suavizando aquella ruda manera de pensar
y decir de nuestros viejos guerreros medioevales, hiciéronse más
sensibles á las delicadezas del trato social, afinaron sus
sentimientos, ablandaron sus ásperas costumbres, hiciéronse, en
una palabra, más humanos en la vida, en el pensar, en el sentir, en
el expresarse, que son los verdaderos frutos del humanismo. La
literatura y el arte en general tenía que ser tan pujante, tan propio y
nacional como las demás manifestaciones del alma española en el
momento de su entera madurez y el ideal cristiano de su política, en
Europa y América, tenía que serlo no menos de su arte y de su
literatura.

3. J. Gómez Ocaña, El Autor del Quijote: "Entonces, y desde mucho

tiempo antes, España, los españoles, mejor dicho, tenían un ideal: la
religión, y un carácter: el individualismo. El individualismo pulverizó
á España en multitud de Estados pequeños, rivales entre sí, que
vivieron muchas veces en guerra; la religión los unió para los
efectos de la Reconquista y fué la base de la unidad española. El
fervor religioso de los españoles se exaltó en la guerra de Granada,
y parece que debió aquietarse después de vencidos los moros y
expulsados los judíos; mas inmediatamente surgieron dos motivos
para mantener excitado el celo religioso: la conquista de América y
la Reforma. Merced á ella encontraron los sacerdotes y caballeros
cristianos muchedumbres de indios que evangelizar ó de luteranos á
quienes combatir".

Erasmo á F. Vergara (1527): "Hispania vestra quum semper et

regionis amoenitate fertilitateque semper ingeniorum eminentium
ubere proventu, semper bellica laude floruerit, quid desiderari
poterat ad summam felicitatem ut nisi studiorum et eruditionis
adiungeret ornamenta, quibus aspirante Deo paucis annis sic
effloruit, ut caeteris regionibus quamlibet hoc decorum genere,
praecellentibus vel invidiae queat esse vel exemplo".

M. Pelayo, Heterod., t. II, pág. 679: "Hubiéramos visto, en primer

lugar, un pueblo de teólogos y de soldados que echó sobre sus
hombros la titánica empresa de salvar con el razonamiento y con la
espada la Europa latina de la nueva invasión de bárbaros
septentrionales; y en nueva y portentosa cruzada, no por seguir á
ciegas las insaciadas ambiciones de un conquistador, como las
hordas de Ciro, de Alejandro y de Napoleón; no por inicua razón de
Estado ni por el tanto más cuanto de pimienta, canela ó jengibre,
como los héroes de nuestros días, sino por todo eso que llaman
idealismos y visiones los positivistas, por el dogma de la libertad
humana y de la responsabilidad moral, por su Dios y por su
tradición, fué á sembrar huesos de caballeros y de mártires en las
orillas del Albis, en las dunas de Flandes y en los escollos del mar
de Inglaterra. ¡Sacrificio inútil, se dirá; empresa vana! Y no lo fué,
con todo eso; porque si los cincuenta primeros años del siglo xvi
son de conquistas para la Reforma, los otros cincuenta, gracias á
España, lo son de retroceso; y ello es que el Mediodía se salvó de la
inundación, y que el protestantismo no ha ganado desde entonces
una pulgada de tierra, y hoy, en los mismos países donde nació,
languidece y muere. Que nunca fué estéril el sacrificio por una
causa santa, y bien sabían los antiguos Decios, al ofrecer su cabeza
á los dioses infernales antes de entrar en batalla, que su sangre iba
á ser semilla de victoria para su pueblo. Yo bien entiendo que estas
cosas harán sonreir de lástima á los políticos y hacendistas, que,
viéndonos pobres, abatidos y humillados á fines del siglo xvii, no
encuentran palabras de bastante menosprecio para una nación que
batalla contra media Europa conjurada, y esto, no por redondear su
territorio ni por obtener una indemnización de guerra, sino por ideas
de Teología..., la cosa más inútil del mundo. ¡Cuánto mejor nos
hubiera estado tejer lienzo y dejar que Lutero entrara ó saliera
donde bien le pareciese! Pero nuestros abuelos lo entendían de otro
modo, y nunca se les ocurrió juzgar de las grandes empresas
históricas por el éxito inmediato. Nunca, desde el tiempo de Judas
Macabeo, hubo un pueblo que con tanta razón pudiera creerse el
pueblo escogido para ser la espada y el brazo de Dios; y todo, hasta
sus sueños de engrandecimiento y de monarquía universal, lo
referían y subordinaban á este objeto supremo: Fiet unum ovile, et
unus pastor. Lo cual hermosamente parafraseó Hernando de Acuña,
el poeta favorito de Carlos V: "Ya se acerca, señor, ó ya es llegada |
La edad dichosa en que promete el cielo | Una grey y un pastor sólo
en el suelo, | Por suerte á nuestros tiempos reservada. | Ya tan alto
principio en tal jornada | Nos muestra el fin de vuestro santo celo, | Y
anuncia al mundo para más consuelo | Un monarca, un imperio y
una espada". En aquel duelo terrible entre Cristo y Belial, España
bajó sola á la arena; y si al fin cayó desangrada y vencida por el
número, no por el valor de sus émulos, menester fué que éstos
vinieran en tropel y en cuadrilla á repartirse los despojos de la
amazona del Mediodía, que así y todo quedó rendida y extenuada,
pero no muerta, para levantarse más heroica que nunca cuando la
revolución atea llamó á sus puertas y ardieron las benditas llamas
de Zaragoza".

M. Pelayo, Heterod., t. II, pág. 685: "España, que tales varones

daba, fecundo plantel de santos y de sabios, de teólogos y de
fundadores, figuró al frente de todas las naciones católicas en otro
de los grandes esfuerzos contra la Reforma, en el Concilio de
Trento, que fué tan español como ecuménico, si vale la frase. No
hay ignorancia ni olvido que baste á oscurecer la gloria que en las
tres épocas de aquella memorable Asamblea consiguieron los
nuestros. Ellos instaron más que nadie por la primera convocatoria
(1542), y trabajaron por allanar los obstáculos y las resistencias de
Roma. Ellos, y principalmente el Cardenal de Jaén, se opusieron en
las sesiones sexta y octava á toda idea de traslación ó suspensión.
Tan fieles y adictos á la Santa Sede como independientes y
austeros, sobre todo en las cuestiones de residencia y autoridad de
los obispos, ni uno solo de nuestros prelados mostró tendencias
cismáticas, ni siquiera el audaz y fogoso arzobispo de Granada, don
Pedro Guerrero, atacado tan vivamente por algunos italianos.
Ninguno confundió el verdadero espíritu de reforma con el falso y
mentido de disidencia y revuelta. Inflexibles en cuestiones de
disciplina y en clamar contra los abusos de la curia romana, jamás
pusieron lengua en la autoridad del Pontífice ni trataron de renovar
los funestos casos de Constanza y Basilea. Pedro de Soto opinaba
á la vez que la autoridad de los obispos es inmediatamente de
derecho divino; pero que el Papa es superior al Concilio, y en una
misma carta defiende ambas proposiciones. Cuando la historia del
Concilio de Trento se escriba por españoles, y no por extranjeros,
aunque sean tan veraces y concienzudos como el cardenal
Pallavicini, ¡cuán hermoso papel harán en ella los Guerreros,
Cuestas, Blancos y Gorrioneros; el maravilloso teólogo don Martín
Pérez de Ayala, obispo de Segorbe, que defendió invenciblemente
contra los protestantes el valor de las tradiciones eclesiásticas; el
rey de los canonistas españoles, Antonio Agustín, enmendador del
Decreto de Graciano, corrector del texto de las Pandectas, filólogo
clarísimo, editor de Festo y Varron, numismático, arqueólogo y
hombre de amenísimo ingenio en todo; el obispo de Salamanca, don
Pedro González de Mendoza, autor de unas curiosas memorias del
Concilio; los tres egregios jesuítas Diego Láinez, Alfonso Salmerón y
Francisco de Torres; Melchor Cano, el más culto y elegante de los
escritores dominicos, autor de un nuevo método de enseñanza
teológica, basado en el estudio de las fuentes de conocimiento;
Cosme Hortolá, comentador perspicuo del Cantar de los Cantares;
el profesor complutense Cardillo de Villalpando, filósofo y helenista,
comentador y defensor de Aristóteles y hombre de viva y elocuente
palabra; Pedro Fontidueñas, que casi le arrebató la palma de la
oratoria, y tantos y tantos otros teólogos, consultores, obispos y
abades como allí concurrieron, entre los cuales, para gloria nuestra,
apenas había uno que no se alzase de la raya de la medianía, ya
por su sabiduría teológica ó canónica, ya por la pureza y elegancia
de su dicción latina, confesada, bien á despecho suyo, por los
mismos italianos! Bien puede decirse que todo español era teólogo
entonces. Y á tanto brillo de ciencia, y á tan noble austeridad de
costumbres, juntábase una entereza de carácter, que resplandece
hasta en nuestros embajadores Vargas y don Diego de Mendoza.
¿Cuándo ha sido España tan española y tan grande como
entonces? Una serie de Concilios provinciales puso vigorosamente
en práctica los Cánones del Tridentino, á pesar de la resistencia de
los malavenidos con la Reforma. ¿Qué había de lograr el
Protestantismo, cuando honraban nuestras mitras obispos al modo
de fray Bartolomé de los Mártires, don Alonso Velázquez, don fray
Lorenzo Suárez de Figueroa, fray Andrés Capilla, don Pedro
Cerbuna, don Diego de Covarrubias, fray Guillermo Boil y el
venerable Lanuza?".

M. Pelayo, Heterod., t. II, pág. 687: "Una sólida y severa instrucción

dogmática nos preservaba del contagio del espíritu aventurero, y