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Prehistoric human impact on tree island lifecycles in the Florida Everglades

Article in The Holocene · November 2015

DOI: 10.1177/0959683615618254

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HOL0010.1177/0959683615618254The HoloceneArdren et al.

Research paper

The Holocene

Prehistoric human impact on tree island

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DOI: 10.1177/0959683615618254
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Traci Ardren,1 Justin P Lowry,2 Melissa Memory,3 Kelin Flanagan4

and Alexandra Busot1

Abstract
The current study provides a fine-grained analysis of evidence for sustained pre-Columbian human occupation and socio-ecological interaction within
Everglades National Park. Utilizing archaeological data on dietary and cultural patterns recovered from recent excavations at a prehistoric tree island site,
we argue the role of ancient human populations in the formation or augmentation of tree islands should be incorporated into environmental models of the
tree island lifecycle. High phosphorus levels in human waste, especially the largely organic waste of prehistoric populations, as well as other anthropogenic
factors have not been adequately factored into current environmental models of tree island formation or the ecological evolution of the Everglades. More
broadly, while socio-ecological modeling is at the core of current scholarly and restoration paradigms, expanded collaboration between environmental
scientists and archaeologists will lead to more accurate identification of anthropogenic environmental impacts over time.

Keywords
archaeology, ecosystems, Everglades, phosphorus, pre-Columbian, tree islands

Received 28 May 2014; revised manuscript accepted 7 October 2015

Introduction
As one of the largest and most costly environmental management Historic populations such as the 19th century Seminole and 20th
projects in the history of the United States, the greater Everglades century gladesmen have been acknowledged as human occupants
restoration program, which encompasses projects within many of an environment most outsiders considered uninhabitable. The
federal and state agencies including the Comprehensive Ever- extent of their impact on the landscape, however, is poorly under-
glades Restoration Plan, has an estimated operating budget of stood. The centuries of human occupation in the Everglades prior
more than US$20 billion dollars. The current restoration para- to the arrival of Europeans in Florida and the impact of these
digm envisions the Everglades as a water management system. people on such key features of the landscape as tree islands,
Restoration planning has relied upon mathematical models to native fauna, and waterflow remain largely unexplored. The result
reconstruct pre-drainage hydrology and interpret past vegetation is an attenuated understanding of the role of human modification
change (Larsen et al., 2011; Ogden, 2008: 28; Willard and Bern- of the Everglades that does not fully account for the ecological
hardt, 2011: 60). Natural and social scientists conduct research and heritage issues raised by restoration efforts.
largely in isolation from one another on the issue of Everglades To address these concerns, the current study augments models
landscape change. As a result, evidence for prehistoric anthropo- of past variability within the Florida Everglades by providing a
genic alteration of the Everglades environment has been under- fine-grained analysis of evidence for sustained pre-Columbian
utilized by environmental scientists, and some argue the extent of human occupation and socio-ecological interaction within the
human modification of landscapes by pre-Columbian people has northeastern boundaries of Everglades National Park. Adopting a
been exaggerated (Bernhardt, 2011; Bush et al., 2007). When ‘socio-ecological systems approach’, we utilize empirical data ‘to
anthropogenic factors are acknowledged, it is often in the absence identify key drivers, processes, and controls that regulate human
of quantifiable data to demonstrate the nature of such influence behavior and interactions with the environment’ (Redman et al.,
(Graf, 2008; Wetzel et al., 2011). The current study provides
examples of the kind of evidence that exists for prehistoric anthro-
1Department of Anthropology, University of Miami, USA
pogenic modification of tree islands in the Florida Everglades
2Department of Sociology and Anthropology, George Mason University,
with the aim of fostering greater collaboration between natural
and social scientists. USA
3Fort Pulaski National Monument, National Park Service, USA
While human impact is at the core of current restoration mod- 4Department of Anthropology, Florida Atlantic University, USA
els – both redressing misguided efforts to drain the wetlands for
development as well as managing future human needs especially Corresponding author:
in terms of water usage and urban encroachment – the majority of Traci Ardren, Department of Anthropology, University of Miami,
scientific literature on Everglades restoration does not include the P.O. Box 248106, Coral Gables, FL 33124, USA.
relatively abundant data on prehistoric modification of this area. Email: [email protected]

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2 The Holocene

2004: 161). Humans are an integral part of virtually all ecosys-

tems, and a socio-ecological systems approach holds the promise
of increasing our understanding of human and environment inter-
relationships through the development of reinforcing and comple-
mentary models and frameworks. Archaeological excavations at a
prehistoric tree island midden site during 2010 and the subsequent
analysis of recovered faunal materials and artifacts adds to the
growing body of evidence for long-term human occupation and
modification of the Everglades landscape prior to the arrival of
Europeans in the New World (Carr, 2002; Goggin, 1950; Griffin,
2002; Schwadron, 2006). The intention of the present study is to
increase understanding of the reciprocal impacts of human and
ecological systems in the Florida Everglades, particularly in rela-
tion to the phenomenon of tree islands. A more accurate under-
standing of the anthropogenic origin of tree islands could impact
restoration and management strategies through greater attention
to the demographic history of land use within the Everglades and
an enhanced appreciation for how human choices affect the bio- Figure 1. Aerial photo of teardrop-shaped tree islands, Everglades
physical landscape. Future decisions about water level manage- National Park, Florida.
ment, tree island conservation, and overall preservation strategies
for cultural resources within the Park boundaries are implicated.
archaeological investigation (Carr, 2002: 203). Incorporation of
data on the full range of human activities into models of tree
Tree Islands island formation and conservation will produce a more accurate
Ecological studies of an important feature of the Everglades land- framework for ecosystem management.
scape, teardrop-shaped elevations of hardwood trees known as In 2004, scientists associated with the Long-Term Ecological
hammocks or more commonly in the natural science literature as Research Network of the National Science Foundation issued a
‘tree islands’, should incorporate available data on prehistoric call for greater integration of social and environmental data in
human occupation of these features (Figure 1). The Everglades are models of ecological change (Redman et al., 2004). The articula-
frequently described as a patterned landscape that, like most large tion of the importance of scientific research grounded in a frame-
wetland ecosystems, is a mosaic of heterogeneous vegetation and work that examines a single, complex social-ecological system
nutrient composition (Larsen et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2011: 133, rather than one that is separated into ‘natural’ and ‘human’ ele-
Willard and Bernhardt, 2011). Tree islands are patches of woody ments has been widely cited and highly influential in ecological
vegetation within a freshwater wetland environment dominated by research. In particular, recent ecosystem management programs
non-woody species (Wetzel, 2002; Wetzel et al., 2011). Mainte- have been designed with recognition of the complex interplay of
nance of the mosaic nature of the Everglades landscape has been ‘human and non-human associations’, a phrase employed by
identified as a conservation priority by many entities (National anthropologist Laura Ogden (2008) to convey how ecosystems
Research Council, 2003), and yet the origin and factors that affect encompass social actors as well as environmental processes.
the tree island landscape are poorly understood (Espinar et al., Examples of interactions which epitomize the linkages between
2011: 90). Despite only partial socio-ecological knowledge, human and ecological systems include land-use decisions,
the Everglades patterned landscape is often described as ‘self- resource consumption patterns, and disposal habits (Redman
organizing’ or ‘oligotrophic’, both terms which imply a limited et al., 2004: 164). The socio-ecological model is firmly estab-
role for human activity in landscape formation (Larsen et al., 2011: lished today as the best framework for understanding long-term
347, Wang et al., 2011: 134). Current conceptual models for tree environmental change and especially for the creation of models
island formation in the Everglades center on the roles of hydrol- for future ecosystem management policies.
ogy, erosion and soil deposition, nutrient availability, and climate
variability with little consideration given to anthropogenic factors
(Bernhardt, 2011; Espinar et al., 2011; Larsen et al., 2011; Sullivan Methods and materials
et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2011). The most persistent theory posits In March 2010, the University of Miami in partnership with Ever-
that thin peat deposits collected downstream of high points in the glades National Park conducted fieldwork at the Booth site, a tree
underlying bedrock thus forming a gradual accumulation of sedi- island with evidence of prehistoric occupation (Figure 2). Field
ment and topography (Graf, 2008; Sklar and Van der Valk, 2002). research was focused on obtaining simple data about the Booth
Despite a flurry of research on the issue of tree island forma- site in order to better manage the conservation of cultural
tion processes following congressional authorization of the resources preserved at the site and document the potential time
US$7.8 billion Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan, depth of human activity at this particular tree island. Basic infor-
there remains a lack of consensus on the importance of each of the mation about the size, extent, and nature of the site was unknown
factors listed above. The role of human activities in the augmenta- and research was designed to provide the maximum amount of
tion of natural factors such as climate variability or nutrient avail- baseline data with minimal impact on cultural resources. Field-
ability has not been systematically examined despite evidence work was designed to provide enough information about the site
that prehistoric human occupation of tree islands was extensive, components that guidelines for vegetation and debris removal
affected soil deposition, and altered nutrient availability (espe- could be drafted for the National Park staff and archaeological
cially phosphorus levels which are critical to tree island formation materials from the Booth site could be placed into a broad regional
given the overall P scarcity of surrounding marshland). Docu- and temporal context.
mentation of prehistoric occupation sites within the Everglades
began in the 19th century, but systematic survey and excavation
was not conducted until the 1960s. A recent comprehensive sum- Site location and history
mary of tree island archaeology suggests that less than 1/10th of John Ehrenhard, Robert Carr, and R. C. Taylor (1978) created a
1% of all tree island archaeological sites have been the subject of predictive model for the location of prehistoric sites within the

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Ardren et al. 3

Figure 2. General location of the Booth site, Everglades National Park, Florida.

Everglades using infrared aerial photographs that revealed veg- Research methods
etation types and proximity to water. These models indicated Investigation was undertaken in March 2010 to assess the aerial
prehistoric sites in the Everglades would most likely be found and chronological extent of the archaeological site as well as
on the highest ground – hardwood tree islands. High-probability the relative state of preservation. Several structures constructed
sites are described as prehistoric black earth middens, composed by the previous owner were slated for removal, and investiga-
of dark brown to black organically stained soil. The soil contains tion was aimed at determining guidelines for National Park Ser-
a dense quantity of vertebrate faunal remains, some marine vice staff as they began the process of site maintenance and
shell, and ceramics along with other midden debris. Because of restoration.
the amount and type of debris found at these sites, some models
suggest that they were seasonal or ‘special’ use sites (Griffin,
2002; Milanich, 1994: 310; Widmer, 1988). Ground reconnais- Mapping. A 5000 m × 5000 m arbitrary site grid was established
sance proved the models to be extremely accurate, and 80–90% over the 30 m × 20 m area described in 1979 by Robert Carr, within
of Everglades tree islands contain archaeological materials that which all topography, natural features, and archaeological features
are the remains of prehistoric occupation (Ehrenhard, 1980: were recorded (Figure 3). The Booth site consists of a 2.5 m rise in
110; Schwadron, 2009: 91). In an archaeological survey of Ever- elevation above the sawgrass floodplain of the surrounding eastern
glades National Park, the models proved successful and a total Everglades. This elevation is similar to other tree islands in the
of 191 archaeological sites were identified within the Park Everglades which do not accumulate significant sediment around
boundaries (Schwadron, 2009: 91). A subsequent survey of Big the roots of trees and shrubs, even over long periods of time.
Cypress National Preserve identified 395 additional archaeologi- Although the change in elevation is slight, the terrain varies quite
cal sites. dramatically. The floodplain is very flat, drainage is slow, and the
In 2004, the Southeast Archaeological Center (SEAC) of the areas off midden remain waterlogged much of the year. The soil at
National Park Service began archaeological investigations of the highest points of the tree island is dark, aerated, filled with
the Eastern Expansion Area (EEEA) of Everglades National artifacts, and rarely inundated. Intermediate elevations are sandy
Park. The EEEA is located on the eastern edge of the Shark and filled with rock. The topographic map shows the tree island is
River Slough, a 10-mile wide marshy river in the center of the roughly kidney bean shaped and bisected by a modern gravel road.
Everglades. The Booth site, also known as the ‘Howard’ or Two points of higher elevation exist on either end of the mound,
‘Coptic Camp’ site, and designated 8DA1085 in the Florida which is orientated southwest to northeast, and an artificially
Master Site File, is an archaeological site located on a large enhanced pond exists on the northwestern side.
hardwood hammock tree island in the extreme eastern edge of
the EEEA. The site was first recorded with the state in 1979 by Excavations. Shovel testing was utilized to determine the extent
Robert Carr, who described it as a black earth midden located on of the midden. Cultural material from the recovered matrix dimin-
the northeast end of an elongated tree island. In 1998, the site ished quickly along transects, as testing proceeded away from vis-
was revisited and a surface collection of artifacts was under- ible midden toward the low-lying areas where only culturally
taken. An archaeological update form was submitted to the Mas- sterile waterlogged humic debris was recovered. The small
ter Site File giving the name of the site as the Coptic Camp site amounts of ceramic and bone material recovered from these tests
because of the occupation of the tree island as a homestead by were fully analyzed in the field and reburied in situ prior to the
members of the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church during the end of fieldwork at the request of the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians
1970s–1980s. of Florida.

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4 The Holocene

Figure 3. Topographic map of the Booth site indicating locations of shovel tests and test pit excavations.

Table 1. Prehistoric ceramic materials.

Test Pit 1 % of TP Test Pit 2 % of TP Total % of total

Glades Plain 294 76.56% 672 84.42% 966 81.86%

Glades Red 16 4.17% 23 2.89% 39 3.31%
Belle Glade 7 1.82% 6 0.75% 13 1.10%
Goodland Plain 4 1.04% 10 1.26% 14 1.19%
Goodland Red 14 3.65% 4 0.50% 18 1.53%
Gordon’s Pass 0 0 1 0.13% 1 0.08%
Matecumbe 3 0.78% 2 0.25% 5 0.42%
Surfside 3 0.78% 2 0.25% 5 0.42%
Opa-Locka 6 1.56% 3 0.38% 9 0.76%
Key Largo 4 1.04% 4 0.50% 8 0.68%
Glades Tooled 1 0.26% 7 0.88% 8 0.68%
Miami 3 0.78% 1 0.13% 4 0.34%
UID Incised 5 1.30% 22 2.76% 27 2.29%
UID Eroded 24 6.25% 39 4.90% 63 5.34%
Total n = 384 100% n = 796 100% 1180 100%

In order to obtain a more representative sample of materials refined through further excavation and chronometric dating by
from the midden itself, two 1 m × 1 m test units were placed on Griffin (2002) and Russo et al. (1991). Plain ceramic wares appear
relatively undisturbed areas of the midden. Test Pit 1 reached a as early as 500 BCE and continue throughout the entire sequence
depth of 40 cm, and Test Pit 2 reached a depth of 47 cm before while various decorated wares are separated into three major
encountering the calcretion layer, a distinctive feature of tree phases spanning the period from 500 BCE to 1513 CE and Euro-
island archaeological sites that often impedes further excavation pean arrival. Table 1 lists the ceramic types found in each test pit,
(Schwadron, 2006). Both units produced a great quantity of cul- their relative percentages, and overall numerical counts. The pres-
tural material, especially vertebrate remains and ceramic sherds ence of both Glades Plain as well as ceramic styles representative
well known from other black earth middens in South Florida of all Glades time periods indicates a potential habitation of the
(Carr, 2002, 2012; Goggin, 1950; Griffin, 2002; Schwadron, site from Glades I Late (650–750 CE) all the way through Glades
2009). After analysis, these artifacts were also reburied on site at IIIb (1400–1513 CE) with one exception. Ceramics from the
the request of the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida. Glades IIc period (1100–1200 CE) are not explicitly represented in
this assemblage. Our ceramic evidence confirms earlier assess-
Results ments that this is the most elusive period within the Glades tradi-
tion (Griffin, 1988: 140; Schwadron, 2009: 56).
Artifact analyses Test Pit 2 had more than twice the amount of ceramics as Test
Ceramics. The Booth Site contained a wide array of ceramic mate- Pit 1. This same pattern can also be observed in the frequency of
rials that could be firmly dated to individual periods within the faunal bones recovered from the test pits as seen in Table 2. In
Glades regional chronology. The Glades Region Ceramic Chro- order to determine site ceramic density, the volume of the removed
nology was initially developed by John Goggin (n.d.) and has been layers of soil was calculated in cubic meters for each test pit. The

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Ardren et al. 5

Table 2. Vertebrate materials.

Test Pit 1 % of TP Test Pit 2 % of TP Total % of total

Turtle 895 34.24% 1952 39.97% 2847 37.97%

Snake 1063 40.67% 1341 27.46% 2404 32.06%
Fish 543 20.77% 1041 21.31% 1584 21.13%
Reptile 75 2.87% 385 7.88% 460 6.13%
Mammal 10 0.38% 121 2.48% 131 4.03%
Bird 20 0.77% 28 0.57% 48 0.64%
Amphibian 8 0.31% 16 0.33% 24 0.32%
Total n = 2614 100% n = 4884 100% n = 7498 100%

first test pit yielded 0.4 m3 of soil (1 × 1 × 0.4). The total number of below ground surface in the second test pit. The material was dif-
ceramic sherds (n = 384) divided by the cubic meters of soil returns ficult to penetrate and further excavation was impossible without
a value of 960 sherds per cubic meter. The density for Test Pit 1 is mechanical assistance. The concretion is most likely a calcrete
consistent with that of the previous archaeological excavation on duricrust layer as evidenced by the fact that it was found beneath
site (980 per m3) (Schwadron, 2009: 105). The second test pit a black earth midden on a hardwood tree island surrounded by
yielded 0.3 m3 of soil (1 × 1 × 0.3). The total number of ceramic seasonally flooded sawgrass, all of which are characteristics
sherds (n = 796) divided by the cubic meters of soil returns a value shared by other sites with suspected calcrete layers (Schwadron,
of 2653 sherds per cubic meter. According to a scale of densities 2006). Calcrete layers normally form in drier areas; however, it is
constructed by Schwadron, the original site density (980 per m3) possible for limestone to undergo in situ replacement to calcrete
and the density of Test Pit 1 both rank as ‘light’ (1–999 per m3). In where annual rainfall is between 1000 and 1500 mm/yr. At 1200–
contrast, Test Pit 2 is much greater, measuring 2653 per m3, and, as 1700 mm, the Everglades fall within this range. This seems espe-
a result, ranks as ‘dense’ (>2000 per m3). This major discrepancy cially clear because of the presence of a layer of gray ‘calcite
of densities between the two test pits may indicate that the central mud’ sediment encountered above the calcrete layer in our test
point of the midden is in close proximity to Test Pit 2, or that earth pits (Gleason et al., 1984). Calcite mud sediment is a low-magne-
moving activities by prior residents of the homestead artificially sium calcisiltite found in some freshwater environments of South
enhanced the midden density in this area. In either case, prehistoric Florida such as the Shark River Slough. It is believed to be formed
ceramic materials were left on the tree island after discard, result- by precipitation of calcite by blue-green algae in submerged algal
ing in an enhancement of the land mass and elevation. mats (Gleason et al., 1984: 306; Gleason and Stone, 1994: 150).
Glades IIIb and IIIc ceramics are correlated with the pre- Graf has observed the distinctly wet/dry climate of Florida with
Columbian occupation of South Florida by a culture group known seasonal moisture deficits and high evaporation rates can be con-
as the Tequesta in ethnohistoric documents. Given the presence of ducive to the formation of such calcrete layers (Graf, 2008).
Glades IIIb and IIIc materials, we conclude that while a Tequesta The blocks of calcrete recovered from the site were carefully
occupation of the Booth site is possible for the final period of the picked apart with a chisel and hammer. A cross section of the
Glades tradition based on the presence of Glades Tooled ceramics block revealed a harder, darker calcrete layer .8 cm in thickness. It
in every level, it is unlikely that they were present during its entire was significantly less porous than the adjacent layers and con-
usage. It should also be noted that the limited presence of pottery tained a great deal more shell material. However, during the sub-
styles associated with the Ten Thousand Islands, such as Gordon’s sequent dissection of the entire block, the sample was found to be
Pass and Sanibel Incised, supports Carr and Beriault’s (1984) surprisingly uniform, containing no material other than calcrete
theory that the inhabitants of the east Everglades were ‘a separate and miniscule fragments of shell. It is significant that no artifacts
tribal group’ (p. 3) from those of the west. or other cultural materials were present in the concretion, although
artifacts have been discovered well below similar concretion lay-
Bone artifacts. As noted by Karen Walker (1992) and others, ers at other Everglades tree island sites (Graf, 2008; Schwadron,
points are the most common bone artifacts found at prehistoric 2006). Based on these results, it seems likely that the calcrete
sites of South Florida (p. 230). Three bone points were recovered layer resulted from local environmental factors rather than anthro-
from the two test excavations at the Booth site. One example may pogenic factors as suggested by some authors. Additional research
represent what Walker (1992) has called the ‘bi-pointed symmetri- on the formation process of calcrete layers on tree islands with
cal variety’ that she suggests were throat gorges, used to catch fish evidence of archaeological occupation is needed to determine
(p. 230). We also recovered two beads made of fish vertebrae. In whether such concretions contributed to the permanence of tree
addition to a central perforation, both beads have a groove carved islands or their overall lifecycle.
around the outer edge of the vertebrae indicating human modifica-
tion. Examples of shark teeth drilled for use as pendants were Faunal remains. Table 2 lists the results of analysis of 7498 frag-
recovered from a collection of artifacts in the possession of the ments of vertebrate faunal bone that were positively identified at
previous landowner, and although it is likely these materials origi- the class level. As a whole, snake and turtle remains (including
nated from the 8DA1085 midden, their exact provenience is Colubridae and Vipimidae) were the most common materials rep-
uncertain. Multiple unworked shark teeth, including tiger shark resented in the sample. Table 3 provides the list of most common
and lemon shark (see below), were recovered from excavation, taxa such as Apalone ferox, otherwise known as Florida Softshell
although none of these exhibited evidence of drilling or human Turtle, discovered in every level of both test pits. Fish and alligator
modification. The accidental or deliberate discard of these tools remains were common, including two species of shark, Lemon
and ornaments contributed to the accumulation of tree island mass. (Negaprion brevirostris) and Tiger (Galeocerdo cuvier), repre-
sented in the form of four unworked teeth from Test Pit 1. These
Concretion. As previously mentioned, excavation in each test pit might represent food remains and/or raw material used for cutting
was concluded when excavators encountered concreted sediment. tools or personal ornaments. Mammals, amphibians, and bird
The concretion was present at a depth of approximately 40 cm remains were the least common, although these bone elements are
below ground surface in the first test pit, and approximately 47 cm the most susceptible to degradation in the acidic soils of the tropics

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6 The Holocene

and their preservation may not be representative of their impor- of the samples, but two samples proved successful as shown in
tance to prehistoric occupants of the site. Table 5. The dates fall within the Glades IIc–III periods of prehis-
Table 4 provides a list of the 244 whole or partial invertebrate toric occupation, and while this is a very limited sample, it docu-
faunal remains that were positively identified at the class and spe- ments an occupation of at least 500 years at the Booth site prior to
cies level, all of them Mollusca. The most common invertebrate European arrival. Mammal bone was selected because of its rela-
was the marsh clam (Polymesoda caroliniana), an edible mollusk tive buffering from the effects of carbonate contamination. This
endemic to estuarine environments in the Everglades. Marsh clams form of contamination can bias the bone collagen of marine
have been found to nest in the prop root structures of mangrove organisms and those terrestrial organisms that feed on marine spe-
forests (Rhizophora mangle) and are tolerant of a wide range of cies, such as birds, to yield dates that are too recent. Furthermore,
salinity conditions (Murray and Wingard, 2009). However, the the highly acidic conditions of tree island middens may cause
overall majority of invertebrates were marine species, such as the radiocarbon dates of bone collagen carbons to be skewed in favor
surf clam (Spisula solidissima), the Lightning whelk (Busycon of more recent dates because of the highly negative C12/C13 ratio.
contrarium), Southern quohog (Mercenaria campechiensis), For these reasons, results should be interpreted as a ‘minimum
Horse conch (Pleuroploca gigantea), Fighting conch (Strombus age’ until confirmed through a larger sample size.
alatus/pugilis), and Bay scallop (Aequipecten irradians). These
are edible species on which the diets of prehistoric coastal popula-
tions in Florida were based. Whelk, clam, and conch shells were Discussion
used for a variety of tools, and some of the elements present in this Everglades Tree Island archaeology
sample exhibited signs of human modification for tool use and
Although the time available for recovery of archaeological mate-
adornment. A single very small shell bead was recovered, although
rials from the Booth site was very limited, the data are consistent
the species of shell was not determined. Like the discard of
with patterns of material evidence for prehistoric occupation and
exhausted bone tools, the deliberate disposal of faunal remains on
modification of tree islands well documented by prior research.
the island contributed significantly to the accumulation of tree
Starting in the 19th century, naturalists encountered ceramic
island mass and nutrient availability.
sherds and other artifacts on tree islands within the Florida Ever-
glades (Schoolcraft, 1848). In the 1930s, John Goggin made the
Radiocarbon analyses. Once faunal analysis was complete, eight first systematic exploration of tree island sites and was the first
bone samples were selected for radiocarbon analysis with Beta scientist to document the long occupational history of human
Analytic. Insufficient carbon was preserved in the collagen of six habitation within the Everglades. Later investigations by a variety
of researchers have confirmed the presence of black earth mid-
Table 3. Most common faunal taxa. dens on the majority of tree islands within the greater Everglades,
as well as a range of activities and periods of occupation at these
Taxa list sites. At three tree islands in Hollywood and Weston, Robert Carr
(2002) recovered lithic artifacts dated to the Late Paleoindian
Snake Non-venomous water snakes Nerodia
period (12,000–7000 BCE) which suggest the much cooler and
Cottonmouth Agkistrodon piscivorus
drier pre-Everglades habitat supported a migratory human pres-
Turtle Florida softshell Apalone ferox
ence (p. 195). Margo Schwadron and others have identified exten-
Fish Freshwater gar Lepisosteus platyrhincus
sive occupation of the Everglades during the Archaic period
Bowfin Amia calva
(7000–3500 BCE) when modern environmental conditions
Lemon shark Negaprion brevirostris
emerged in lower South Florida (Carr, 2002: 196; Schwadron,
Tiger shark Galeocerdo cuvier
2006). Populations grew dramatically during the Glades Period
Reptile American alligator Alligator mississippiensis
(500 BCE–1513 CE) when native people throughout South Flor-
Mammal White-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus
ida traded materials such as chert and decorated pottery, settled

Table 4. Invertebrate faunal remains.

Test Pit 1 % of TP Test Pit 2 % of TP Total % of total

Marsh clam Polymesoda caroliniana 27 41% 75 42% 102 41%

Surf clam Spisula solidissima 16 24% 67 38% 83 34%
Lightning whelk Busycon contrarium 12 18% 15 8% 27 11%
Southern quohog Mercenaria campechiensis 10 15% 3 2% 13 5%
Horse conch Pleuroploca gigantean 1 1% 8 4% 9 4%
Fighting conch Strombus alatus/pugilis 0 0% 6 3% 6 2%
Bay scallop Aequipecten irradians 0 0% 4 2% 4 2%
Total n = 66 100% n = 178 100% n = 244 100%

Table 5. Radiocarbon dates.

Beta number Material Depth (cm) Measured Conventional 13C/12C 2 Sigma 2 Sigma Cultural
radiocarbon radiocarbon calibration calibration period
age age AD BP

286429 bone collagen 35–40 260 BP ±40 290 BP ±40 −23.3 1480–1660 470–280 Glades III
300170 bone collagen 35–40 730 BP ±30 810 BP ±30 −20.4 1170–1270 780–680 IIc

All dates were obtained on metatarsal bone of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) samples and analyzed by Beta Analytic (Miami, FL, USA).
Calibrated against the INTCAL04 database (Talma and Vogel, 1993).

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Ardren et al. 7

permanently in villages, and negotiated political arrangements were conducted within the interior of the peninsula, not just fresh-
with neighboring complex chiefdoms such as the Tequesta, cen- water resource harvesting. The ubiquitous presence of marine
tered at the mouth of the Miami river. Although population esti- resources such as large Mollusca used for tools, shark teeth used
mates for archaeological cultures are always of limited reliability, for ornamentation or cutting tools, and dietary remains such as
historians have paid special attention to the population of the New surf and marsh clams at the Booth site midden and other similar
World prior to European contact. Scholars estimate the indige- tree island sites argues for a population that traveled from the
nous population of South Florida ranged between 20,000 and EEEA in the northeastern area of the greater Everglades down to
100,000 prior to the arrival of the Spanish in the early 16th cen- the coast and Florida Bay on a regular basis. The clams in particu-
tury (Carr, 2002: 198; Dobyns, 1983; Griffin, 2002; Grunwald, lar would not have been edible more than a week post-harvesting,
2006: 22; Milanich, 1994). Even the low end of those estimations even if they were kept in containers of saltwater. Waterborne
indicates humans would have had a substantial impact on the travel in wooden canoes would have been possible nearly year-
environment of South Florida over a very long period of time. round in the pre-drainage Everglades and the wide variety of fau-
Indigenous populations settled on tree islands during the nal remains identified in the Booth site midden shows the
Glades period because the higher elevation provided by increased population was well adapted to a diet of predominantly freshwa-
humic soils from woody vegetation provided suitable living con- ter with some saltwater culinary resources such as softshell turtle
ditions within a wetland environment rich in natural resources. and alligator from the sawgrass and marsh clam and shark from
There is very little evidence for the kinds of living structures that the sea (Tiger and Kersey, 2002). The well-documented marine
were built at these settlements, although perishable raised wooden resources of Calusa period shell middens, especially Mollusca,
platforms may have been used because of their documentation at and the easy calories they represented for the indigenous popula-
contemporary archaeological sites on the southwestern coast and tions of coastal southwestern Florida may have biased archaeolo-
inland near Lake Okeechobee (Carr, 2002; Milanich, 1994; Wid- gists against the possibilities for sustained village life in the
mer, 1988). The black dirt middens found on tree islands accumu- Everglades based on a subsistence strategy of primarily interior
lated because of long-term human discard of mostly organic wetland flora and fauna.
subsistence remains such as turtle and reptile bones, native fruits Environmental research into the formation of tree islands
and grains, broken bone or shell tools, charcoal, and other waste often emphasizes the low phosphorus available within the fresh-
associated with human occupation. Like the Booth site, most tree water marshes of the Everglades and the relatively high phospho-
islands demonstrate a pattern of densest midden deposits on the rus concentrations found on tree islands. A wide range of nutrient
north end of the island where a higher elevation results from natu- inputs have been tested, from sources such as climate change,
ral bedrock undulations, waterflow, and the accumulation of bedrock mineralization, bird guano deposition, precipitation, and
humic soils (Carr, 2002, 2012; Griffin, 2002). Middens are also so on (Wetzel et al., 2005). The two main hypotheses from this
typically found toward the southern edge of an island (Carr, 2002; line of research emphasize the role of bird guano (Givnish et al.,
Griffin, 2002). These patterns suggest ancient people settled on 2008) or chemohydrodynamics (Wetzel et al., 2005, 2011) in the
the highest ground of the tree island, and discarded trash on the higher phosphorus concentrations of tree islands. Despite the
opposite end of the island, perhaps moving their occupation site well-documented presence of high phosphorus levels in human
periodically from one end of the island to the other, in order to waste, especially the largely organic waste of prehistoric popula-
allow the midden debris to degrade into usable soil. Given the tions, the role of ancient human populations in the formation or
routine presence of charcoal in these midden deposits, it is likely augmentation of tree island phosphorus levels has not been suffi-
that large areas of tree islands were burned periodically in the ciently incorporated into environmental models of the tree island
past, perhaps to augment natural plant growth, or prepare the lifecycle. Given the long history of human occupation within
ground surface for habitation. A recent paleoecological analysis South Florida, even prior to, and coeval with, the emergence of
conducted on sediment cores supports that early human occupa- the Everglades, as well as the strong evidence for intentional
tion of tree islands coincided with a change in plant ecology (Ber- human modification of tree island landscapes, pre-Columbian
nhardt, 2011). In addition to daily living, tree islands were used occupation added to the elevation of some tree islands which then
by pre-Columbian people for mortuary purposes, and there is his- affected sheet flow and microhydrology (Carr, 2002: 200). The
torical documentation that Seminole people used specific tree discarded organic materials that eventually formed black earth
islands for ceremonial purposes as well (Grandage, 2013; Sim- middens also provided advantageous habitats for vegetation such
mons and Ogden, 1998; Tiger and Kersey, 2002). Each of these as gumbo-limbo and hackberry, two species that are known to
occupational patterns shows intentional modification of tree opportunistically flourish on archaeological sites within South
islands and surrounding landscapes that clearly affected the pres- Florida. The presence of these trees provided further habitat for
ence, distribution, and overall number of tree islands within the waterbirds and other fauna that deposit guano. Humans may not
Everglades. have been fully responsible for the initial formation of tree islands
Among archaeologists, opinions on the role of these settle- as variations in underlying limestone geology are also correlated
ments within the greater pre-Columbian South Florida environ- with the presence of tree islands, but the role of intentional burns,
mental and cultural mosaic differ. Widmer and others have nutrient augmentation, and other forms of prehistoric landscape
suggested tree island sites represent the remains of temporary modification should be more thoroughly investigated for their
camps used for hunting in the interior of the state, but that these potential contribution to environmental models of tree island
were not year-round settlements (Milanich, 1994; Widmer, 1988). formation.
Carr (2002) and others have argued the large size of some tree
island sites (200 m in diameter) and the large number of mortuary
sites suggest the presence of small villages that may have been Conclusion
occupied year-round or seasonally over a long period of time The greater Everglades restoration program, one of the most
(p. 192). While the Booth site is classified as a smaller tree island costly environmental management projects in history, is guided
settlement, the time depth demonstrated through ceramic and by the principles of socio-ecological modeling. Yet, while modern
radiocarbon dating indicates human presence for a minimum of at human impact is at the core of current restoration models, data on
least 500 years. The variety of settlement patterns known for tree prehistoric human modification of the area remain poorly under-
islands, including domestic settlements, mortuary deposits, and stood and thus under-utilized in current environmental explana-
ceremonial sites likewise suggests a full range of human activities tions of the earlier periods of Everglades evolution.

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8 The Holocene

Within pre-Columbian New World archaeology, the full extent Givnish TJ, Volin JC, Owen VD et al. (2008) Vegetation differ-
of human presence in the tropics has recently been rewritten com- entiation in the patterned landscape of the central Everglades:
pletely after decades of underestimation (Bush et al., 2007; Heck- Importance of local and landscape drivers. Global Ecology
enberger et al., 2003). Archaeological excavations at a prehistoric and Biogeography 17: 384–402.
tree island midden site during 2010 and the subsequent analysis of Gleason PJ and Stone P (1994) Age, origin, and landscape evolu-
recovered faunal and artifactual materials adds to the growing tion of the Everglades peatland. In: Davis SM and Ogden JC
body of evidence for long-term human occupation and modifica- (eds) Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its Restoration. Delray
tion of the Everglades landscape prior to the arrival of Europeans Beach, FL: St. Lucie Press, pp. 149–197.
in the New World. The role of ancient human populations in the Gleason PJ, Cohen AD, Smith WG et al. (1984) The environmen-
formation or augmentation of tree islands may be under-appreci- tal significance of Holocene sediments from the Everglades
ated in current models of tree island lifecycles. The research pre- and saline tidal plain. In: Gleason PJ (ed.) Environments of
sented here suggests that high phosphorus levels in human waste, South Florida: Present and Past, II. Coral Gables, FL: Miami
especially the largely organic waste of prehistoric populations, as Geological Society, pp. 297–351.
well as other anthropogenic factors such as intentional burns, Goggin JW (n.d.) The Archaeology of the Glades Area, Southern
nutrient augmentation, and prehistoric landscape modification Florida, Circa 1949, with Additions (Manuscript on file. Tal-
have not been adequately factored into current environmental lahassee, FL: Southeast Archaeological Center, National Park
models of tree island formation or the ecological evolution of the Service.
Florida Everglades. While evidence from the Booth site supports Goggin JW (1950) Stratigraphic tests in the Everglades National
a largely anthropogenic role in tree island formation, other agents Park. American Antiquity 15: 228–246.
cannot be negated entirely with this study alone. Only further col- Graf M (2008) An enigmatic carbonate layer in Everglades tree
laboration between environmental and social scientists dedicated island peats. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union
to Everglades restoration and preservation will provide confirma- 89(12): 117–124.
tion of the role of anthropogenic alterations of the landscape. Grandage J (2013) Traditional knowledge in the modern
Everglades. Paper Presented at the American Society for
Acknowledgements Ethnohistory Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA, 11–14
We gratefully acknowledge comments on an earlier version of September.
this paper from Jonathan Grandage, Maureen Mahoney, Leonel Griffin JW (1988) The Archaeology of Everglades National Park:
Sternberg, and two anonymous reviewers. Any errors remain the A Synthesis. Tallahassee, FL: Southeast Archaeological Cen-
responsibility of the authors. ter, National Park Service.
Griffin JW (2002) Archaeology of the Everglades. Gainesville,
Funding FL: University Press of Florida.
Grunwald M (2006) The Swamp. New York: Simon & Schuster.
The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
Heckenberger M, Kuikuro A, Kuikuro UT et al. (2003) Amazonia
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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