A straight to the point note

compiled in compliance with CAPS

document and the Life Sciences
Examination guidelines.

CHISANGA IRVIN BENSON

LIFE SCIENCES
YEAR NOTES
GRADE 12
TOPIC 1: HUMAN IMPACT (REVISION GRADE 11)

CONCEPTS AND TERMS

1. Atmosphere
The Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of many different gases. Some gases, also known
as greenhouse gases, in the atmosphere such as CO2, CH4 (methane), N4, N2O
(nitrous oxide) and water vapour can trap heat from the sun. These four gases play a
vital role in the control of the Earth’s temperature.

2. Climate
Climate refers to the average of daily weather over about 30 to 50 years. This includes
fluctuations in, amongst other variables, daily temperature, rainfall, air pressure, etc.

3. Greenhouse effect – (Svante Arrhenius first used the term).

Gases in the atmosphere absorb, reflect and re-radiate energy in the climate system.
Maintains a stable Earth’s temperature for life forms to flourish.

4. Climate change
Refers to long-term changes in climate. Climate change usually also refer to significant
and lasting changes in long-term weather patterns in a specific region or across the
whole Earth.
To observe changes in climate requires several years of data observation, e.g.
changes in rainfall, temperature, etc. over the last 30 years. Climate change describes
changes in daily weather patterns over 30 to 50 years which, inter alia, includes the
following variables, rainfall, daily temperature and air pressure.
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5. Global warming
Global warming refers to a rise in the Earth’s temperature and is just one aspect of
climate change.

ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere such as CO2, CH4 (methane), N4, N2O (nitrous
oxide) and water vapour can trap heat from the sun in the same way as the walls of a
greenhouse. The glass of the walls of the greenhouse allow sunlight to enter the
greenhouse but prevent heat from going out again. The gases trap the energy of the
sun and the greenhouse become warm as a result. Therefore, these gases are called
greenhouse gases.

Greenhouse

Release of Carbon Dioxide over time

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 - The increase of the release of CO2 from 1880 to 2000 can clearly be observed
in the graph above.
- The increase in the Earth’s temperature can also be observed.

What cause the increased releasing of CO2?

Since 1950 the level of release of carbon dioxide has started to rise sharply. The
beginning of the Industrial Revolution has caused this increase. Major changes in
mining, agriculture, transportation, manufacturing and technology occurred.
1. CO2 is released by the burning fossil fuels (coal, petrol, paraffin and diesel) in:
- Households (electricity, burning of wood and coal), and
- vehicles and industries (power stations, fabrics, etc.)

2. The release of gases (CH4 and CO2) from landfills and sewage works

3. Farming activities (farming implements and machinery) also release CO2

Consequences of the increased releasing of CO2 in the atmosphere

The global temperature is increased very rapidly, due to the extreme higher release of
CO2 since 1950. CO2 trap the energy from the sun and the Earth becomes warm as a
result – Global Warming.
Global warming can lead to climate changes which have the following effects:
- More extreme weather events e.g. increase in floods and droughts
- Reduced agricultural yields
- Melting polar ice caps, increasing of sea levels
- Extinction of plants and animal species which cannot survive the rapid climate
changes.

Carbon footprint
It is the amount carbon (in tons per year) released as CO2 in the atmosphere by human
activities. It is used to show how sustainable a lifestyle of a country is. Usually it is
calculated for a year.
Each person, organisation, industry, region, country or continent have a carbon
footprint.
Question: How can the carbon footprint of our country be reduced?

Deforestation
Is when forests are cut down or burned. Forests (trees and forest plants) are necessary
for the removal of large amounts of CO2 from the atmosphere for photosynthesis.

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Forests are called ‘carbon sinks’. Forests also help to maintain an efficient carbon
cycle.
Why does deforestation occur?
- Soil used for agriculture
- Harvesting firewood
- Trees used for building materials, furniture and ornaments
- Cutting down trees to prepare charcoal
- Increasing frequency of forest fires
- Planting commercial forests to produce paper.
- Urbanisation

Consequences of deforestation
- Indigenous forest ecosystems are destroyed – Loss of biodiversity.
- Deforestation accounts for nearly 20% of all global greenhouse gas emissions.

Methane gas emissions

Methane is an odourless and colourless gas released by the fermentation of organic
materials. Methane released from natural decomposition of organic matter in wetlands
or moist forest floors is part of the natural carbon cycle.
However, released from rotting municipal landfills sites, large cattle ranches, waste
dumps, mining, industrial processes; then it becomes greenhouse gases.

Ozone depletion
Ozone layer is necessary for all life because it absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays (UV-B)
from the sunlight before they strike the Earth. Where the ozone layer thins out or
disappears, these UV rays reach the Earth and damage plant and animal tissues.
Ozone layer is thinned or destroyed by ozone-destroying pollutants such as,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).

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Consequences of Ozone-depletion:
- UV rays can cause mutations in the DNA of plants, animals and
microorganisms.
- Humans may develop skin cancer, cataracts and weakened immune systems.
- Marine food chains can become disrupted because of organisms dying.
- UV-B rays disrupt the photosynthesis process which reduces the agriculture
yield.

AVAILABILITY OF WATER
At the moment, SA requires 50% more fresh water than 50 years ago. Reasons:
- the rapid increase in our population
- the increase in agricultural irrigation systems
- decreasing annual rainfall in some regions
- the increase in industrial and social development
- cost of water

Water availability is influenced by the following factors:

• Construction of dams
• Destruction of wetlands
• Poor farming practice
• Droughts and floods
• Exotic/alien plantations and depletion of water table
• Boreholes and their impact on aquifers
• Wastage
• Cost of water

Construction of dams Purpose:

Water supply for domestic and industrial use
Flood control
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Generation of hydroelectricity

Disadvantages:
Loss of biodiversity
Water loss through evaporation
People and communities are uprooted

Destruction of wetlands
A wetland is a piece of land that is saturated by surface or groundwater. It is
characterised by waterlogged soil, a high-water table and many aquatic plants. It
includes springs, marshes, swamps, floodplains, pans, estuaries, riverbanks and wet
grasslands. Wetlands are usually covered by water for the greater part of the year.
Wetlands play a key role in the ecosystem
- Purify water by acting as filters for pollutants
- Store water and ensure a reliable water supply in times of drought
- Reduce water movement and thus control floods and soil erosion
- Replenish the water table
- Increase biodiversity as they provide a habitat for a large variety of plant and
animal species, some of which are endangered.

Factors affecting the survival of wetlands

- Draining of wetlands for grazing and crops
- Overgrazing which results in soil erosion
- Incorrect placement of dams
- Pollution
- Mining
- Urban development
All these factors change the flow of water and the water quality, which ultimately results
in the destruction of wetlands.

Poor farming practice

Inefficient irrigation methods – South Africa uses about 60% of the water for irrigation.

Wastage of water
- Leaking pipes and dripping taps
- Using washing machines and dishwashers for a few items only
- Showering instead of bathing
- Brushing teeth under a running tap
- Washing the car with a hose instead of a bucket
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 - Ineffective irrigation method

Cost of water
- Cost of dams
- Maintenance of pipes and pumps
- Power to transport the water
- Purification of water
- Administration staff

QUALITY OF WATER
Water quality is affected by the following:
- Domestic water pollutants
- Industrial waste into rivers and dams
- Agricultural waste such as excess fertilisers or pesticides
- Mining waste
- Human waste in rivers causes diseases

Agricultural waste such as excess fertilisers

This could lead to a condition known as eutrophication:
Eutrophication is the addition of high levels of nutrients especially nitrogen and
phosphorus to water.
- Excess fertilisers are washed into rivers, lakes or dams
- This leads to algae bloom/aquatic plants on top grows faster than the ones
below
- They prevent the plants below from getting direct sunlight (could not
photosynthesise)
- These plants died and were decomposed aerobically (in the presence of
oxygen) by bacteria.
- The level of oxygen in the water becomes depleted leading to the death of other
organisms in the water
- This destroys the quality of water and leads to loss of biodiversity

Solution
Purification and recycling

Need for Purification and Recycling

- Many available freshwater sources are contaminated by pathogenic
microorganisms
- Many people in remote, rural areas do not have access to safe, clean drinking
water

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 - In some areas, there are water shortages

FOOD SECURITY
Refers to a country’s ability to provide physical and economic access to sufficient, safe
and nutritious food to its people.
Factors affecting food security:
- Human population growth
- Climate changes, droughts and floods
- Harmful farming practices
- Genetically modified organisms
- Production cost
- Wastage

Harmful/Poor Farming Practices

- Monoculture – practising only one type of crop for a number of consecutive
years. This might increase the number of pests of that crop.
- Pest Control – pests can be controlled in three ways:
a) Physical/Mechanical control, which has to do with manual removal of pests.
b) Chemical control, which includes the use of pesticides.
c) Biological control, which includes the use of the natural enemy of the pest
to control it. Biological control is the best way of controlling pests as other
methods could damage crops while dealing with pests.

- Loss of topsoil (erosion), which could result in leaching.

- Excessive use of fertilisers
- Invasive plants and the reduction of Agricultural land

Invasive plants and the reduction of agricultural land

Alien invasive plants use much more water than indigenous plants and have
welldeveloped root systems that can absorb deeper groundwater and thereby deplete
the water table.
Some alien invasive plants change the pH of the soil (often making it acidic), which
makes it unsuitable for agricultural crops.

Strategies to control alien invasive plants include:

Mechanical control – use of labour to remove them e.g. handpicking, cutting and
burning. It is time consuming.
Chemical control – use of herbicides to control plants. It is effective but expensive and
can adversely affect surrounding plant or animal species. Herbicides also contribute
to soil and water pollution.

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Biological control – use of natural enemies of the plants (e.g. insects) to destroy them.
It is cheaper and does not adversely affect the environment.

Genetically Modified Food

Genetic engineering can be used to increase food security. Farmers make use of
selection to control the reproduction of their plants and animals in such a way that
each new generation will have the most desirable traits (characteristics) of the parents.

Advantages of GM food
- They deliver greater crop yields which leads to increased food production.
Crops often have high nutritional value, survive in areas where unmodified
crops cannot grow, resistant to pests.
- GM animals are often more resilient, resistant to diseases and produce more
meat, milk and eggs.
- GM crops are often more resistant to pests, drought and diseases.

Disadvantages of GM foods
- May have potentially adverse effects on human health
- GM seeds are expensive for farmers to buy and this leads to increases the cost
of food production
- Ethical and religious reasons e.g. tampering with nature, food may contain the
genes of prohibited or avoided foods.

Solutions to food insecurity

- slow population growth
- reduce poverty – job creation
- sustainable agricultural development
- Grow own food – vegetable garden/subsistence farming

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
The greatest threats to biodiversity:
- Habitat destruction
- Poaching and hunting of wildlife
- Invasion of alien plant and animal species
- Overexploitation of resources
- Pollution leading to climate change
- Excessive use of fertilisers
- Trade in endangered species

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Habitat Destruction
It can be caused by
- Poor farming practice
- Golf estates
- Mining
- Urbanisation
- Deforestation
- Destruction of wetlands and grasslands

Poaching
- Illegal hunting/trapping of animals and illegal removal of plants
- Illegal trade in plants and animals as well as their products e.g. rhino (horns),
elephants (tusks), wild animals (meat), tortoises, cycads - living fossil seed
plants, shellfish etc.

SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL

Waste is classified into two main categories:
General waste – household waste, waste from construction site, waste from
businesses

Hazardous waste – contains harmful, toxic and/or explosive substances e.g. nuclear
waste, wastes from factories, mines and hospitals

Control of Solid Waste Disposal

- Management and Rehabilitation of dump sites
- Recycling
- Nuclear wastes (hazardous) should be put in a sealed container before being
buried.

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TOPIC 2: DNA – CODE OF LIFE

INTRODUCTION TO CHROMOSOMES

Structure of a nucleus

Chromosomes occur in the nucleus of every living cell. It consists of a DNA molecule
coiled around proteins known as histones. There are various DNA segments in each
chromosome strand known as gene. Each gene controls a particular inherited
characteristic.

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When the cell is not dividing, the chromosome appears as a thread-like network, the
chromatin network. When a cell divides, the chromatin network condenses, the
threads shorten and thicken and become visible as single chromosomes.
Before a cell divides, all the genetic material in the nucleus i.e. the DNA must be
duplicated – replication. After replication occurs, the single-stranded chromosome
consists of two identical units known as chromatids. The two chromatids of the new
double-stranded chromosome are joined by a centromere.
Each somatic cell (body cells) in a particular organism of a particular species contains
the same number of chromosomes. In organisms that reproduce sexually, the number
of chromosomes is always an even number because it consists of two sets of
chromosomes – diploid number (2n) e.g. in humans 2n = 46.
One chromosome of the pair comes from the mother of the organism (maternal) and
the other from the father (paternal). These ensures that the organism has
characteristics of both parents.
These pairs of chromosomes are known as homologous chromosome pairs. These
homologous chromosomes pair are similar in shape, size and genetic composition.

Gametes (sex cells) i.e. sperm and egg, have only one set of chromosomes – haploid
number (n) e.g. in human gametes n = 23.
During fertilisation, EGG (n) + SPERM (n) = ZYGOTE (2n). The zygote divides by
mitosis and forms an embryo consisting of many cells each with the diploid
chromosome number.

Karyotype
It is the complete diploid set of chromosomes, arranged according to their size, shape
and number in homologous pairs, within a somatic cell of an organism.
The human karyotype consists of 22 pairs of autosomes (ordinary chromosomes that
have nothing to do with sex determination) and 1 pair of gonosome (sex
chromosomes), known as the X and Y chromosomes.
A female has two X-gonosome (XX), whereas a male has one X and one Y gonosome
(XY).
FEMALE = 44 + XX MALE + 44 + XY
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 A male karyotype A female karyotype

INTRODUCTION
In the nucleus, chromatin network unwinds to become chromosomes. They contain
genetic material known as DNA.
DNA – Deoxyribonucleic acid and RNA – Ribonucleic acid are the two types of nucleic
acids.
Nucleic acids are linear chains of nucleotides (monomer of nucleic acids) found in
abundance in all living things.
Nucleotide is made up of nitrogenous base (Adenine – A, Guanine – G, Cytosine –
C, Thymine – T, Uracil – U), Sugar portion (S) and Phosphate group (P).

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 DNA nucleotide RNA nucleotide

DNA LOCATION AND TYPES

Within:
- Nucleus (most) – nuclear DNA together with proteins, it makes up the
chromosomes
- Chloroplast (small amount) – chloroplastic DNA
- Mitochondria (small amount) – mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
BRIEF HISTORY OF DNA STRUCTURE
James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, and Rosalind Franklin co-discovered
the double helix structure of DNA.
At King’s College London, Rosalind Franklin obtained the images of DNA using X-ray
crystallography. Franklin’s images allowed James Watson and Francis Crick to create
their famous two-strand, or double-helix, model.
It was Wilkin’s idea to study DNA by X-ray crystallographic techniques, which he had
begun to implement when Franklin was appointed at King’s College London. The
relationship between Wilkins and Franklin was unfortunately a poor one and probably
slowed their progress.
It was believed that Wilkins took Franklin’s X-ray photographs (without her permission)
to another laboratory where he met Watson and Crick. These photographs were
critical to the correct solution.
In 1962, Watson, Crick and Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine for their 1953 determination of DNA.
Franklin was not honoured because she died in 1958 from cancer at the age of 37 and
Nobel prizes are not awarded posthumously.

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 Rosalind Franklin Maurice Wilkins

James Watson and Francis Crick

DNA STRUCTURE
- Double stranded
- Double helix structure (natural structure).
- Ladder-like structure when it unwinds.
- Made up of monomers called NUCLEOTIDES.
- Nucleotides consists of sugar molecule (Deoxyribose), phosphate portion and
nitrogenous bases which are purines (Adenine and Guanine) and pyrimidine
(Cytosine and Thymine).
- These bases are complementary (pair with each other): A to T, C to G
- The bases are held together by WEAK HYDROGEN BONDS

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DNA FUNCTIONS
- Codes for the formation of protein
- Nuclear DNA transmits hereditary characteristics from parents to offspring.

RNA – LOCATION, TYPES AND FUNCTION

- Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) in the ribosome in the cytoplasm of the cell
- Messenger RNA (mRNA) in the nucleus
- Transfer RNA (tRNA) in the cytoplasm of the cell They all play important roles
in protein synthesis.

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RNA STRUCTURE
- Single stranded structure (not coiled)
- Sugar is ribose
- Thymine is replaced by URACIL
- Chains are shorter

Differences between DNA and RNA

DNA RNA

- Long molecule - Short molecule

- Double stranded - Single stranded
- Sugar is Deoxyribose - Sugar is ribose
- Nitrogenous base Thymine present - Nitrogenous base Uracil is present

Similarities
- Both contain sugar and phosphate
- Both contain Nitrogenous bases Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine - Both
play a role in protein synthesis (formation of protein)

DNA Replication
A process whereby DNA makes exact (identical) copy of itself. It occurs during
interphase before cell division.
Significance:
- Increases the number of chromosomes so that they can be shared equally
between each new cell resulting from cell division.
- Allows for the resulting (new) cells to be identical to each other in mitosis.

How it occurred
- Double helix DNA unwinds
- Weak hydrogen bonds break
- Two strands separate
- Each original DNA strand serves as a template to form new strand
- By attaching to free DNA nucleotides from the nucleoplasm
- To form complementary strands (A to T and C to G)
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 - Each DNA molecule now consists of 1 original strand and 1 new strand
- Leading to two genetically identical DNA molecules The process is controlled
by enzymes.

DNA PROFILING/FINGERPRINTING
DNA fingerprints are pattern of black bars left on X-ray film when an extract of DNA is
put through a special biotechnical process. Every person except identical twins has
his/her own unique profile or fingerprinting.
It can be extracted from body tissue or fluid e.g. hair, skin, blood, saliva etc.

Uses
- Diagnosis of inherited disorders
- Developing cures for inherited disorders
- Crime detection
- Paternity
- Identifying dead bodies
- Tracing siblings

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Crime detection

Interpretation:
- The DNA profile of the victim is determined.
- The DNA profile found at the crime scene is determined.
- The DNA profiles of the suspects are also determined.
- A comparison of the DNA bands/stripes/bars of the crime scene and the
suspects is made.
- If all the DNA bands of a particular suspect match the DNA bands found at the
crime scene
- then he is the culprit.

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Paternity

Interpretation:
- A child received DNA from both parents
- The DNA profiles of the mother, child and the possible father are determined. -
A comparison of the DNA bands of the mother and the child is made.
- The remaining DNA bands are compared to the possible father’s DNA bands
- If all the remaining DNA bands in the child’s profile match the possible father’s
DNA bands
- then he is the biological father.
- If all the remaining DNA bands in the child’s profile does not match the possible
father’s DNA bands
- then he is not the biological father.

DEBATES ON DNA PROFILING

- Only a small piece of DNA is analysed
- Human error
- It is expensive
- Standard of laboratory
- Might reveal personal information such as HIV/AIDS

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Amino acids are the building blocks (monomers) of protein. There are just 20 different
amino acids from which all proteins are made.
The sequence (arrangement) and type of amino acids determine the type of protein.
The bond or link formed between two amino acids is known as a peptide bond.

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More than 50 amino acids linked by peptide bonds forms a polypeptide chain known
as protein.

Gene – segment of a chromosome (small portion of DNA) which codes for a particular
protein
Codon – sequence of three DNA or mRNA nucleotides that corresponds with a
specific amino acid
Anticodon – sequence of three nucleotides in tRNA designating a specific amino acid
that binds to a matching codon in mRNA during protein synthesis.

Process of Protein Synthesis

There are two stages
Transcription (formation of mRNA from DNA) Translation (using information from
mRNA to form a protein

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 - Double helix DNA unwinds - According to the codons of
- Weak hydrogen bonds break mRNA
- Two strands separate - tRNA molecules with
- One strand act as a template matching/ complementary
- To form complimentary strand (mRNA) anticodons
- Using free RNA nucleotides from the - Bring the required amino
nucleoplasm acids to the ribosome
- The amino acids link
mRNA moves out of the nucleus through the together by a peptide bond
nuclear pore into the cytoplasm, where it attaches to form the required protein
to the ribosome.

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TOPIC 3: MEIOSIS

INTRODUCTION
- In meiosis, one cell divides into FOUR daughter cells. Each new cell has half
the chromosome number of the parent i.e. Parent = 2n (diploid); new cell = n
(haploid)
- New cells are genetically different from each other and mother cell.
- Meiosis takes place during the formation of gametes (sex cells) in animals or
spores in plants. Sex cells in male – sperm cells, in female – egg cells or ovum
- In humans, meiosis takes place in the testes (to produce sperm) and ovary (to
produce ovum). For example, humans have 2n = 2(23) = 46 chromosomes;
there will be n = 23 in the sex cell.

PROCESS OF MEIOSIS
It is divided into TWO stages (phases):
- Meiosis I
- Meiosis II
Both meiotic divisions have the same FOUR phases (PMAT) as MITOSIS:
- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase
During cell division, two divisions are involved:
- Karyokinesis – Division of the nucleus
- Cytokinesis – Division of the cytoplasm

Note: Interphase is a phase before cell division (mitosis and meiosis). During this
phase, the cell prepares itself ready for mitosis and meiosis. DNA replication takes
place during this phase.

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Meiosis I (First Meiotic Division)
PROPHASE I
- Nuclear membrane starts to disappear
- Chromatin network unwinds to form visible chromosomes
- Each chromosome is made up of two identical chromatids (because of DNA
replication)
- Chromosomes come together in homologous pair (one paternal and one maternal)
- Homologous chromosomes lie closely together to form a bivalent
- Crossing over takes place
- Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear
- Centrosome splits into two centrioles which start moving to opposite poles

Crossing over

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- During prophase 1
- Homologous chromosomes lie closely to form a bivalent
- Their chromatids (non-sister) cross-over/overlap at a point called chiasma/
chiasmata
- They exchange genetic material
- Resulting in homologue partner having some genetic material from the other.

METAPHASE I
- Spindle
thread/fibre formation
- Homologous
chromosomes are
randomly arranged along
the equator attached to
the spindle thread

ANAPHASE I

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 - Spindle thread
contract
- Homologous
chromosomes split or
separate and individual
chromosomes are
pulled to the opposite
poles
- Cytokinesis
begins

TELOPHASE I
- Chromosomes group
themselves forming a
nucleus at each pole -
Spindle thread disappear
- Cytoplasm divides to
form two new cells
(cytokinesis is complete)
- Each daughter cell
has one chromosome from
each homologous pair i.e.
half the chromosome number
(n) of the mother cell (2n)
- Two new cells are
genetically different (because
of crossing over)

Meiosis II (Second Meiotic Division)

PROPHASE II

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 - Each
chromosome is
visible
- Centrosome
splits into
centrioles which
moves to the
opposite poles
- Nuclear
membrane
begins to
disappear

METAPHASE II
- Individual
chromosomes
become randomly
arranged along
the equator

- Some
spindle fibres
attach to the
centromere

ANAPHASE II
- Chromosomes
splits and chromatids
are pulled apart to
the opposite poles
- Chromatids at
each pole is known
as daughter
chromosomes
- Cytokinesis
begins

TELOPHASE II

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 Two groups of
chromosomes
occur (two new
nuclei formed)

IMPORTANCE OF MEIOSIS
- Production of haploid gametes.
- Halving effect of meiosis (diploid to haploid) maintains a constant number of
chromosomes from generation to generation (prevents doubling effect)
- Crossing over introduces genetic variation which results in offspring that are
better adapted to a particular environment.

GENETIC VARIATION IN MEIOSIS

Differences that occur as a result of different gene combinations between the
organisms of a species. It is caused by:
- Crossing over (Prophase I)
- Random arrangements of chromosomes on the equator (Metaphase I and II)

ABNORMAL MEIOSIS
When meiosis does not proceed normally. There may be changes in number or
structure of chromosomes (chromosome mutation or aberration).
Aneuploidy – There might be extra chromosome(s) or missing chromosome(s) in a
cell.
Monosomy – zygote has one chromosome short
Trisomy – zygote has one extra chromosome e.g. Trisomy 21 also known as Down
Syndrome
Polyploidy – When there are more than two sets of chromosomes in a cell.

Failure of chromosome to separate or split during anaphase is known as

NONDISJUNCTION.
Non-disjunction of chromosome pair 21 during Anaphase I in humans to form
abnormal gametes with an extra copy of chromosome 21
The fusion between an abnormal gamete (24 chromosomes) and a normal gamete
(23 chromosomes) may lead to Down syndrome.

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Similarities between Mitosis and Meiosis
- DNA replication takes place before division begins
- Nucleus divides
- Cytoplasm divides
- New cells are formed
- Both show the same phase
- Chromatin network forms chromosome in early prophase

Difference between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
- Occurs to form somatic cells - Occurs to form new cell
- Two cells are formed - Four cells are formed
- New cells are genetically identical to - New cells are genetically different from
each other and the parent each other and the parent
- One nuclear division - Two nuclear division
- New cells have the same number of - New cells have half the number of
chromosomes as the parent cell chromosomes as the parent
- No crossing over - Crossing over takes place

TOPIC 4: REPRODUCTION IN VERTEBRATES

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REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
External fertilisation – fertilisation takes place outside the female’s body. The sperm
cell fertilises the egg cell outside the body of the female. Large number of gametes
are produced and released to increase the chances of fertilisation and number of
offspring. This is mostly common in aquatic animals e.g. fishes, amphibians.

Internal fertilisation – the male deposits its sperm cells inside the reproductive
organs of the female and fertilisation occurs inside the female. Fewer gametes are
produced.

OVIPARY, OVOVIVIPARY, VIVIPARY

Ovipary – eggs are laid, development of these eggs take place outside the mother’s
body. Eggs eventually hatch into young animals e.g. snails, frogs, birds etc.

Ovovivipary – embryo develops inside the female and receives nutrition from the
large quantity of yolk stored in the egg. The embryo hatches inside the body and the
young are born alive. Many insects, fish (sharks, tilapia) and reptiles (some lizards and
snakes) reproduce in this way.

Vivipary – fertilised egg develops into an embryo without the protection of a shell. The
embryo or foetus is directly connected to the mother as it receives nutrients through
the placenta e.g. mammals.

AMNIOTIC EGG
Amniotic egg prevents dehydration of the embryo and provides nutrients, water and
oxygen to the embryo while waste products are removed.
Amniotic egg contains four membranes that are not part of the embryo itself
(extraembryonic membranes):
Amnion – surrounds the embryo and protects it against shocks, injuries, temperature
changes and dehydration.
Allantois – stores waste produced by the embryo. Also functions in gaseous
exchange.
Chorion – allows oxygen which enters through the shell to pass through to the embryo
and carbon dioxide to pass from the embryo to the air outside.
Yolk sac – contains yolk which serves as food for the embryo.

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PRECOCIAL AND ATRICIAL DEVELOPMENTS
Precocial – young are practically fully developed and immediately mobile when they
are hatched or born. Most of the energy is expended on prenatal development e.g.
ostriches, cattle, sheep etc.

Atricial – young are not fully developed and cannot move around immediately after
being born or hatched. Most of the energy is spent on postnatal development. The
parents are involved in feeding the young and protecting them against predators for a
long time after birth e.g. apes, rats, dogs, doves, humans etc.

PARENTAL CARE
Any behavioural pattern where parents spend time and/or energy on the feeding and
protection of their offspring. Examples of parental care include;
- Guarding of eggs
- Incubation of eggs
- Keeping the young warm
- Feeding the young
- Protection from predators

Fishes display little or no parental care. Young have to survive on their own.
Amphibians show little parental care. They only guard and protect eggs.
Reptiles display no parental care. However, crocodiles, some lizards and snakes
guard their eggs.
Birds display a great degree of parental care
Mammals display the highest degree of parental care

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TOPIC 5: HUMAN REPRODUCTION

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Testes (Testis – singular)

- Primary male sex organs.
- Housed in a bag-like structure (SCROTUM)
- Temperature is 2-3ºc lower than the body temperature (for optimal sperm
production)
- Inside each testis are several closely packed convoluted seminiferous tubules
- The testes produce and release sperm
- The testes also produce the male sex hormone, testosterone, which is
responsible for the development of the secondary sexual characteristics in
boys.

Longitudinal section of a testis

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TUBULES FOR THE TRANSPORT OF SPERM Epididymis
- Stores sperm that is produced in the testis till they are mature and ready to fertilise
the ovum
Vas deferens (sperm duct)
- Continuation of the epididymis which carries the spermatozoa from the
epididymis through the abdomen into the ejaculatory duct Ejaculatory ducts
- Contraction (shortening) of the muscular walls of the ejaculatory duct forces its
content (semen) through the urethra
semen = seminal fluid + sperm

Urethra
- Transports both urine and semen to the exterior (outside). They never pass at the
same time

ACCESSORY GLANDS Seminal vessicle

- Lined with mucous membrane that secretes a yellowish, sticky substances which
provides fructose, the main source of food for the sperm

Prostate gland
- Secretes milky alkaline liquid, prostate fluid which:
1. gives the semen its characteristic smell
2. ensures the maximum motility of the sperm
3. protects sperm against the low pH (acidity) in the urethra and vagina

Cowper’s gland
- Secretion of these glands:
1. contributes to the greater motility of the sperm.
2. clears the urethra of urine residue.
3. lubricates the head of the penis.

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Penis
- External male sex organ.
- Consists of shaft and head region (cone-shaped). -
Transfers sperm from the male to the female.

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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Ovaries (Ovary – singular)

- Primary female sex organs
- Situated in the pelvic cavity and held in position by ligaments
- Produce and release ova
- Produce the female hormones, oestrogen and progesterone

Fallopian tubes
- Funnel-shaped opening on the side of the ovary, the INFUNDIBULUM is
decorated by a series of finger-like projections called the FIMBRIAE
- Transports immature ovum as well as the developing zygote in the direction of
the uterus
- Fertilisation takes place in the fallopian tubes

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Uterus (Womb)
- Houses the developing embryo
- The endometrium is richly supplied with blood vessels and becomes thickened
in preparation for the implantation of the fertilised ovum
- The neck of the uterus (CERVIX), extends into the vagina Vagina
- The penis releases sperm directly into it during sexual intercourse
- Forms the birth canal to deliver a baby
- The vagina of a virgin is partially closed by a membrane, the HYMEN
- Physical exercise, medical examination or trauma may damage the hymen

PUBERTY
Age or period of time at which sexual maturity occurs. Sex organs and gametes are
produced during this period. Girls begin earlier than boys.
Hormones are released at this stage:
- Testosterone (male)
- Oestrogen and progesterone (female)

Characterised by changes in both male and female

Boys Girls
Growth of hair in the armpit, pubic region, on Growth of body hair (pubic and
the chest and face armpit)
Voice becomes thickened Widening of hips
Increased muscle mass (broad shoulder and Development of breasts
widened chest)
Enlargement of penis and testis Behavioural changes
Production of sperm Development of eggs in the
ovaries
Development of sexual drive Start of menstruation
Increased production of sweat, skin becomes Skin becomes oily (may develop
oily (may develop acne) acne)

GAMETOGENESIS
Formation of gametes (sperm and eggs) in the sex organs

SPERMATOGENESIS – formation of sperm from the germinal epithelium that lines

the seminiferous tubules of the testes. It starts during puberty and continues
throughout lifetime.
OOGENESIS – formation of ova from the germinal epithelial cells that form the outer
layer of the ovaries. The first stages of development occur before birth in the ovaries

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of the female foetus. This development remains dormant (resting) until puberty when
it continues and ends with menopause.

Spermatogenesis:

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 - Under the influence of testosterone
- diploid cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testes undergo meiosis - to
form haploid sperm cells

Oogenesis:
- Under the influence of FSH
- diploid cells in the ovary undergo mitosis - to form numerous follicles.
- One cell inside a follicle enlarges and undergoes meiosis.
- Of the four cells that are produced, only one survives to form a mature, haploid
ovum.

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SPERM
- HEAD is made up of
mainly the nucleus which contains
22 autosomes + X or Y
chromosome
with nuclear DNA
- ACROSOME contains lytic
enzyme that help in penetrating
the ovum
- MIDPIECE contains
mitochondria that provide energy
for locomotion
- TAIL performs whip-like
movements that propel the sperm
through the seminal fluid

OVUM
- Contains 22 autosomes +
X chromosome
- One of the largest cells in
the body
- CYTOPLASM is known as
yolk and provides a reserve
source of
nutrients for the fertilised ovum
- ZONA PELLUCIDA
becomes
impermeable after fertilisation -
CORONA RADIATA (outermost
granular layer) is dissolved by
enzymes released by sperm
during fertilisation

MENSTRUAL CYCLE
- Consists of the ovarian cycle and the uterine cycle
- At puberty, under the influence of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
produced by the pituitary gland (hypophysis), the primary follicle in the ovary
becomes a Graafian follicle containing a mature ovum
- Graafian follicle produces oestrogen which starts the preparation of the uterus
for attachment of the fertilised ovum
- Graafian follicle ruptures to release an ovum under the influence of luteinising
hormone – OVULATION. The ovum is collected by the infundibulum of the
fallopian tube

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 - The luteinising hormone (LH) also produced by the pituitary gland helps to
convert the ruptured Graafian follicle into corpus luteum.
- The corpus luteum secretes progesterone which maintains pregnancy
- If fertilisation does not take place, the corpus luteum degenerates and
progesterone production drops
- The unfertilised ovum passes down the fallopian tube into the uterus and leaves
the body through a process known as MENSTRUATION

HORMONES IN MENSTRUAL CYCLE

FSH – stimulates the development of primary follicles into mature Graafian follicle
(development of ovum and ovulation)
OESTROGEN – starts the preparation of uterus for pregnancy (implantation). Also
inhibits the release of FSH, so that only one follicle matures at a time
LH – converts ruptured Graafian follicle into corpus luteum
PROGESTERONE – makes the endometrium become thickened and well
vascularised (supplied with blood vessels). High levels of progesterone inhibit the
release of FSH as well as the secretion of LH

NOTE:
FSH and LH are known as gonadotropic hormones, because they stimulate the
gonads (sex glands)
An increase in the level of one hormone has a NEGATIVE FEEDBACK on the other
(i.e. decreases or completely inhibits the secretion of another hormone.

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FERTILISATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ZYGOTE TO BLASTOCYST
Haploid nucleus of sperm fuses with the haploid nucleus of mature ovum to form a
diploid zygote sperm (n) + ovum (n) = zygote (2n)
Zygote contains both genetic material from both male and female gametes. As the
zygote passes down the fallopian tube into the uterus, it divides by mitosis to form a
hollow ball of cells – blastocyst. Blastocyst develop to become an embryo by the time
it reaches the uterus. The embryo later becomes foetus
IMPLANTATION – attachment of embryo to the endometrial wall of the uterus.

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GESTATION (Pregnancy) – the period from fertilisation to birth. The period during
which the embryo develops within the uterus of the mother to the time the baby is born.

Soon after the blastocyst attaches itself to the endometrium, it develops two
membranes around itself. They are called extra-embryonic membrane because
they occur outside the embryo.
These membranes are:
- The outer chorion, which forms the chorionic villi
- The inner amnion with its cavity, the amniotic cavity filled with amniotic
fluid. The chorionic villi together with the uterine tissue in which the villi are
embedded makes up the placenta.

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 ROLE OF THE PLACENTA
- Nutrition of the embryo (vitamins,
glucose, amino acids, fatty acids,
dissolved mineral salts, water)
- Excretion of waste products from
the foetus
- Gaseous exchange
- Acts as micro filter (prevents the
entry of pathogenic organisms into the
blood of the foetus).
- German measles and HIV may
enter
- Endocrine functions (secretion of
oestrogen and large quantities of
progesterone). This prevents the
breakdown of the endometrium and also
maintains pregnancy.

AMNIOTIC FLUID – FUNCTIONS

- Acts as shock absorber – protecting the foetus from mechanical injury
- Prevents dehydration of the embryo
- Keeps the temperature within a small temperature range
- Allows relatively free foetal movement for growth and development

UMBILICAL CORD
- Connects the foetus to the placenta
- Passage for the transport of materials (waste products, food nutrients, gases,
blood etc.) between the foetus and the placenta Contains:
- The UMBILICAL ARTERY which carries deoxygenated blood and waste
product from the foetus to the placenta
- The UMBILICAL VEIN which carries oxygenated blood rich in nutrients from the
placenta to the foetus

TOPIC 6: GENETICS

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TERMINOLGY
Genetics – study of heredity and variations that occur in the transmission of hereditary
characteristics i.e. the study of similarities and differences between related individuals.
Inheritance – set of characteristics that have been passed from parents to offspring.
Heredity – transmission of characteristics from parent to their offspring.

Gene
- A particular length of DNA at a particular location on the chromosome.
- Diploid cells have homologous (two copies) chromosomes, there will be two
copies of the gene.
- Some genes control morphological characteristics (e.g. eye colour, hair colour),
other genes control physiological characteristics (e.g. whether certain diseases
and disorders are likely to develop)
- Characteristics controlled by a single gene – monogenic inheritance
- Characteristics controlled by more than one gene – polygenic inheritance e.g.
skin colour
- Locus – a particular position of a gene on a particular chromosome.
- Phenotype – external appearance of an organism.
- Genotype – genetic composition of the individual or combination of alleles that
an individual possesses for a particular characteristic. It determines the
phenotype.
- Genome – complete set of genes of a particular organism. Human genome =
about 25000 different genes.

Homologous chromosome

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Alleles
Most genes exist in many forms called alleles. An allele is any of the alternative
forms of a gene that may occur at a specific locus. Our cells have two alleles for
each gene, one from each parent.

Male gamete (n) Female gamete (n)

1 allele 1 allele

FUSION

Offspring (2n)
2 allele

Diploid organism has TWO alleles e.g. HEIGHT

2 alleles for tall plant – TT
2 alleles for short plant – tt
1 allele for tall and 1 allele for short plant – Tt
Haploid gametes will only have ONE allele

Dominant and recessive allele

Dominant allele – allele that mask another. It determines the phenotype
Recessive allele – allele that is masked by the dominant allele. It can only determine
the phenotype if both are recessive

Example: HEIGHT - T – tall t – short

TT – tall (T is dominant)
Tt – tall (T is dominant)

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 tt – short (T is absent, t is expressed in the phenotype) Homozygous
allele – two copies of the same allele for a particular trait or characteristic e.g. TT or
tt.
Heterozygous allele – two contrasting or different alleles for a characteristic e.g. Tt.

Complete dominance
With complete dominance, the dominant allele completely masks the recessive one.

Incomplete dominance
No one allele is dominant over the other – third phenotype is produced.

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Co-dominance
Both alleles are equally dominant – both equally influence the phenotype.

Monohybrid cross – only one hereditary characteristic is investigated at a time.

TT X tt - P1 generation (genotype)
Tall Short - P1 generation (phenotype)
- Meiosis
T t - Gametes

- Fertilisation
Tt - F1 generation (genotype)
Tall - F1 generation (phenotype)

P1 generation – first paternal generation

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F1 generation – first filial generation
Mendel went further and allowed the F1 generation to self-pollinate.

Tt X Tt - P2
generation
(genotype)
Tall Tall - P2
generation
(phenotype)
- Meiosis
T ,t T , t - Gametes
- Fertilisation

- F2
Tt tt generation
(genotype)
- F2
TT Tt
Tall generation
Tall Tall Short (phenotype)
Genotypic ratio – TT : Tt : tt
1 2 1
Phenotypic ratio - Tall : Short
3 : 1

Multiple allele
Sometimes a gene has more than two possible alleles to control a hereditary
characteristic.
Blood grouping in humans is controlled by a single gene that has THREE alleles. There
are FOUR different blood group phenotypes in humans: A, B, AB and O. These blood
groups are controlled by one gene (ABO gene) with three possible alleles (I A, IB and
i).
Co-dominance and complete dominance occur in the inheritance of blood group in
humans.
Alleles IA and IB are both dominant over allele i – complete dominance Alleles
IA and IB are co-dominant

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NOTE
Blood types can only be used to:
- Determine whether someone is definitely not the father.
- Determine that someone might be the father.
- Predict the blood types of the offspring, if the blood types of the parents are
known.
To prove without doubt that someone is the father of a child, or some child belongs to
particular parents, or someone is the sibling (brother or sister) of someone else, DNA
analysis will have to be conducted. A blood test is not conclusive.

Blood group in paternity

- The blood group of a child is determined by the alleles received from both
parents.
- The blood group of the mother, the child and the possible father is determined
- If the blood group of the mother and the possible father cannot lead to the blood
group of the child
- The man is definitely not the father.
- If the blood group of the mother and the possible father can lead to the blood
group of the child
- The man might be the father.
- Blood test is inconclusive because many men/males have the same blood
group.

Dihybrid cross – two different characteristics are investigated at the same time.

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How are the gametes formed?
YyRr

R r

Y YR Yr

Y yR yr

Mendel’s laws
LAW OF DOMINANCE – if two alleles are different, only the dominant one will be
expressed.

LAW OF SEGREGATION – for each characteristic, a plant possesses two factors

(alleles) which separates or segregates so that each gamete contains only one of
these factors.

LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT – various factors controlling the different

characteristics are separate entities, not influencing each other in any way, sorting
themselves out independently during gamete formation.

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SEX CHROMOSOMES Sex determination
The egg cells of females will only contain one X chromosome because of meiosis.
Female gamete = 22 + X.
The sperm cell of males on the other hand have either an X or a Y chromosome. Male
gamete = 22 + X or 22 + Y.
If an X sperm cell fertilises an ovum (which only has X chromosome), the zygote has
an XX combination which is a female. If a Y sperm cell fertilises an ovum, the zygote
has an XY combination which is a male.
Therefore, the sex of a child is determined by the male gametes.

SEX-LINKED GENES
The sex chromosomes (gonosomes) not only control gender but also carry other
genes. These genes are known as sex-linked genes.
The X chromosome is larger and can carry many other genes while the Y chromosome
is small and carries almost no other gene.
Certain genetic disorders occur often in males than females. This is because males
have only one X chromosome. If an abnormal allele (even if it is recessive) occurs on
the X chromosome of the male, that characteristic will form part of his phenotype and
he will suffer from the genetic disorder.
However, when a female, who has two X chromosomes, carries an abnormal
recessive allele on one X chromosome, there is a good chance that she will carry a
normal dominant allele on her other X chromosome. The normal dominant masks the
abnormal allele and she will not suffer from the genetic disorder.
A characteristic caused by a recessive gene will only be expressed in the phenotype
of a female if both X chromosomes carry the recessive gene.
SEX-LINKED DISORDERS Haemophilia – bleeding disorder
A condition where blood takes a long time to clot due to lack of an important clotting
factor. It is a gene mutation caused by a recessive gene on the X chromosome.

Example: A cross between a normal male and a female carrier.

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Colour blindness
A visual defect resulting in inability to distinguish between certain colours. It is
caused by an abnormality of the pigments of the retinal cones. The gene for colour
blindness is recessive and it is carried on the X chromosome.
Female Male
XCXC = normal XCY = normal
XCXc = normal (carrier) XcY = colour blind
XcXc = colour blind

MUTATION
Sudden change in the genetic composition of an organism. Mutations occur both in
somatic (body) cells as well as in sex cells (gametes).
NOT ALL mutations are hereditary. Only those that occur in sex organs during
gametogenesis are inherited.
Mutation in somatic cells result in disorders such as CANCER
There are TWO types of mutations:
- Gene mutation
- Chromosomal mutation/aberration

Gene mutation
Occur as a result of a change in the nucleotide sequence in the DNA molecule. The
code for protein synthesis changes and results in the formation of a faulty protein or
even no protein at all.
There are TWO types: POINT MUTATION and FRAME-SHIFT MUTATION Gene
mutations can occur during:
- DNA replication
- Transcription of DNA to mRNA
- Crossing over
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Point mutation

Frame-shift mutation

Chromosomal mutation/aberration
Changes in normal number and structure of chromosome. Many chromosomal
mutations occur as a result of failure of chromosome to separate during meiosis I.
Mistakes may also occur during crossing over.

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Effects of mutation
- Harmless mutation: have no effect on the structure or functioning of the organism.
Also known as neutral or silent mutation.
- Useful mutation: advantageous to the organisms and may be passed on from
parents to their offspring.
- Harmful mutation: causes genetic disorders. These are:
- Down syndrome
- Haemophilia
- Sickle-cell anaemia (red blood corpuscle becomes sickle-shaped)
- Albinism (lack of pigment MELANIN)

GENETIC ENGINEERING/MODIFICATION
Direct manipulation of the genes in an organism. In order to obtain a desired
characteristic, the relevant gene from a cell in one organism is transferred to a cell in
another organism.
The characteristics of an organism is deliberately modified by manipulating its genetic
material, using biotechnology.

BIOTECHNOLOGY – the use of biological processes, organisms, or systems to

manufacture products intended to improve the quality of human life.
G.E replaces faulty or missing genes that cause disorders or diseases. G.E plays a
role in:
- synthesis of medicinal drugs
- production of new crops
- stem cell research
- cloning
Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are the result of Genetic Engineering. GMOs
may be microbes, plants or animals.

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Stem cell
A single cell that can replicate itself or differentiate into many cell types.

SOURCES – there are 4 main sources of stem cells:

- Embryonic stem cells – obtained from inner cell mass of an early embryo
(blastocyst)
- Foetal stem cells – can be obtained from the foetus of a terminated pregnancy,
umbilical cord at birth, amniotic fluid in the uterus, placenta in the uterus.
- Adult stem cells – obtained from organs or tissues in the body that have already
undergone development e.g. bone marrow, brain, muscle etc. They different to
replace and repair damaged or diseased cells of the same tissue type in which
they occur.
- Induced pluripotent stem cells – they are adult stem cells programmed to
replace any tissue type. They function like embryonic stem cells.

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USES
- They can be used to replace diseased or damaged cells in an organism
- They are used in treating diseases like cancer, osteoporosis, sickle cell
anaemia etc.

Cloning
Process in which a genetically identical replica of a molecule (e.g. DNA), cell or entire
organism is created. There are THREE types of cloning:

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DNA CLONING: transfer of a segment of DNA (gene) from an organism to a
selfreplicating structure (like bacterial plasmid).

THERAPEUTIC CLONING: also known as embryo cloning. Aim is to harvest stem

cells in order to study human development as well as to treat diseases.
REPRODUCTIVE CLONING: technique used to produce an animal with the same
DNA as another animal.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

Occurs in the mitochondria. Genes of mtDNA code for the enzymes that control cellular
respiration.
Male sperm contain only 0.1% of the number of mitochondria present in the female
ovum. When a sperm penetrates the ovum during fertilisation, the tail, with its

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mitochondria, is discarded. The only mitochondria left in the zygote are those
belonging to the ovum.
mtDNA is thus only inherited through one genetic line in the pedigree i.e. the female
line.

TOPIC 7: RESPONDING TO THE ENVIRONMENT (HUMAN NERVOUS

SYSTEM)
Humans respond to the environment in two ways:
1. Human Nervous System
2. Human Endocrine System

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Human nervous system is subdivided into two main systems:
- Central Nervous System (CNS) which consists of the brain and the spinal cord
and;
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) which consists of the nerves that conduct
nerve impulses to and from the brain and spinal cord.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) BRAIN

The upper enlarged part of the spinal cord. Protected by the cranium (skull), meninges
and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). It is made up of the following parts:
- cerebrum
- corpus callosum
- cerebellum
- medulla oblongata
- midbrain
- pons
- thalamus
- hypothalamus
- hypophysis (pituitary gland)

Cerebrum
It is the largest part of the brain. It is divided into left and right hemispheres. The left
hemisphere controls the activities on the right side of the body. The right hemisphere
controls the activities on the left side of the body.
Each hemisphere is divided into lobes (which are associated with various functions of
the cerebrum. The lobes are FRONTAL, TEMPORAL, PARIETAL, OCCIPITAL.
Functions
- Controls all voluntary actions.

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 - Receives and interprets all sensations (nerve impulses from the sense organs).
- Controls all higher mental functions (memory, intelligence, imaginations,
emotions, planning, thought and power of judgement).

NOTE: Left hemisphere (associated with language and logic)

Right hemisphere (associated with creativity and visual processing)

Corpus callosum
C-shaped structure between the two halves of the cerebrum. It is made up of a bundle
of axons (nerve fibres) that connect the two cerebral hemispheres.
Functions
- Conducts impulses between the two cerebral hemispheres
- Forms a bridge of communication between the hemispheres to coordinate
processes

Cerebellum
Situated behind and below the cerebrum.
Functions
- Controls and coordinate all voluntary movements
- Controls the muscle tone to maintain balance and posture

Medulla
It is the continuation of the spinal cord.
Functions
- Transmits nerve impulses between the spinal cord and the brain
- Controls autonomic functions (reflex actions) e.g. breathing rate and depth of
breathing, heartbeat, vasodilation and vasoconstriction of the blood vessels,
salivation, swallowing, coughing, vomiting, sneezing, hiccupping and eye
blinking etc.

SPINAL CORD
Extends from the medulla oblongata and through the spinal canal of the vertebral
column.
Surrounded and protected by the meninges, vertebral column and cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF)
Functions
- Conducts impulses between the brain and the receptors and effectors
- Serves as a reflex centre which initiates reflex actions which occur
independently of the brain and protect the body from injury
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MENINGES – three membranes that envelope and protects the brain and spinal cord
(pia, arachnoid and dura mater).

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

It includes all the nervous tissue (nerves) situated outside the CNS:
- 12 pairs cranial nerves (arises from the brain), - 31
pairs of spinal nerves (arises from the spinal cord).
It consists of the sensory nerves and motor nerves.
PNS may be sub-divided into the Somatic Nervous System (SNS) and the
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS).

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Functions
- Conducts nerve impulses from the receptors to the CNS along sensory
neurons,
- Conducts nerve impulses from the CNS to the effectors along the motor
neurons.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

The main function of the ANS is to control the sub-conscious activities of the body e.g.
heartbeat, dilation of blood vessels etc. In this way, it helps to restore homeostasis.
ANS has two sub-divisions:
- Sympathetic division which prepares the body for emergency. Emergencies
require faster heart rate, higher blood pressure, faster rate and depth of
breathing as well as other physiological changes.
- Parasympathetic division allows the body to return to normal after stimulation
by the sympathetic division.
These two divisions are antagonistic to each other. If the sympathetic stimulates the
target organ, the parasympathetic inhibits the target organ.
The target organ is served by nerves from both sympathetic and parasympathetic
systems.

NEURON (Nerve cell)

The neuron is a specialised cell transmitting nerve impulse. Neurons are the major
component of the brain and the spinal cord. They can connect to each other to form
neural networks.
A typical neuron consists of a cell body (soma), dendrites and an axon.
- Cell body – spherical part of the neuron that contains the nucleus.
- Dendrite – carry nerve impulse from another neuron to the cell body. -
Axon – carry nerve impulse from the cell body to the synapse.
Neurons communicate with one another at junctions called synapse.
Neurons can be classified based on STRUCTURE or FUNCTION

STRUCTURE:
- Unipolar neuron, which has only one outgrowth from the cell body. - Bipolar
neuron which has two outgrowths from the cell body.
- Multipolar neurons, which has many outgrowths from the cell body.

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FUNCTION:
- Sensory neurons – conduct nerve impulse from the receptor to the CNS.
- Motor neurons – conduct nerve impulse from the CNS to the effector.
- Connector neuron or Interneuron – conducts nerve impulse from the sensory
neuron to the motor neuron in the CNS.

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REFLEX ACTION AND REFLEX ARC
Reflex action is a quick (rapid) automatic response of an effector to a stimulus received
by an organ or other receptor.
It initially takes place subconsciously. The brain only becomes aware of it after the
effector has already responded. After the reflex action, the nerve impulses reach the
brain where the sensation of pain is interpreted.
Allows the body to react quickly to harmful stimuli. In this way, the body is protected
from injuries. Prevent overload of the higher centres of the brain.
Reflex arc is the pathway along which nerve impulses are carried from a receptor to
an effector to bring about a reflex action.

Parts of a reflex arc

- Receptor – detects stimulus and convert it into nerve impulses.
- Sensory (afferent) neuron – conducts nerve impulse from the receptor to the
CNS.
- Connector neuron/Interneuron – serves as the reflex centre in the grey matter
of the spinal cord and conducts nerve impulse from the sensory neuron to the
motor neuron.
- Motor neuron – conducts nerve impulse from the CNS to the effector. -
Effector – responds to the original stimulus.

Disorder of the nervous system

ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE – a degenerative (irreversible) brain disease that gradually
worsens. It is mostly associated with old people (around 60 years). The nerve tissue
within the brain of the person appears to waste away. Exact cause is unknown.

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Symptoms: Memory loss, confusion, difficulties in recognising friends and family,
decrease in ability to learn new things or handle new situations, increasing aggression,
mood swings, decreased speaking ability etc. Finally, there is total loss of body
functions which ultimately lead to death. There is no cure.
MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS
The immune system progressively destroys the myelin sheaths of neurons, affecting
their ability to transmit impulses in the CNS.

Injury to the nervous system

BRAIN DAMAGE
Traumatic: concussion or bruising caused by an external blow to the head.
Acquired: internal damage caused to cells e.g. stroke, hypoxia, cancer, infection
caused by viruses.
SPINAL CORD DAMAGE
Traumatic: car accidents, violence, falling, sport injuries.
Acquired: diseases cancer, polio, arthritis etc.

Effects of drugs
Most drugs affect the nervous system by stimulating or inhibiting the action of the
neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are chemicals released into the synapse
(connection between neurons) to conduct impulses between neurons.
Most common neurotransmitters:
- Endorphins (acts as a pain killer – released during exercise or excitement)
- Serotonin (involved in sleep, appetite, well-being and memory)
- Dopamine (plays a role in reward-seeking motivated behaviour)

Addictive drugs elevate levels of neurotransmitters and stimulate the pleasure centres
of the brain which creates the desire for more drugs to maintain the artificial high levels
of neurotransmitters.

There are THREE main types of drugs based on their effect on the NS:
- Stimulants (accelerate impulses) e.g. caffeine, nicotine, dagga, tik -
Depressants (slow impulses) e.g. dagga, alcohol, heroin etc.
- Hallucinogens (distort perceptions) e.g. dagga, ecstasy, LSD
There are some COMMON effects of drugs:
- Memory loss
- Paranoia
- Anxiety
- Confusion
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Receptors
They are specialised cells that detect a variety of different stimuli and convert them
into nerve impulses.
There are different types of receptors:
Mechanoreceptors: temperature, pressure and pain (in the skin),
sound (organ of Corti in the cochlear of the ear),
balance (in the sacculus and utriculus and semi-circular canals of the ear)
Chemoreceptors: taste (taste buds on the tongue), smell (in the nose) Photoreceptors:
light (cones and rods in the eyes).

HUMAN EYE External structure

- The shape is more or less spherical.
- Eyelids and eyelashes protect the eye from foreign objects.
- Exposed part is covered by a thin mucous membrane – conjunctiva. It contains
pain receptors that are stimulated by foreign particles, resulting in the blink
reflex.
- Tear gland above the eyeball secretes antiseptic tears that protect the
conjunctiva from bacteria, dehydration and dust particles
- Six eye muscles make eye movement possible in all directions – side to side,
up and down, and diagonally.

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Internal structure
Consists of three layers:
- Sclera - Choroid - Retina

SCLERA: tough, non-elastic, opaque outer covering. In front it becomes transparent

disc called CORNEA
Function
- Sclera protects the internal parts of the eye
- Sclera helps to maintain the spherical shape of the eyeball
- It also serves for muscle attachment
- Cornea allows light rays through to the inner layers of the eye - Cornea
causes the refraction of incoming light rays.

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CHOROID: the middle layer. It contains blood vessel and a darkly brown pigment. It is
continuous with the ciliary body and the iris.
Ciliary body contains the ciliary muscles and it is attached to the lens by suspensory
ligament.
The iris may be coloured blue, green, brown etc. and give the eye its colour. The
opening in the centre of the iris is the pupil.
Functions
- The pigment within the choroid absorbs excess light rays to prevent internal
reflection which may cause blurred image
- Blood vessels within the choroid supply oxygen and nutrients to cells
- Suspensory ligaments hold the lens in position
- Ciliary muscles help to alter (change) the shape (curvature) of the lens for near
and far vision
- The iris regulates the amount of light that enters the eye by controlling the size
of the pupil
- The pupil controls the amount of light entering the eye
- The lens changes shape to refract light rays from near and far objects to form
a clear image on the retina – accommodation.

RETINA: The innermost layer of the eye. It is made up of two types of photoreceptors
(Rods and Cones). The nerve fibre from the rods and cones leave the eye as the
optic nerve which carries impulses to the brain.
A small depression in the centre of the retina (yellow spot), has a very high
concentration of cones with few or no rods. It is the centre of the clearest vision. The
blind spot contains no rods and cones and is therefore not sensitive to light.
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Function
- Retina is the light sensitive area of the eye. Images are formed on it.
- Rods are stimulated in dim (poor) light and give rise to white and black vision.
- Cones are stimulated in bright light and give rise to intense bright colour vision.
- Clearest and accurate image is formed at the yellow spot.
- Optic nerve conduct nerve impulses to the cerebral cortex of the brain where
they are interpreted giving rise to sensation of sight.

NOTE: The lens divides the eye internally into two cavities:
- Aqueous humour, which maintains the shape of the cornea and supplies the
lens and cornea with food and oxygen.
- Vitreous humour, which maintains the shape of the eyeball and holds the
retina in position against the choroid.

FUNCTIONING OF THE EYE Binocular vision

Both eyes are used together. It gives a wider field of view.

Accommodation
Distant vision (objects more than 6m away)

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Ciliary muscles relax
Suspensory ligaments become taut
Tension on the lens increases
The lens become less convex
The refractive power of the lens is
decreased
A clear image of the distant object
is formed on the retina

Near vision (objects less than 6m away)

Ciliary muscles contract
Suspensory ligaments become
slack
Tension on the lens decreases
The lens become more convex
The refractive power of the lens
is increased
A clear image of the near object
is formed on the retina

Pupillary mechanism
In bright light
The circular
muscles of the
iris contract.

The radial
muscles relax.

The pupil
constricts.

The amount of
light entering
the eye is
reduced

In dim light

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 The circular
muscles of the iris
relax.

The radial
muscles contract.

The pupil dilates.

The amount of
light entering the
eye is increased

EYE DEFECTS Short sightedness (myopia)

The eyeball becomes elongated. Image is formed in front of the retina. The person is
unable to see far objects properly.

Long sightedness (hypermetropia)

The eyeball become more rounded. Image is formed at the back of the retina. The
person is unable to see near objects properly.

Cataract
Clouding of the eye lens. The most common cause of vision loss in people over age
40. it is the principal cause of blindness in the world.
Astigmatism
Causes blurred vision when the shape (curvature) of the cornea or/and the lens
becomes irregular. Light rays could not focus sharply on the retina.
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HUMAN EAR
It consists of three compartments:
- Outer ear
- Middle ear
- Inner ear

Structure of the human ear

Outer ear
Consists of cartilaginous pinna and an auditory canal.
Functions:
- Pinna traps and directs sound waves through the auditory canal to the
tympanic membrane (ear drum).
- Auditory canal transmits sound waves from the pinna to the tympanic
membrane (ear drum).
- The cerumen (wax) and hairs found in the canal prevent small organisms from
entering the ear.
- The wax also prevents the ear drum from drying out.

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Middle ear
Air-filled cavity within the skull. Separated from outer ear by tympanic membrane and
separated from the inner ear by the membranes over the oval window and the round
window.
There are THREE irregular bones (ear ossicles):
- hammer (malleus) - stirrup (stapes) - anvil (incus)
Middle ear is connected to the pharynx by means of the Eustachian tube.
Functions:
- Tympanic membrane converts sound waves to vibrations that are transmitted
to the hammer.
- The ossicles amplify and transmits the vibrations to the membrane of the oval
window.
- Eustachian tube ensures that the pressure remains equal on both sides of the
tympanic membrane.
- Oval window transmits vibrations from the air-filled middle ear to the fluid-filled
inner ear.
- Round window absorbs the pressure set up in the inner ear.

Inner ear
Fluid-filled cavity made up of a BONY LABYRINTH and a MEMBRANOUS
LABYRINTH.
Bony labyrinth is made up of semi-circular canals, vestibule (sacculus and utriculus)
and the cochlea. It is filled with a fluid called the perilymph.
Membranous labyrinth is also made up of semi-circular canals, vestibule and cochlea.
It is filled with a fluid called endolymph.
Function:
- Semi-circular canals, sacculus and utriculus are concerned with balance
and equilibrium of the body.
- Cochlea contains organ of Corti, the hair cells that detect mechanical stimuli
(vibrations) and convert them into nerve impulse.
- Auditory nerve arising from the cochlea transmits the sound impulse to the
brain.

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FUNCTIONING OF THE EAR Hearing

Balancing/Balance

- Sudden changes in speed and direction of the body causes the endolymph in
the semi-circular canal to move.
- The movement of the fluid stimulates the receptors (cristae) within the ampulla
at the base of each semi-circular.
- When the direction of the head changes, gravitational pull stimulates different
receptors (maculae) within the sacculus and utriculus,
- Cristae and maculae convert the stimuli to nerve impulse.

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 - These impulses are transmitted by the vestibular branch of the auditory nerve
to the cerebellum.
- The cerebellum sends impulses to the muscles to restore the balance.

HEARING DEFECTS
Deafness: loss of hearing due to fluid in the middle ear, damaged ear drum, hardened
wax in the ear, hardening of ear tissues, injury to parts of the ear, nerves and parts of
the brain responsible for hearing, exposure to loud noise or due to ageing process
TREATMENT: medication, drainage of the middle ear, hearing aids, cochlear implants
or sign language.
Middle ear infection: most common cause of ear aches. It is the accumulation of
fluids in the middle ear caused by viruses and bacteria which enter through the
Eustachian tube. Fluid cannot drain out through the tube because it is swollen,
inflamed and clogged.
TREATMENT: medication and sometimes grommets (a tiny plastic button with a fine
hole down the middle) are inserted into the ear drum.

Grommet

TOPIC 8: HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system consists of endocrine glands that secrete organic compounds,
chemical messengers called HORMONES.

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Gland is an organ that synthesises or produces a substance and release it into the
bloodstream or into cavities inside the body or its outer surfaces.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS are ductless glands that secrete hormones or releases their
secretions directly into the bloodstream. Ducts are pipes, tubes or canals carrying
gas or liquid from one place to another.
The blood transports the hormones to the target organs where they perform their
functions. Target organs are organs stimulated by hormones

HORMONES
They are organic chemical messengers which are mostly proteins in nature. Some are
steroids (lipid-like organic compounds).
They do not act independently but form an integrated system bringing about
coordination and homeostasis through specific effects on organs.
They have a regulatory function that can be stimulating or inhibiting. They are secreted
in small amounts directly into the blood, which transports them to the target organs

ENDOCRINE GLANDS, THEIR HORMONES AND FUNCTIONS Hypothalamus

It produces Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which is stored in and released from the
pituitary gland. It plays a role in linking the nervous system with the endocrine system.

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ADH: controls the reabsorption of water by making the walls of the renal tubules and
collecting ducts more permeable to water.

Pituitary gland
It is also known as hypophysis. It has the ANTERIOR and POSTERIOR lobes. It was
originally known as the master gland of the body because it secretes many hormones
that control many other endocrine glands.

Growth Hormone: promotes growth and development of the skeleton and muscles and
thus the body as a whole
Under-secretion – DWARFISM (children)
Over-secretion – GIGANTISM (children)
Over-secretion – ACROMEGALY (adulthood)

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH): stimulate the thyroid gland to secrete the
hormone, THYROXIN
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): controls the production of ova (eggs) in the
Graafian follicles of the ovary. Also activates the germinal epithelium that produces
sperm cells in the testes.
Prolactin: stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk after the birth of a baby
(Lactation)
Luteinising Hormone (LH):
Females – stimulates ovulation and the development of the corpus luteum in the ovary.
Also stimulates the Graafian follicles to produce OESTROGEN

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Males – it stimulates the cells of Leydig, in the testes, to produce TESTOSTERONE.

Thyroid gland
It produces the hormone THYROXIN. Iodine is an element essential for production of
thyroxin.

Thyroxin
- Increases basal metabolic rate
- Increases breathing and heart rate
- Affects the growth and functioning of the heart and nervous system
Over-secretion (hyperthyroidism) – increased metabolic rate which in turn lead to
hyperactivity and nervous tension, weight loss, increased heart rate, respiration rate
and blood pressure, development of a different type of goitre which results in
protrusion of the eye.
Under-secretion – main symptom is low metabolic rate Cretinism (children),
Myxoedema (adults).

Pancreas
It is made up TWO cells:
- Pancreatic cells (exocrine) which produces pancreatic juices.
- Islets of Langerhans (endocrine) – there are TWO types
- beta cells (secrete insulin)
- alpha cells (secrete glucagon)
Both hormones play a role in the control of glucose (sugar) level in the blood.
Insulin: – decreases the glucose level
Glucagon: – increases the glucose level

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They are antagonistic hormones with opposite effects on the body.
insulin
GLUCOSE GLYCOGEN
glucagon
When the blood glucose level becomes too high, it results in a condition known as
diabetes mellitus.

Adrenal gland
It is made up of:
- Adrenal cortex, which secretes ALDOSTERONE
- Adrenal medulla, which secretes ADRENALINE
Aldosterone: regulates the amount of salt in the blood and works with ADH to bring
about water balance.
Over-secretion – causes too much water to be retained by the blood. In turn, a lot of
water is retained by the tissues. The tissues begin to swell – OEDEMA.
Adrenalin: secreted during stressful conditions – fight or flight hormone. It prepares
the body for action in an emergency.

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Gonads
Also known as sex organs (testes – male, ovaries – female). Hormones produced are:
- Oestrogen
- Progesterone
- Testosterone
(READ FUNCTIONS UNDER HUMAN REPRODUCTION)

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FEEDBACK MECHANISM
Any deviation from the normal levels elicit (bring about) a response that restores the
normal levels.
When the hormone level in the blood is too HIGH, this is fed-back to the endocrine
gland which then reduces the production of the hormone. The hormone level of the
blood is brought back to normal.
When the hormone level in the blood is too LOW, this is fed-back to the endocrine
gland which then increases the production of the hormone. The hormone level of the
blood is brought back to normal.
Endocrine glands work in the opposite or negative direction to the level of the hormone.

Control of Thyroxin levels

- When thyroxin level is too low:
- Pituitary gland is stimulated to secrete MORE TSH
- Increased TSH causes the thyroid gland to secrete MORE thyroxin - The
thyroxin level of the blood is RAISED to the normal limits

- When the thyroxin level is too high:

- Pituitary gland is stimulated to secrete LESS TSH
- Decreased TSH causes the thyroid gland to secrete LESS thyroxin - The
thyroxin level of the blood is REDUCED to the normal limits

Control of blood glucose levels

- When the blood sugar level is higher than normal;
- Hormone INSULIN is secreted
- Insulin reduces the blood sugar level in two ways:
- It increases the rate at which glucose is absorbed by the cells (especially liver
and muscle cells)
- It stimulates the conversion of glucose into glycogen and fat in the liver and
muscles

- When the blood sugar level is lower than normal;

- Hormone GLUCAGON is secreted
- Glucagon increases the blood sugar level by stimulating the conversion of
glycogen to glucose for release into the bloodstream

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TOPIC 9: HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis is the tendency of living organisms to maintain a constant composition
of their internal environment within narrow limits, irrespective of changes in the
external environment.
Internal environment – body fluid in which the cells are bathed
For cells to function optimally, these factors must be kept constant:
- Glucose levels
- Ion/salt concentration
- Water content
- Oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration
- Body temperature
- pH/acidity
- Metabolic waste

Homeostatic control is brought about by negative feedback mechanisms. Negative

feedback mechanisms include the following:
- A change occurs in the normal levels of a specific factor (e.g. glucose
concentration in the blood)
- The change is detected by RECEPTORS - Receptors transmit the
information:
(a) by means of hormones (in the blood) or
(b) conduct it through nerve impulses (along neurons) via the brain to the
effectors
- Effectors respond and correct the deviation to restore the levels to normal
- The return to normal is detected by the receptors and the corrective action is
switched off.

AREAS TO BE COVERED
- Maintaining blood glucose level (already discussed earlier on page 59)
- Maintaining Oxygen and Carbon dioxide levels
- Maintaining water levels – OSMOREGULATION
- Maintaining salt levels
- Thermoregulation

Maintaining oxygen and carbon dioxide levels

- Cellular respiration increases to release more energy as a result of increased
physical activity.
- More carbon dioxide is also released into the blood as a result of increased
cellular respiration.
- Increased Carbon dioxide causes the medulla oblongata to become stimulated.
- Medulla oblongata send impulses to the heart and to the breathing muscles.
- The heart beats faster and deoxygenated blood is pumped faster to the lungs
from the tissues.

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 - The breathing muscles cause the breathing movements to be sped up.
- Carbon dioxide is removed out of the body more quickly and more oxygen is
taken in rapidly and supplied to the tissues.
- The levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide are brought back to their normal limits.

Maintaining water level (osmoregulation) When

the body has too much water:
- Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus is stimulated.
- A message is sent to the pituitary gland which secretes LESS ADH into the
blood.
- As a result, the distal convoluted and collecting ducts become LESS permeable
to water.
- This cause LESS water to leave the tubule by osmosis and enter the medulla.
- MORE water thus remains in the tubule forming very dilute urine which is
excreted from the body.
- LESS water is thus reabsorbed into the capillaries,
- The water content of the blood decrease and returns to normal.

When the body has too little water:

- Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus is stimulated.
- A message is sent to the pituitary gland which secretes MORE ADH into the
blood.
- As a result, the distal convoluted and collecting ducts become MORE
permeable to water.
- This cause MORE water to leave the tubule by osmosis and enter the medulla.
- LESS water thus remains in the tubule forming very concentrated urine which
is excreted from the body.
- MORE water is thus reabsorbed into the capillaries.
- The water content of the blood increase and returns to normal.

Maintaining salt level

When there is shortage of sodium in the blood; - The
Adrenal gland secretes MORE aldosterone.
- MORE sodium is thus reabsorbed by the blood capillaries at the distal
convoluted tubules and collecting ducts.
- LESS sodium ions are thus excreted,
- The amount of sodium increases back to normal,

When there is an excess of sodium in the blood;

- The Adrenal gland secretes LESS aldosterone.
- LESS sodium is thus reabsorbed by the blood capillaries at the distal convoluted
tubules and collecting ducts.
- MORE sodium ions are thus excreted.
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 - The amount of sodium decreases back to normal.
NOTE:
With increased aldosterone, more sodium is reabsorbed into the blood. This creates a
concentration gradient allowing more water to be reabsorbed into the blood.
With decreased aldosterone, less sodium is reabsorbed into the blood. And hence less
water is reabsorbed into the blood.

Thermoregulation (Temperature regulation)

Humans are endothermic animals because they are capable of maintaining a more or
less constant body temperature irrespective of the temperature of the environment.
Heat is produced inside human body by cellular respiration. The organ responsible for
thermoregulation in humans is the skin.
The sense receptors, blood vessels and sweat glands contribute immensely to the
regulation of body temperature.

Role of the skin in Thermoregulation HOT

DAY:
- Heat receptors in the skin are stimulated.
- The stimulus is converted into an impulse and transmitted to the hypothalamus.

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 - Nerve impulses are sent from the hypothalamus to the muscles of the blood
vessels of the skin.
- The blood vessel then dilates (vasodilation).
- More blood is sent to the surface of the skin and thus more heat is lost from the
body.
- More blood is also sent to the sweat gland.
- Therefore, more sweat is produced, and hence more heat is lost by evaporation
of sweat.
- The temperature of the body drops back to normal.

COLD DAY:
- Cold receptors in the skin are stimulated.
- The stimulus is converted into an impulse and transmitted to the hypothalamus.
- Nerve impulses are sent from the hypothalamus to the muscles of the blood
vessels of the skin.
- The blood vessel then constricts (vasoconstriction).
- Less blood is sent to the surface of the skin and thus less heat is lost from the
body.
- Less blood is also sent to the sweat gland.
- Therefore, less sweat is produced and hence less heat is lost by evaporation of
sweat.
- The temperature of the body rises back to normal.

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TOPIC 10: RESPONDING TO THE ENVIRONMENT (PLANTS) PLANT
HORMONES
They are organic compounds that occur in low concentrations and act as chemical
messengers. They are normally synthesised in one part of the plant and transported
to another part where they cause physiological responses.
Three main groups of plant hormones are:
- Auxins
- Gibberellins
- Abscisic acid

Auxin
Mainly produced at the apical meristem (tip) of stems and roots. Most well-known is
Indole Acetic Acid (IAA). Highest concentration of auxins occurs in the growing tips of
stem.
Functions
- Bending reaction in plants (tropism).
- Promote cell division.
- Responsible for cell enlargement.
- Responsible for apical dominance. - Promote root development.

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Gibberellins
Mainly produced in the terminal (apical) buds of stems and roots in young leaves and
in embryos.
Functions
- Brings about elongation of internodes of stems.
- Stimulates root growth.
- Promotes development of flowers.
- Promotes the growth of lateral buds.
- Helps in the germination of seeds.
- Increases fruit size.

Abscisic acid
Growth inhibitor (counteracts the function of auxins). Plays a role in helping the plant
to cope under stressful conditions. It is produced in leaves, stems and unripe fruits.
Functions
- Brings about dormancy of seeds (slows down germination and dormancy of
apical buds) e.g. during winter.
- Induces (causes) flowering in some plants.
- Closing of stomata during periods of water shortage or drought.
- Promotes ageing of leaves.

NOTE: Both auxins and gibberellins are growth stimulators while abscisic acid is a
growth inhibitor that helps the plant to survive unfavourable conditions.

Weed control using Growth Hormone

Auxin-based selective herbicides kill only one specific unwanted plant as long as they
are used in the appropriate dosage. The weed-killers are not toxic for animals or
humans (child and pet-friendly).
Plants that are similar to weeds in terms of being broad-leaved can be unfortunately
damaged, but not necessarily killed.

TROPISM
The growth movement or bending reaction of a plant (or a part of a plant) in response
to an external stimulus. The direction of growth or bending of the plant depends on the
direction of the stimulus.
PHOTOTROPISM: Growth movement of plant organs in response to light stimulus.
Stems grow towards light (positive phototropism) while roots grow away from light
(negative phototropism).
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GEOTROPISM: Growth movement of plant organs in response to the stimulus of
gravity. Roots grow in the direction of gravity (positive geotropism) while stems grow
against gravity (negative geotropism).

Role of Auxin in Phototropism

Auxins are produced at the tip of the stem from where they move downwards EVENLY
to other parts of the plant. The even distribution of auxins brings about equal growth
on all sides of the stem. Therefore, the stem grows straight upwards
- When stems are exposed to light from one side (unilateral light),
- auxin move to the darker side because auxins are destroyed by the light.
- The brightly-lit side suffers from a shortage of auxins
- High concentration of auxins in stems promote growth
- An uneven (unequal) distribution of auxins causes uneven (unequal) growth of
the stem with the darker side growing faster. - The stem thus bends towards
the light.

Role of Auxin in Geotropism

Auxins produced at the tip of the roots move upward evenly. The even distribution of
auxins brings about equal growth in all sides of the root. Therefore, the root grows
straight downwards
- When a root is placed horizontally,
- the auxins accumulate on the lower side probably because of gravity.
- High concentration of auxins in roots inhibits growth.
- An uneven distribution of auxins causes uneven growth of the root with the
upper side growing faster
- The root thus bends downwards

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Plant defence mechanism
Plants are exposed to a variety of enemies (insects, pathogenic microorganisms and
herbivores).
Plants defend themselves by means of MECHANICAL (e.g. thorns) as well as
CHEMICAL defence mechanisms.

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TOPIC 11: EVOLUTION INTRODUCTION
Evolution – a general term that may be defined as change over time
Biological evolution – type of evolution that refers to changes that living things have
undergone over long period of time.
Changes originate in the gene pool, resulting in changes in the genotype of the
species. These changes are then passed on to the offspring. Species become
modified from one generation to another.
Biological evolution lead to formation of new species.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A HYPOTHESIS AND A THEORY

Hypothesis
- It is an informed assumption that provides an explanation of a specific
phenomenon.
- It is tested in a series of experiments or by repeated observation.
- It can be rejected or accepted, depending on the results.

Theory
- It is a well substantiated explanation supported by evidence that makes sense
of a natural phenomenon.
- It is usually tested and confirmed by independent group of researchers.
- It develops and is changed or replaced as new evidence is discovered

Evolution is considered a scientific theory, not merely a hypothesis. The theory is

based on a series of hypothesis that have been tested and verified over time.

EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION Fossil Records

FOSSIL – an organism or the remains, imprints or footprints of an organism, usually
preserved in rock.
- Fossils provide evidence of the history of extinct organisms on earth.
- They also give an indication of the climate and environment millions of years
ago.
- Fossils are studied by palaeontologists.
- Palaeontology is the study of fossils.
- The age of fossils may be determined from the age of the rock in which they
occur.

Descent with modification

The basic body plans of organisms were modified to adapt to their different
environments.
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Example: the forelimbs of various vertebrates (amphibians, reptiles, birds and
mammals) look different and perform different functions but show the same basic body
plan – pentadactyl limb.
Similar structures with the same body plan that perform different functions are known
as homologous structures.
Homologous structures provide evidence of evolution because similarities may be traced
back to a common ancestor.

Some body structures are different but perform the same function in different
organisms but did not originate from a common ancestor. These are known as
analogous structures.
There are structures that have no apparent function and appear to be residual parts
from a past ancestor. These structures are called vestigial structures. Examples of
vestigial structures include the human appendix, the pelvic bone of a snake, and the
wings of flightless birds.

Biogeography
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of existing and extinct plant and animal
species in specific geographical species.
The study proves that closely related species usually occur in the same geographical
region and this may suggest that they also share a common ancestor.
Biogeographical regions, however, may be isolated by barriers, preventing species
spreading from one region to another. This may also lead to the formation of a new
species.
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Scientists claim that flightless birds may have developed from a common ancestor.
The birds were separated geographically when Gondwanaland broke apart. The
flightless birds adapted to the changing environments
New species developed due to different mutations and selections in various
environments.

Genetics
GENETICS, the study of inheritance provides the following evidences for evolution:
- Closely related organisms have more similarities in their DNA sequences.
Scientists claim that the greater the similarities between the DNA sequences of
organisms, the more recently they developed from a common ancestor e.g.
human and chimpanzee.
- It explains the source of variation that is necessary for evolution to occur.
- It shows how changes in genotype or phenotype are transferred to successive
generations.
- It explains how the gene pools of populations can change and lead to a new
species.

THEORIES OF EVOLUTION LAMARCKISM

It is the idea that an organism can pass on characteristics that it acquired during its
lifetime to its offspring.
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1829), a French naturalist proposed his theory of
evolution in 1809 in his book Philosophie Zoologique.

Lamarck’s theory was based on two related ideas/laws:

Law of use and disuse:
- Organs become modified or adapted according to how frequently they were
used.

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 - If they were used more frequently, it became bigger, stronger or changed so
that it could work better.
- If an organ was disused (not used), it became smaller until it totally disappeared.

Law of inheritance of acquired characteristics: The changes brought about by the

frequency of use or disuse were able to be transmitted to their offspring. This results
in changes in population and the formation of new species.

Application of Lamarckism

According to Lamarck,
- giraffe ancestors had short necks.
- Over generations these short-necked giraffes stretched their necks to reach the
leaves on the top branches for food.
- The stretching caused their necks to grow stronger and longer.
- This acquired characteristics (long neck) was passed on to the next
generations.
- As a result, all modern giraffes have long necks.

Reasons for Lamarck's theory being rejected

Organisms evolved, not because they wanted to evolve, instead these changes took
place randomly, in response to the environment.
The ancestors of giraffe, heron etc. possessed the gene for long, strong necks, long
legs etc. and did not acquire the gene by stretching their necks.
The knowledge of genetics did not yet exist in Lamarck’s time, so he had no
understanding of genes and mutations.
Although he was wrong, Lamarck was the first scientist to propose that ‘something’
passed on the characteristics of the parents to the offspring.

DARWINISM
It is the theory of evolution that explains the evolution of new species through natural
selection.

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It was named after Charles Darwin (1805-1882) an English naturalist who undertook
a five-year expedition on the survey ship HMS Beagle to the southern hemisphere
from 1831-1836.
His task as naturalist was to study the geography, plants and animals of the countries
they visited. His most important observations were made on the Galapagos islands
(off the northwest coast of South America)
He published his theory of evolution in his book, On the Origin of Species by means
of Natural Selection.

Darwin’s observations
Darwin based his theory of evolution on the following four observations:
- Individuals of a population produce more offspring than required to ensure
survival of the population.
- A great deal of variation occurs within a population.
- Some individuals are better adapted to a specific environment and are more
likely to reproduce while the weaker adapted individuals will not reproduce or
may even become extinct.
- Characteristics are transferred from the surviving parents to their offspring.

Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection

- Organisms produce a large number of offspring.
- There is a great deal of variation amongst the offspring.
- Some have favourable characteristics and some do not.
- When there is a change in the environmental conditions or if there is
competition,
- then organisms with favourable characteristics, which make them more suited,
survive
- whilst organisms with unfavourable characteristics, which make them less
suited, die.
- The organisms that survive, reproduce
- and thus pass on the allele for the favourable characteristic to their offspring.
- The next generation will therefore have a higher proportion of individuals with
the favourable characteristic.
- In this way, the characteristics of a population gradually change over a long
period of time.

NOTE: The phenomenon where the ‘less fit’ die out and the better-adapted ones
survive (‘survival of the fittest’) is known as natural selection.

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Application of Darwinism

- The population of giraffe show a great deal of variation

- Some giraffes have longer necks and some have shorter necks.
- Environmental change/competition for resources/scarcity of food occurred
- causing those with shorter necks to die, since they could not reach the leaves
in the higher branches
- those with longer necks survive and reproduce, since they could reach the
leaves in the higher branches
- The allele for longer necks was then passed on to subsequent generations.
- In this way the number of giraffes with longer necks increased.

PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM
This theory was proposed relatively recently (1972) by palaeontologists Niles
Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould.
According to this theory, most species do not undergo any gradual change. This theory
explains the long periods in the fossil record where species remained unchanged.
These species were in equilibrium until sudden, rapid changes interrupted (or
punctuated) their existence.
Either they failed to adapt and became extinct or they rapidly experienced many
favourable mutations that enabled them to adapt to the new environment. These rapid
adaptations accelerated the course of evolution and lead to speciation.

Gradualism vs Punctuated equilibrium

Darwin’s theory explains a very slow, gradual change in species over time. This is
known as gradualism. This is accounted for by the presence of transitional fossils.

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Punctuated Equilibrium explains the speed at which evolution takes place:
- Evolution involves long periods of time where species do not change or change
gradually through natural selection (known as equilibrium).
- This alternates with (is punctuated by) short periods of time where rapid
changes occur through natural selection
- during which new species may form. This is accounted for by the absence of
transitional fossils.

ARTIFICIAL SELECTION (selective breeding)

Artificial selection – is the deliberate breeding of plants and animals for desired
characteristics that would not necessarily benefit the survival of the offspring. Humans
select the desired characteristics and therefore serve as the environmental trigger.

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During artificial selection a specific organism is chosen for a specific genetic trait
required by the breeder. The organism is then bred with another organism of the same
species, with the same characteristic.
Based on genetic mechanisms, more offspring will have the desirable characteristic.
The process can be repeated until all the offspring have the desired characteristic.

Breeding of different breeds of dogs:

All modern domestic dogs belong to the same species (Canis lupus familiaris). They
have the same common ancestor, i.e. the grey wolf (Canis lupus).
The large variety of modern dog breeds has been bred over hundreds of years through
the selection of different characteristics as desired by humans.

Cultivation of agricultural crops:

Farmers have cultivated various crops such as turnip, brussel sprouts, cabbage,
cauliflower, broccoli and curled cabbage from the wild mustard through the artificial
selection of certain characteristics.

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Artificial selection vs Natural selection Differences:
NATURAL SELECTION ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
The environments act as the Humans determine which traits are
selection pressure. selected.
The selected characteristics are The selected characteristics are not
advantageous for survival in the necessarily advantageous for
natural environment. survival in the natural environment.
It maintains variation. It decreases variation.

Similarities:
- Variation occurs in a particular population.
- Variation is hereditary in the population.
- The outcome is the same, i.e. the population changes over time and certain
characteristics become more frequent.

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 VARIATION
Biological species – a group of similar organisms that interbreed to produce fertile
offspring
Population – a group of organisms of the same species that live in a particular place
at a particular time with the ability to freely interbreed.
Genetic variation occurs within a species, with the result that organisms of the same
species differ in appearance. Genetic variation is essential for natural selection as the
environment selects the best adapted organisms for survival from a wide range of
genetically different individuals.

Sources of Variation
Crossing over: This involves the exchange of genetic material during Prophase I of
meiosis. It leads to the formation of gametes with different gene combination.

Random arrangement of chromosomes in metaphase I of meiosis also leads to

greater variation in the gametes.

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Mutations: the most important cause of genetic variation. A change in the sequence
or quantity of nucleotides in the DNA occurs. This leads to a change in the amino acid
sequence of the protein synthesized.

Random mating of individuals occur within a population. A variety of gene

combinations is formed. This leads to even more variation within a species.

Random fertilization: male and female gametes are genetically different from each
other because they are products of meiosis. Any sperm cell of a male can fertilize any
egg cell in a female which can lead to different gene combinations in the offspring.

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Types of Variation
Continuous Variation: There are a range of different phenotypes for a particular
characteristics.
Continuous variation is brought about by many genes working together (polygenic
inheritance) and each gene may have multiple alleles. Examples include: height, body
mass, shoe size, skin colour, hair length, finger length, heart rate, leaf length and milk
yield in cows etc.
A characteristic that illustrates continuous variation is usually represented as a line
graph or a histogram.

Discontinuous Variation: There is no range of different phenotypes for a particular

characteristics. The characteristics is either present or not. There are no in-between
characteristics as they fit into distinct categories.
Only single pair of alleles occurs in discontinuous variation.
Examples include: ABO blood groups in humans, ear lobes, tongue rolling, finger
prints, eye color, sex, dimples, number of spots on a ladybird etc.
A characteristic that illustrates discontinuous variation is usually represented as a bar
graphs.

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FORMATION OF A NEW SPECIES
SPECIES: a group of similar organisms that are able to interbreed to produce viable
offspring which are fertile.
Viable offspring are offspring that must survive and grow into mature adult. Members
of a species share a gene pool with free gene flow between populations of the same
species.
Gene pool: total number of alleles of all reproductive individuals in a particular
populations.
Gene flow: exchange of alleles between populations.
SPECIATION: an evolutionary process during which new species form.
Speciation (formation of species) increases the range of organisms on earth and thus
increases biodiversity.
Extinction (the loss of species) decreases the range of organisms on earth and thus
decreases biodiversity.

GEOGRAPHIC (ALLOPATRIC) SPECIATION

Allopatric speciation is when a new species arises from an existing species (ancestral
species), when the population is separated by geographical barrier. It is the most
common form of speciation.

Speciation through geographic isolation

- If a population of a single species
- becomes separated by a geographical barrier (continental drift, sea, river,
mountain, lake)
- then the population splits into two.
- There is now no gene flow between the two populations.
- since each population may be exposed to different environmental conditions/the
selection pressure may be different
- natural selection occurs independently in each of the two populations
- such that they become very different from each other

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 - genotypically and phenotypically.
- Even if the two populations were to mix again - they will not be able to
interbreed.
- The two populations are now different species.

Examples of speciation through geographic isolation:

- Galapagos finches (on different Galapagos islands
- Galapagos tortoises (on different Galapagos islands)
- Baobab trees (Africa, Australia and island of Madagascar)
- Proteas (South Africa, South America and Australia)

Galapagos finches
- The finches were isolated from the original population, islands are situated so
far from the mainland
- The finches multiplied and mutations occurred
- Variation in beak size occurred
- Natural selection resulted in selection of traits that enable finches to adapt to
their new conditions
- The population began to look different from population on the mainland
- Their gene pool changed over time
- Some finches flew to other parts of the island where the environment was
different.
- The finches are now isolated from each other as a result of geographical barrier
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 - Once again mutations occurred in each population.
- Natural selection followed
- The finches on the different islands developed separately and differed
genetically
- Eventually, they were unable to cross breed (no gene flow)
- Thus new species were formed resulting in a wide range of beak shapes and
sizes in different species.

1. Geospiza magnirostris – very large

sturdy beak – eats large, hard seeds.

2. Geospiza fortis – intermediate sized

beak – eats medium sized seeds.

3. Geospiza parvula – sharper,

grasping beak – eats insects.

4. Certhidea oliversea – thin probing,

sharp beak – eats smaller insects.

Galapagos tortoise
- Galapagos tortoise population becomes separated by continental drift.
- Then the population splits into two.
- There is now no gene flow between the two populations.
- Since each population may be exposed to different environmental
conditions/the selection pressure may be different
- natural selection occurs independently in each of the two populations -
such that they become very different from each other - genotypically
and phenotypically.
- Even if the two populations were to mix again - they will not be able to
interbreed.
- The two populations are now different species.

Isabella island tortoise have

domeshaped shell and shorter neck Hood island tortoise have a curved
which is better for eating close shell and longer neck for eating tall
vegetation. plants.

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MECHANISM OF REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION
These are mechanisms that prevent two different species from crossbreeding and
producing viable offspring. They help to keep species separate. These are:
Breeding at different times of the year: Different animal species mate and reproduce
at different times of the year e.g. the amphibian species Rana aurora are sexually
active from January to March and Rana boylii from March to May, preventing
crossbreeding.
Species-specific courtship behavior: some animals have very specific courtship
behaviour that do not attract individuals of other species, even if they are closely
related e.g. courtship rituals of dogs and wolves are different.
Adaptation to different pollinators/Physical incompatibility in animals:
Organisms may have structural adaptations that ensure that they are only fertilized by
their own species e.g. a flower that is pollinated by wind and is not adapted to
insectpollination cannot crossbreed with an insect-pollinated flower; incompatible sex
organs in animals.
Infertile offspring/Hybrid isolation: Sometimes two different species do crossbreed
and produce a hybrid offspring. The hybrid is often sterile (infertile) and unable to
produce offspring e.g. a mule is a sterile hybrid produced from interbreeding a horse
and a donkey.
Ecological or Habitat isolation: Organisms may live in different habitats or niches in
the same environment and use different resources. This decreases the chances of
meeting mating partners e.g. two closely related species of snakes living in different
habitat (terrestrial and aquatic) will rarely meet.

EVOLUTION IN PRESENT TIMES

Resistance to DDT insecticides in insects e.g. mosquitoes
- Mosquito population show a great deal of variation due to mutation
- Some were resistant to DDT insecticides and others were not resistant (but
sensitive)
- Those that were not resistant to DDT insecticides died
- Those that were resistant to DDT insecticides survive and reproduce -
The alleles for being resistant is then passed to the successive generation.
- The proportion of the resistant mosquitoes increases.

Resistant strains of tuberculosis-causing bacteria (MDR and XDR) to antibiotics

- Bacterial population show a great deal of variation due to mutations
- The applications of antibiotics changes the environment and acts as a selection
pressure
- The mutated resistant bacteria are selected and survive

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 - Most of non-resistant bacteria are destroyed by the antibiotics - While
resistant ones multiply
- The allele (gene) for resistance is inherited by the next generation.
- Eventually a new bacteria population develops that is resistant to a specific
antibiotic.

HIV resistance to antiretroviral medication

- Some of the viruses develop mutations that make them resistant to ARV drugs.
- This introduces variation in the population.
- The application of ARVs changes the environment and acts as a selection
pressure
- Mutant, resistant viruses are selected, survive the treatment and multiply - A
drug resistant virus population develops.

Bill (beak) and body size of Galapagos finches

- There was variation in the beak and body size of Galapagos finches
- There were larger finches with stronger beaks and smaller finches with smaller
beak size.
- After a drought, the smaller, softer seeds were fewer in number but larger
thickshelled seeds were left.
- The smaller finches with smaller beak size could not break open the larger thick-
shelled seeds and they died of hunger.
- The larger finches with stronger beaks could break open the larger thick-shelled
seeds and they survived and reproduced.
- The genes for larger birds with stronger beaks were passed on to successive
generations.
- There was an increase in larger finches with strong beaks

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TOPIC 12: HUMAN EVOLUTION The Place of Humans in Animal Kingdom

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Anatomical similarities between African apes and humans
- Opposable thumbs that allow monkeys to have a power grip, while humans
are capable of a power grip as well as a precision grip (fine motor ability).

- Two hands, each with five fingers; and two feet each with five toes.
- Long arms that rotate freely as shoulder joints allow movement in all directions.
- Naked fingertips and toes ending in flat nails.
- A reduced snout with weakened sense of smell (reduced olfactory brain
centres).
- Stereoscopic vision as the eyes face forward providing depth of field - 3D
vision.
- Eyes have cones (as well as rods) making colour vision possible.
- Brain centres that process information from hands and eyes are enlarged.
- No tail
- Sexual dimorphism where males and females are clearly distinguished -
Have molars and premolars with rounded cusps.

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EVIDENCE OF COMMON ANCESTORS FOR LIVING HOMINIDS (including
humans)
The evolutionary theory does not state that humans evolved from the chimpanzee or
the gorilla, but it proposes that they share a common ancestor. Scientists are
searching for a common ancestor of all living hominids.
The big question scientists have to answer is whether the common ancestor was
apelike or human-like. There are three main lines of evidence that indicate hominids
may have shared a common ancestor:
- Fossil evidence
- Genetic evidence
- Cultural evidence

FOSSIL EVIDENCE
Palaeontologists study fossils to provide more information on the structure, movement,
lifestyle and environment of a particular species. Certain features of hominid fossils
indicate how changes occurred over time.
Hominid fossils are rarely complete and consist mainly of fragments. Most hominid
fossils are teeth, jaw bones or skull fragments. The remains of feet, hands, pelvic
bones or vertebral columns are scarce. Long bones e.g. femurs are more commonly
found.
In the search for a common ancestor for hominids, palaeontologists look particularly
at the following features of hominid fossils:
- Bipedalism
- brain size
- dentition (teeth)

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 - prognathism (protruding jaws)
- palate shape
- cranial and brow ridges

Bipedalism
The greatest observable difference between apes and humans lies in the difference in
posture and method of locomotion.
Apes are four-footed (quadrupedal) with gorillas and chimpanzees demonstrating a
particular manner of walking, i.e. knuckle-walking. Humans, however, are bipedal and
walk upright.

Advantages of bipedalism
1. Hands are free to use tools, prepare food, carry young, hunt or fight.
2. Vision extends further over the tall grass of the savannah to find food or avoid
predators.
3. Upright bodies expose a smaller surface area to the sun which reduces risk of
overheating while hunting, foraging or escaping predators.
4. Upright bodies expose a larger surface area to air currents which causes
cooling and reduces dependency on water.
5. Adaptability to occupy a wider range of habitats.

For early hominids to become bipedal and walk upright, their skeletons had to change
quite considerably.
Position of foramen magnum:
- In bipedal humans, the foramen magnum is positioned centrally at the bottom
of the skull.

- In quadrupedal apes the head is positioned in front of the vertebral column with
the foramen magnum at the back of the skull.

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Vertebral column:
- The human vertebral column is S-shaped for flexibility and shock absorption. -
The vertebral column of apes is C-shaped.

Other criteria:
- Humans have shorter arms and longer legs, while apes have shorter legs and
longer arms.
- In humans the knee-joints have become larger and stronger to support greater
body weight.
- The human big toe is parallel with the other toes and helps to maintain balance.
Apes have opposable big toes with a grasping action for climbing and moving
in trees.
- A foot arch developed in humans, whereas an ape’s foot is flat.

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 - The human pelvic girdle has become larger, shorter and wider to support the
greater weight due to the upright posture. The pelvic girdles of apes are long
and narrow.

Brain size
Hominid fossils indicate that the size of the cranium increased in most fossils over
time. We may conclude that, in general, the size of the brain (brain capacity) increased
over time.
The cranium of apes is small and elongated and contains a small, less developed
brain. Chimpanzee brains have an average size of approximately 395 cm 3.

Humans have a more rounded skull with an enlarged cranium which contains a large,
highly developed brain. The average size of the human brain is approximately 1 400
cm3. The more complex human brain gave rise to:

- Well-developed hand-eye coordination (to make and use

tools) - The capacity for language - The use of fire.

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Dentition (teeth)
Apes have large prominent canines that are larger than other teeth. In apes, there is
a large gap (diastema) between the incisors and the canines. It provides space for
the protruding canines on the opposite jaw so that the mouth can close.
The human canines are the same size as the other teeth. The diastema disappeared
completely over time.

Palate shape
The palate in apes is narrow and rectangular and became more U-shaped over time
in early hominins (Australopithecus).
In humans the palate became wider and more curved. The curved palate of modern
humans aided the development of speech.

Prognathism
Apes have large, protruding jaws (snout or muzzle) without a chin. Their jaws protrude
beyond the upper part of the face, which results in a sloping face.
Humans have a narrow, flat face with rounded jaws and a protruding chin.

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Cranial and brow ridges
Apes have prominent cranial and brow ridges for attachment of well-developed
chewing muscles. As evolution progressed over time, both cranial and brow ridges
decreased in size.
Cranial ridges began to disappear in early hominins, but brow ridges were still well
developed. Cranial and brow ridges are completely reduced in humans.

GENETIC EVIDENCE Chromosomal DNA

Although every person is unique, 99,9% of all human DNA is identical, with only a
small variation in 0,1%. This small genetic variation between people also serves as
evidence of the close relationship between all humans.
Humans and apes share 96 - 98% of the same DNA. 98% of human DNA corresponds
with chimpanzee DNA, which makes them the closest related hominid to humans.

Mitochondrial DNA
By comparing the mtDNA of living hominids, scientists can attempt to determine when
the evolutionary paths of humans and African apes separated.
If there are many differences, the separation occurred earlier. This means there was
more time for mutations to occur so there is more variation. If there are fewer
differences, the separation occurred more recently. There was thus less time for
mutations to occur and there is less variation.
In this way, scientists determined that a common ancestor for all living hominids may
have existed 15 mya and that the evolutionary paths of humans and chimpanzees
separated about 6 mya.

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CULTURAL EVIDENCE
This section focuses on the range of tools found in fossil sites.

MAJOR PHASES IN THE HOMINID EVOLUTION (from 6 mya to present)

ARDIPITHECUS
- Ardipithecus ramidus was an early hominin that lived approximately 5,8 - 4,4
million years ago.
- About 17 Ardipithecus fossils were found in the Afar valley of Ethiopia in 1993.
- These beings show ape-like as well as australopithecine characteristics,
indicating that Ardipithecus could be a transitional form between the apes and
Australopithecus.

General characteristics of Ardipithecus

- Probably bipedal.
- Foramen magnum positioned centrally below skull, but more to the front than in
apes.
- Pelvis is wider at the top, and narrow and long at the bottom as in apes.
- Long arms (almost as long as the legs) for climbing trees.

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 - Opposable, grasping big toe.
- Small brain capacity of approximately 300 - 350 cm3.
- Ape-like teeth, but smaller canines and molars; a diastema is present.
- Protruding jaw (snout/muzzle) without a chin.
- Sloped face.
- Palate is narrow and rectangular.
- Small brow ridges.

AUSTRALOPITHECUS
Australopithecines are regarded as the first bipedal primates.
- They have both ape-like and human-like characteristics and they are
sometimes called ape-men.
- The genus name Australopithecus literally means 'southern ape’. -
Individuals belonging to this genus are called australopithecines.
- Australopithecus fossils were found mainly in Eastern and Southern Africa.
- The 3,8 million years old footprints discovered in Laetoli, Tanzania are one of
the oldest fossils indicating evidence of bipedalism of Australopithecus.
- Various Australopithecus fossils of different species have already been found
in Africa.

The following five well-known australopithecines are discussed:

- Taung child
- Mrs Ples
- Lucy
- Little Foot
- Australopithecus sediba

General characteristics of Australopithecus

- Bipedalism and upright walking.
- Foramen magnum is positioned centrally below the skull.
- Pelvis is short and wide.
- Long arms for tree climbing.
- Fingers long and curved; non-opposable big toe.
- Brain capacity larger than that of the apes, approximately 380 - 500 cm3.
- Teeth more human-like; smaller canines than apes, but larger than humans;
small diastema.
- Protruding jaw without a chin.
- Sloping face (less sloping than in apes).
- U-shaped palate.
- Large brow ridges.
*Although australopithecines were bipedal, they also climbed trees.

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Taung child (Australopithecus africanus)
In 1924 the fossil skull of a hominin was found by Professor Raymond Dart at Taung,
northwest of Kimberley.
It was the skull of a child of about 3 - 4 years old.
The skull had human as well as ape-like characteristics:
- A small brain capacity (340 cm3) similar to apes
- Human-like teeth
- Foramen magnum in a more central position, indicating bipedalism
The Taung skull is classified under Australopithecus africanus, who lived about 3 - 2
million years ago.

Mrs Ples (Australopithecus africanus)

In 1947 a complete adult skull and various bones were found by Dr Robert Broom in
the Sterkfontein Caves in South Africa.
This skull was about 2 - 3 million years old and was also classified as Australopithecus
africanus. The brain capacity is estimated to be similar to that of a chimpanzee.
From the position of the foramen magnum it could be deduced that Mrs Ples was
bipedal and walked upright.
The jaws indicated that there were no protruding canines, and the dentition indicated
a diet of mainly plant material with little meat.

Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis)

Lucy is a fossilised female skeleton found by Donald Johanson at Hadar in the Afar
valley, Ethiopia in 1974.
The skeleton dates back 3,5 million years. The shape of the pelvis indicated that Lucy
was female. The skeleton was about 1 m long and showed evidence of bipedalism.
The face had ape-like characteristics, i.e. a low forehead, flat nose, protruding lower
jaw and large canines. The arms were long and the legs short. The brain capacity of
400 cm3 was similar to that of apes.

Little foot (Australopithecus species)

In 1994 the ankle and foot bones of an australopithecine fossil was discovered in the
Sterkfontein Caves by the palaeoanthropologist Dr Ron Clarke. The fossil was named
Little Foot. The rest of the skeleton was found in 1997. The excavation of the complete
skeleton was done in 2017.

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It has already been determined that Little Foot was bipedal because of the position of
the foramen magnum. The arms are short, and the bones of the hand are very
similar to those of the modern human, with short palms and fingers.
The species to which Little Foot belongs will only be determined when the entire
skeleton has been removed.

Australopithecus sediba (2 - 1,7 mya)

In 2008 two fossils, those of a young woman and boy, were discovered in the Cradle
of Humankind in the Malapa area by Professor Lee Berger and his 9-year-old son,
Matthew.
Australopithecus sediba is considered a transitional fossil between the older
Australopithecus africanus and the first Homo species, and possibly gave rise to the
origin of modern humans.
Australopithecus sediba has a small brain and large brow ridges in comparison to
modern humans, but the shape indicates a more advanced brain than that of other
australopithecines.
Early australopithecines were able to walk upright but could not run fast or walk for
long distances.
Similarly, Australopithecus sediba had long arms and short hands adapted for tree
climbing, while the pelvis was similar to that of early Homo species and adapted for
walking long distances.

Homo habilis
Homo habilis lived in Africa, together with other Australopithecus species, about 2,2 -
1,6 million years ago. Australopithecus africanus probably gave rise to Homo habilis.
In 1960 a Homo habilis fossil was discovered in Tanzania. The body of Homo habilis
was smaller than that of Australopithecus and it was ape-like.
They also had a larger brain (640 cm3) than Australopithecus, which meant they had
better skills in using their hands to make tools. Homo habilis was the first group that
used stone tools.
The name Homo habilis literally means 'handy man'.

Homo erectus
Homo erectus is a species that is closer to modern humans than to Australopithecus.
Homo erectus literally means 'upright man' and they lived 1,8 - 0,3 million years ago.
They were probably the first hominins to migrate from Africa to Europe and Asia.

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The most complete Homo erectus fossil is 1,5 million years old and was found near
Lake Turkana in Kenya. It is known as the Turkana boy. Other well-known Homo
erectus fossils that have been found include the Peking man, discovered in China (400
000 years old), and the Java man fossil skull (700 000 years old) found in Java,
Indonesia.
Their brain capacity was about 1 000 cm3.

Homo erectus made and used stone and bone tools. They were successful hunters
and the first species that learnt to use fire.

Homo neanderthalensis
The Neanderthals were a group of people that lived between approximately 230 000
and 30 000 years ago in Europe and Western Asia. The first fossil was discovered in
1856 in the Neander Valley in Germany.
Their skulls were long and flat, with a low forehead, broad nose and a prominent brow
ridge above the eyes.
Although their brains were larger than Homo sapiens, language was not well
developed, and their technological development was limited.
They were hunters, wore clothes made from animal skins, built shelters in caves and
used fire. They buried their dead, which is an indication of some form of 'spiritual life'
or advanced culture.

Homo sapiens
This group is considered to be the direct ancestors of modern humans. Presumably,
Homo sapiens appeared about 200 000 years ago.
It is claimed that the appearance of Homo sapiens resulted in the disappearance of
the Neanderthals. Homo sapiens developed better skills and had more advanced
technology. Therefore, modern humans are not directly related to Homo
neanderthalensis.
Homo sapiens used tools made from bone as well as stone, which included spears,
arrows, bows and hooks for fishing. Their clothes were made mainly from leather and
plant material. They lived in tents and formed communities. As hunters they followed
the annual animal migrations in the summer. They developed agriculture and
cultivated the land. They wore jewellery and decorated their bodies with paint. They
developed rituals that were linked to hunting, births and deaths.
Like the Neanderthals, they buried their dead which indicates a development of
advanced culture and spiritual rituals.
Sometimes modern humans are referred to as Homo sapiens sapiens, a subspecies
of Homo sapiens. Due to a large brain capacity of about 1 400 cm3, modern humans

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have the ability to change their environment to suit their needs, unlike early Homo
species who could not change their environments and therefore became extinct.
Today, modern humans are on the brink of the sixth extinction as a result of their own
destructive impact on the environment.

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OUT OF AFRICA HYPOTHESIS
According to the 'Out of Africa' hypothesis, Homo sapiens originated in Africa about
200 000 years ago and migrated relatively recently (50 000 mya) to the rest of the
world.
The 'Out of Africa' hypothesis is also called the 'Replacement' hypothesis.

EVIDENCE OF AFRICAN ORIGINS FOR ALL MODERN HUMANS Fossil evidence

According to most scientists, humans originated from Africa and moved to other
countries. Homo erectus was one of the earliest hominins in Africa. They were the
first Homo species to leave Africa about 1,8 mya and became established in Europe,
Asia and Indonesia.
Oldest hominid fossils:
- Ardipithecus fossils were found in Africa only.
- Australopithecus fossils were found in Africa only, including Karabo, Littlefoot,
Taung Child, Mrs Ples.
- Fossils of Homo habilis were found in Africa only; oldest fossils of Homo erectus
were found in Africa, while the younger fossils were found in other parts of the
world.

Genetic evidence
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA):
Normally mtDNA is only transferred from a mother to her offspring. Scientists compare
the mtDNA of different populations with each other to determine the extent of genetic
variation in a population. The group that shows the most variation, has the most
mutations. This group had the most time for mutations to occur and therefore it is the
oldest.
Studies have shown that the highest levels of genetic variation occur in human
populations in Africa. It is concluded that people from Africa are the oldest humans.

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This genetic evidence, combined with fossil evidence, show that modern humans
originated in Africa about 200 000 - 100 000 years ago (Mitochondrial Eve).

Y – chromosome DNA:
The DNA on the Y chromosome is only carried by males and can only be inherited
from their fathers. The small Y chromosome undergoes no crossing over and
exchange of genetic material during gamete formation (meiosis). Therefore, the Y
chromosome remains largely unchanged over generations.
Men sharing a common male ancestor will have essentially the same Y-DNA, even if
the male ancestor lived many generations ago.
Thus, male ancestral descent can be traced back to a male ancestor in Africa.

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 MAJOR PHASES IN THE HOMINID EVOLUTION

Ardipithecus ramidus

Taung child Mrs Ples

Lucy

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 Little foot

A. Sediba Homo habilis Homo erectus

Homo neanderthalensis Homo sapiens

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