UNIT 12

PALAEOMAGNETISM

Structure____________________________________________________________________
12.1 Introduction 12.6 Polar Wandering
Expected Learning Outcomes Apparent Polar Wandering

12.2 Palaeomagnetism True Polar Wandering

Magnetic Behaviour of the Earth 12.7 Geomagnetic Polarity

Orientation of the Magnetic Field 12.8 Geomagnetic Time Scale
Geomagnetic Coordinates 12.9 Continental Reconstruction based on
Palaeomagnetism
12.3 Why there is Magnetism in the Earth?
12.10 Activity
12.4 Rock Magnetism
12.11 Summary
Natural Remanent Magnetisation
12.12 Terminal Questions
Preservation of Natural Remanent
Magnetisation 12.13 References
Instruments used for Measuring 12.14 Further/Suggested Readings
Magnetisms
12.15 Answers
12.5 Past and Present Geomagnetic Fields

12.1 INTRODUCTION
In earlier studies in geology, you have learned to use the clinometers compass, which is needed to
find dip and strike. So, you are well aware of the power of a compass, which always guides us
when we want to find directions at any place on the Earth. But, where from this power comes in a
compass needle? You know it well that it is the magic of a magnet and the magnetic power of the
Earth. You are also aware that Wegener's continental drift hypothesis is a revolutionary scientific
theory in the Earth sciences. It states that continents displaced horizontally. In other words, it
means that the Earth is not a static or inactive planet, but is quite dynamic and its continents do
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shift from one place to others and left evidence of their movements in the form
of natural remanent magnetism preserved in the marine basaltic rocks of ridges
and rocks formed by surface volcanic eruptions. A study of magnetic characters
of the rocks is known as palaeomagnetism.
In science classes of your school days, you have learned about the magnet and
magnetic fields. The Earth has its own magnetic field. Palaeomagnetism,
primarily concerns with the ancient magnetic field of Earth and this study
provided unquestionable support to the theory of drift of the continents and
concept of sea-floor spreading. In this unit, we will discuss Earth’s magnetism
(i.e. geomagnetism) and its properties, rock magnetism and geomagnetic fields.
We will also discuss the utilities of palaeomagnetism in the geological studies.

Expected Learning
Outcomes________________________
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 define palaeomagnetism;
 describe magnetism of the Earth;
 discuss variations of magnetic properties of Earth in the geological past;
 write about the role of palaeomagnetism in developing theory of plate
tectonics; and
 explain utility of palaeomagnetism in reconstructing geological history.

12.2 PALAEOMAGNETISM
The definition of palaeomagnetism encompasses following two aspects:
Palaeomagnetism is the fossil magnetism that is retained in certain rocks.
Palaeomagnetism is also the science which deals with the study of natural
remanent magnetism of the geological past, which is preserved in the rocks.
Thus, the above definitions clarify that the term palaeomagnetism refers not
only to a phenomenon (i.e. magnetism of the past), but it also refers to a branch
of science. Palaeomagnetic studies help us to determine the direction and
intensity of the magnetic poles of the Earth during the time of the formation of
the rocks containing natural remanent magnetism (Wicander and Monroe,
2010). In the studies of palaeomagnetism, Earth’s magnetic field history in the
geological time is undertaken and the orientation of magnetic field preserved in
the rocks is measured to compare with the orientation of the present field.
12.2.1 Magnetic Behaviour of the Earth
We all know well that there is magnetism present in the Earth. As a geology
student, you know very well that the magnetic needle of a clinometer compass
always aligns itself in rest with north-south direction. This property of a
compass has been exploited by navigators for centuries. You are well aware
that there are some magnetic properties in the Earth because of which the
magnet needle of a compass always rests in north-south direction. In your
school days, you might have experimented the magnetic field lines around a
bar magnet. Scientists daily record the magnetic behaviour and the magnetic
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field of Earth. Earth behaves more or less like a giant bar magnet and therefore,
the magnetic field of the Earth is often described as being approximately dipolar
(meaning two unlike magnetic poles such as north and south poles) as shown
in Fig.12.1.

Fig. 12.1: The present day axial-dipolar behaviour of the Earth's magnetic field,
with field lines emanating from near the south geographic pole and
converging near the north geographic pole. (Source: https://qph.fs.
quoracdn.net/main)

A compass is constructed, of course, such that its magnetic needle is free to

rotate in the horizontal plane. But, if we were to permit the compass needle
to have full directional freedom, suspending the needle (say) from a thread
so that it could freely get its orientation both horizontally and vertically, we
would find that the alignment of the needle would vary continuously from one
point in space to another (Fig. 12.2). Furthermore, if we were to measure the
force on the magnetic needle causing it to assume its preferred alignment,
we would find that the strength of this force, proportional to the intensity of
the magnetic field, also varies continuously with position in space.

Fig. 12.2: The Earth has poles of magnetism, which are actually different from the
geographical poles. The freely suspended magnetic needle will be
o
vertical (inclination = 90 ) at the magnetic poles and horizontal
o
(inclination = 0 ) at magnetic equator. (Source: http://www.rci.rutgers.edu)
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12.2.2 Orientation of the Magnetic Field
The magnetic field of the Earth is described as dipolar, with field lines
emanating from the south geomagnetic pole and converging at the north
geomagnetic pole, as depicted in Fig. 12.1. Although this description is useful
for many purposes, it is not accurate. The magnetic axial line (obtained by
joining magnetic pole with center of the Earth) of the Earth and the Earth’s spin
axis (obtained by joining geographic pole and Earth’s center) are not same or
parallel, but they have an angular relationship of approximately 11.5o (Fig.
12.2). Moreover, there are additional, non-dipolar ingredients in the
geomagnetic field, all of which, when added together, are the total surficial field
in all of its complex detail. Because of this complexity, not only does the
direction of the compass needle deviate from true north, the amount of the
deviation is called as the declination varies as a function of geographic
location. At the north located geomagnetic pole, our freely moving magnetic
needle would point down towards center of the Earth (Fig. 12.2), whilst at the
south geomagnetic pole, the needle would point up. For these reasons, the
geomagnetic poles are sometimes referred to as dip poles. With the help of
these two magnetic poles, the Earth as a sphere can be imagined having many
latitudes and longitudes in the same way as we have the geographic ones. You
may notice that if the freely suspended magnetic needle is allowed to travel
from north to south, one end of the needle (say N marked) would be vertically
pointed downward at north pole, but the same would pointing upwards at south
magnetic pole (Fig. 12.2). It will have different inclination which changes
gradually from one pole to the other, somewhere in the middle of its journey it
will be completely rest as horizontal. Here is the inclination of the magnetic
needle (magnetic dip) is zero. All the places on the globe, where the magnetic
dip is zero, can be called as magnetic equator (Fig. 12.2). All points on the
globe having same inclination (which may vary between 0° to 90°) form the
magnetic latitudes.
Let us know more about some common terms about magnetism of the Earth
Magnetic declination or variation is the angle on the horizontal plane
between magnetic north (the direction in which the north end of a compass
needle points, corresponding to the direction of the Earth's magnetic field
lines) and true north (the direction along a meridian towards the geographic
North Pole, Fig. 12.3). In other words, declination of a magnetic field is
defined as the angle between the horizontal component of the field vector
and the magnetic north. The declination is considered positive when the
magnetic north is east of true north.
Magnetic dip, dip angle or magnetic inclination is the angle made with
the horizontal by the Earth's magnetic field lines (or field vector) as shown in
Fig. 12.3. This angle varies at different points on the Earth's surface. The
dip angle is in principle the angle made by the needle of a vertically held
compass (though in practice ordinary compass needles may be weighted
against dip or may be unable to move freely in the correct plane). The value
can be measured more reliably with a special instrument, typically known as
a dip circle.

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Fig. 12.3: Diagram showing concepts of magnetic inclination (I) and declination
(D).

In the northern hemisphere, the N (north) marked end of the compass needle
will point downwards, this is positive dip by convention, while the same needle
will point upward in the southern hemisphere and it is negative. Remember that
north end of the magnetic needle is always attracted towards southern end of
another bar magnet (say Earth’s bar magnet, Fig. 12.1) and vice-versa. The
range of magnetic dip is therefore from – 90° (at a magnetic pole in the
southern hemisphere) to + 90° (at a magnetic pole in the northern hemisphere).
12.2.3 Geomagnetic Coordinates
Like geographic coordinates, the geomagnetic coordinates also refer to
magnetic latitudes and longitudes. The geomagnetic coordinates are:
Magnetic latitudes: They are also known as isoclinic lines and represent a
locus of those points on the Earth’s surface where magnetic dip is the same.
The Earth’s magnetic field is primarily dipolar, meaning thereby that it has two
poles (like the geographic poles), normally referred to as north magnetic pole
and south magnetic pole. It is important to note that the magnetic poles are not
the same as the geographic poles. As stated earlier, the axis formed by joining
of magnetic N and S poles (i.e. Earth’s magnetic axis) makes an angle of 11.5 o
with Earth’s spinning axis (Fig. 12.2).
Magnetic equator: It is also known as aclinic line and represents locus of the
points having zero dip on the Earth’s surface (Fig. 12.2).
Magnetic longitudes: They are also known as magnetic meridians and like
the geographic longitudes they are the imaginary lines, which run over the
Earth’s surface in magnetic N-S direction to reach to the magnetic poles. The
magnetic longitudes may have azimuthal (directional) values between 0 to 360°
to cover the entire globe. However, it should be noted that the geomagnetic
poles are not antipodal (meaning that the lines joined by the center of the Earth
and the two magnetic poles do not form a perfect straight line) and this is an
asymmetry that is just another measure of the field's geometric complexity.

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Thus, we should not expect geographic latitude and longitude of a magnetic
pole in the northern hemisphere as it may not have same values for opposite
magnetic pole in the southern hemisphere.
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ) 1
a) Distinguish between magnetic inclination and declination.
b) Define palaeomagnetism
c) What is magnetic equator?

12.3 WHY THERE IS MAGNETISM IN THE EARTH?

In earlier sections under this unit, we have learned that the Earth behaves as a
bar magnet. If that is so, is there a giant bar magnet present or placed inside
the Earth? Certainly not! Then why magnetism is found in the Earth? Let us try
to find an answer for this.
The Earth’s interior is invisible as well as complicated and through indirect
means, we know that interior is broadly consists of three layers namely, crust,
mantle and core. The inner parts are composed of a solid-iron inner core, a
liquid-iron outer core, and an electrically-insulating, rocky over-lying mantle.
The geomagnetic field is believed to originate from a dynamic process involving
the convective circulation of electrical charges in the fluid outer core (Fig. 12.4).
These electrical charges get their energy for circulation from the convection
driven by chemical differentiation and the heat of internal radioactivity. The core
is, therefore, like a naturally occurring electric generator, where kinetic energy
is converted into electrical-magnetic energy. This process is commonly known
as magnetohydrodynamics. The Earth, therefore, behaves like a dynamo,
which is self-sustaining.
Physicists tell us that if you curl the fingers of your right hand in the direction of
the current, your thumb points in the direction of the magnetic north pole (Fig.
12.4). This rule is known as the right-hand rule. Depending on the geometrical
relationship between the electrically charged fluid flow in the outer core and the
magnetic field, the north and south magnetic poles of the Earth are decided.
We must also note that if there is a change in patterns of the flow inside the
core in the history of the Earth, the locations of the magnetic poles are also
liable to change over the Earth, and can reverse even. Although, the magnetic
field at the Earth's surface is predominantly an axial dipole, the actual magnetic
field is more complicated. Yet, it is convenient to retain the dipole model for
simplicity because this allows simple calculations that can be made to predict
the geomagnetic field at any point on the Earth.

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(a) (b)

Fig. 12.4: Earth’s magnetism: a) The right-hand rule says that if you curl the
fingers of your right hand in the direction of the current, your thumb
points in the direction of the magnetic north pole; and b) Circulation
patterns of electrically charged particles in different cork-screws
determine the magnetic field and poles over the Earth. (source: http:
//polarpedia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Earth)

12.4 ROCK MAGNETISM

We know that rocks are the aggregates of minerals and the constituting
minerals of the rocks may have different natural properties. There are some like
those of iron minerals, which are susceptible to magnetism (hence known as
magnetic minerals). And, because of their (iron minerals) presence, the rocks
also exhibit some magnetism. The study of magnetic properties of rocks is
known as rock magnetism. Some of these rocks and minerals are capable of
even preserving the magnetism like fossils.
Before learning more about the rock magnetism it is important for you to know
the concepts of paramagnetic and ferromagnetic minerals. Some minerals have
special electronic configuration of their constituting atoms because of which
they are capable to act as small magnets (or dipoles). Such minerals are
referred to as paramagnetic materials. When a paramagnetic substance is
placed in a weak external magnetic field, such as Earth’s field, the atomic
dipoles rotate so as to become parallel to the external field direction. This
magnetisation from the substance is lost as soon it is removed from the
external magnetic field because now the dipoles return back to their original
orientations. Ferromagnetic materials like iron and nickel contain large
number of unpaired electrons and they may retain magnetisation even after the
removal of the external magnetic field (Kearey and others, 2009). Remember
that the magnetisation remains preserved only if the material has not crossed a
critical temperature known as ‘Curie temperature’ (temperature above that
magnetisation is lost).
12.4.1 Natural Remanent Magnetisation
There are two types of magnetic behaviour shown by the rocks when kept
under external magnetic forces such as those of the Earth. Their magnetic
behaviour may be temporary or permanent. Let us know more about the two
types of magnetisation in rocks.
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Induced Magnetisation: In this type of magnetisation, if any material is
placed under the applied magnetic field, the material will get magnetisation.
But its magnetisation disappears after removal of that field because the
dipoles of the material return back to their original orientations.
Paramagnetic substances show this type of magnetisation because of their
special electronic configurations as discussed above.
Permanent or Remanent magnetisation: The ferromagnetic minerals get
magnetised under some external magnetic forces. But when somehow the
external magnetic field is removed the preferred magnetic directionality of
the material is still retained or preserved in the minerals because of its
ferromagnetic behaviour as discussed above. This retained magnetisation is
known as remanent magnetisation or permanent magnetisation. When this
remanent magnetisation denotes preservation of naturally (not
experimentally) occurring phenomena such as Earth’s magnetism, it is
known as Natural Remanent Magnetisation (NRM). This natural remanent
magnetisation is actually that fossil magnetism about which we were
referring above in the beginning of this unit.
The rocks and minerals on the Earth that preserve the record of the past
directions of magnetic field of the Earth are very useful in palaeomagnetism
(Kearey and others, 2009). Palaeomagnetic techniques make use of those
phenomena by virtue of which certain paramagnetic and ferromagnetic minerals
retain the records of the past directions of the Earth’s magnetic field preserved
in the ancient rocks.
12.4.1 Preservation of Natural Remanent Magnetisation
The rocks can gain NRM in several ways during their formation or by later
processes. Therefore, the NRM may be broadly divided into two categories as
listed below:
Primary NRM: It is acquired by the rock at the same time as the formation
of the rock itself;
Secondary NRM: It is acquired later after the formation of the rock.
Let us discuss various types of NRM occurring in a variety of rocks.
Primary NRM in igneous rocks: The igneous rocks are formed by cooling of
magma from the molten condition. As magma cools down, a set of mineral
starts solidifying from the melt gradually and finally, the whole rock becomes a
solid igneous rock. At this stage, its ferromagnetic minerals such as magnetite,
hornblende etc. pick up the prevailing magnetism and that is retained during its
subsequent history. This type of primary remanence of igneous rocks is known
as Thermo-Remanent Magnetisation (TRM).
Primary NRM in Sedimentary rocks: The sedimentary rocks are formed in a
variety of ways, which might be clastic or non-clastic. The primary remanence
in the clastic sedimentary rocks is known as Detrital Remanent Magnetisation
(DRM). As the sedimentary particles settle though the water column, the
ferromagnetic minerals align themselves in the direction of then occurring
geomagnetic field.

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Secondary NRM: The secondary magnetisation in the rocks may be of the
following types:
 Chemical Remanent Magnetisation (CRM): After the formation of rocks
sometimes if it is subjected to ferromagnetic minerals formation by chemical
reactions, the newly formed ferromagnetic minerals get magnetised
according to the then prevalent geomagnetic fields at the time of these
chemical reactions. Therefore, this type of magnetisation is called Chemical
Remanent Magnetisation.
 Isothermal Remanent Magnetisation (IRM): This type of magnetisation
occurs when the rock is subjected to local, but strong magnetic fields due to
sudden and external reasons such as striking of lightning.
 Viscous Remanent Magnetisation (VRM): It may develop when a rock
remains in a relatively weak magnetic field over a long period of time. Its
ferromagnetic minerals may acquire the external magnetic field direction.
12.4.3 Instruments used for Measuring Magnetism
The instrument which is used for measuring the magnetic field is known as
Magnetometer. Magnetometer can be used not only for detection of the
magnetisation of a material. It can also be used to measure the direction,
strength or relative change of magnetic field at a particular location. A compass
is a simple type of magnetometer, which is commonly used to measure the
direction of an ambient magnetic field. The first magnetometer was developed
by C.F. Gauss in 1833, which was capable of measuring the absolute magnetic
intensity. Magnetometers can be used at a fixed location or ported and
mounted over aircraft, ship or bikes as per requirements of the magnetic
surveys (Fig. 12.5).

(a) (b)
Fig. 12.5: Photographs showing the use of magnetometer; (a) On land and (b) On
water. (Source: http://www.aegis-instruments.com; http://2.bp.blogspot.com)

SAQ 2
a) Distinguish between Primary and secondary NRMs
b) Name the instrument which is used for geomagnetic surveys
c) What is the chief cause of geomagnetism?

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12.5 THE PAST AND PRESENT GEOMAGNETIC

FIELD
We can compute the location of the present day geomagnetic poles with the
help of magnetic data measurements such as those of intensity, azimuth (i.e.
direction in horizontal plane) and inclination by assuming the axial geocentric
dipole model for the geomagnetic field. However, the aim in palaeomagnetic
studies is to find out whether the location of geomagnetic poles has remained
the same throughout the geological history, and if not, what were the locations
of the geomagnetic poles in different geological time intervals? The
palaeomagnetic studies carried out so far have revealed that the locations of
these poles have been changing in the geological past. The geomagnetic field
undergoes progressive changes with time, resulting from variations in the
convective circulation patterns in core, known as secular variation. It has been
observed that the direction of the magnetic field at a particular geographic
location rotates irregularly about a dipolar axis in a period of few thousand
years. In palaeomagnetic studies therefore, the secular variation needs also to
be corrected.
With the help of magnetometers, palaeomagnetic measurements provide the
intensity, azimuth and inclination of the primary remanent magnetisation, which
reflects the geomagnetic parameters at the time and place at which the rock
was formed.
The inclination (I) can be used to determine the palaeolatitude ( ) using the
formula:
tan = ½ tanI
It may be noted that it is not so simple to recognise the palaeolongitude with the
help of the magnetometer data only. With knowledge of the palaeolatitudes and
the azimuth of the primary remanent magnetisation, the apparent location of the
palaeopole can be computed. For assigning the location of palaeopoles at a
particular time in the geological history, the rock sample needs to be dated to
determine its age. The age of rock can be determined by radiometric or
biostratigraphic or combined methods. Palaeomagnetic analyses of samples of
a wide age range can then be used to trace how the apparent pole position has
moved over the Earth’s surface in the geological past.
If a palaeomagnetic study provides a magnetic pole position different from the
present pole, it may imply any of the three conditions described below:
(a) the geomagnetic pole has moved throughout the geological time, in other
words the poles have been wandering;
(b) the poles were stationary, but the sample site has moved, in other words
continents have been drifted; and
(c) both the phenomena (i.e. polar wandering and continental drift) have
occurred in the geological past.
The studies also point out another significant observation that a large amount of
the studied sample gave a reverse sense of magnetisation- that is to say where
you expect the north magnetic pole, the inclination pattern indicated for

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presence of south magnet pole in that region. This phenomenon has been
called as polarity reversal.

12.6 POLAR WANDERING

In the previous section, you have been introduced to the fact that not only the
magnetic poles have been shifting their positions from the geographical ones,
but the north and south magnetic poles have also interchanged their respective
positions in the geological past. These phenomena are indicative of polar
wandering and polarity reversals, respectively.
12.6.1 Apparent Polar Wandering
Apparent Polar Wandering (APW) is the way of presenting magnetic pole
location by considering that the continent remained at a fixed position and then
plots represent the apparent position of the magnetic poles in different
geological times (Fig. 12.6a). This representation does not reflect real events,
but facilitates the display of information from different regions on the same
diagram. The palaeomagnetic studies showed that the APW paths were
different for different continents. Thus, the APW not only confirmed that the
continental drift has actually occurred, but it also provided a tool to measure the
drift quantitatively. APW paths have been used to interpret motions, collision
and disruption of continents. APW are especially useful for the study of pre-
Mesozoic continents such as Pangaea.

(a) (b)

Fig. 12.6: Shematic diagrams showing polar wandering: a) Plotting of south pole
apprent polar wandering (APW) paths assuming a fixed continent
position from Cambrian time (1) to present-day (7); and b) True polar
wandering paths (TPW) from 200 to 10 million years ago. Note that
motion of the geographic pole with respect to the magnetic pole.
(Source: simplified after Kearey and Vine, 1996)

12.6.2 True Polar Wandering

The tracking of actual or true polar wandering utilises a motion of the plates
with respect to magnetic north pole and the spin axis or the Earth. The other is
with respect to the hotspots that are considered near stationary in the mantle,
so their trajectories provide a record of the motions of plates with respect to
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mantle. The logical combination of these two methods can be used to test if
there has been any relative movement between the mantle and the spin axis.
This will provide the true deviation in the position of magnetic poles and their
path has been called as True Polar Wandering (TPW) as shown in Fig. 12.6b.

12.7 GEOMAGNETIC POLARITY

We know very well the behaviour of the bar magnets having two opposite poles
namely, N (north) and S (south) at their ends. If two bar magnets are brought
closer within their magnetic fields, the similar pole ends (e.g., N and N) will
repel each other while the opposite poles (N and S) will attract each other. Your
compass needle and giant bar magnet of the Earth can be considered as two
bar magnets. When the magnetic needle of your compass is allowed to move
freely, its N end will always be attracted towards the S end of the Earth’s
magnet, which lies in roughly near the geographic north pole of the Earth (Fig.
12.1). So, the Earth has two magnetic poles (a) one that seeks the N end of the
compass needle, this is also called negative pole or north seeking pole and (b)
the other is the south seeking pole or magnetic positive pole. Fig. 12.1 gives
you a glimpse of the present-day geomagnetic polarity, but you know that this
pattern of polarity has not remained constant in the Earth’s geological history;
rather it has been changing or even reversing. Let us know some more about
these changes in Earth’s polarity directions:
Normal polarity: It refers to the configuration of Earth’s magnetic field when
magnetic negative (i.e., north seeking) pole is located near present-day
geographic north pole (Fig.12.1).
Reversed polarity: It is in the opposite direction as compared to the normal
polarity. In reversed polarity, the magnetic positive (i.e. south seeking) pole is
located near present-day geographic north pole. The Earth has witnessed
reversed polarity several times in the geological past.
The terms like ‘Geomagnetic reversal’, ‘magnetic polarity reversal’ or simply
‘magnetic reversal’ refer to a change in the Earth’s magnetic field between
normal and reversed polarity.
Magnetic anomalies: These are measurements of the variation of Earth’s
magnetic field relative to some locally defined reference. This can be
understood with the help of magnetic surveys carried out for the ocean-floor
rocks where many interruptions in the overall normal polarity may be observed
(Fig. 12.7). These interruptions or deviations from a regular magnetic data
pattern has been called as magnetic anomaly. Marine magnetic surveys have
resulted in the well-known maps of the symmetrical patterns of magnetic
anomalies (Fig. 12.7) that have been so fundamental to the development of
plate tectonic theory. When correlated with magnetic reversal time scale, these
maps can be interpreted to give the age of the ocean basins.

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Fig. 12.7: Magnetic anomalies at the Mid-Oceanic Ridge; a, b and c are stages
depicting gradual sea-floor spreading by solidification of lava and
preserved fossil magnetisms in them. Palaeomagnetic data gathered
from either side of ridges show parallel strips normal and reversed
polarities. Note that older lava is shifted away from the Mid-Oceanic
Ridge by the outpouring of new lava by rising magma below
lithosphere. (Source: https://earthref.org/ERDA/209/)

12.8 GEOMAGNETIC TIME SCALE

Earth has witnessed many events of polarity reversals in the geological past,
which have been recognised so prominently for past few millions of years that a
time scale has been established, which is known as Geomagnetic Time Scale.
However, it is not easy to reconstruct the episodes of normal and reversal of
the magnetic poles of the Earth for entire geological past due to many
constraints particularly fading of magnetic memory. The main constraints are
that the older rocks may not exhibit the reliable magnetism because of multiple
tectonic activities or the palaeomagnetism is lost due to increased temperature
of the rock during metamorphism. Scientists have so far been able to measure
the magnetic polarity with much perfection for a period up to 5.5 million years
(Ma) with definite time sequence. And, on that basis, a geomagnetic time scale
has been prepared. The broad 4 divisions of the geomagnetic time scales are
(Fig 12.8):
(a) Gilbert Reversed Epoch (~ 5.5 to 3.59 Ma)
(b) Gauss Normal Epoch (3.59 to 2.59 Ma)
(c) Matuyama Reversed Epoch (2.59 to 0.78 Ma) and
(d) Brunhes Normal Epoch (0.78 Ma to present)

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Fig. 12.8: Geomagnetic Time Scale.

The above mentioned four broad divisions of the geomagnetic time scale
have been named after the scientists who have contributed in the
development of the study of geomagnetism (Fig. 12.9).

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 12.9: Scientists contributing greatly to the geomagnetic studies. (a) William
Gilbert; who in 1600 recognised that Earth itself is a great magnet. (b)
Carl Friedrich Gauss developed a method to measure magnetic
intensity in 1833. (c) Bernard Brunhes, first gave evidence of reversely
magnetised rock in 1906. (d) Motonory Matuyama first recognised that
reversal of polarity of the Earth’s magnetic field in 1929. (Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia; http://cmap.upb.edu.co; https://s-
media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com; http://sanin-geo.jp)

It should be noted that within these epochs of normal polarity there may have
been many small duration time gaps of reversed polarity and vice-versa (Fig.
12.8). The stratigraphy based on these magnetic events and epochs is known
as magnetostratigraphy. Both magnetostratigraphy and palaeomagnetism
provide a useful dating technique for many geologic events.

12.9 CONTINENTAL RECONSTRUCTION BASED

ON PALAEOMAGNETISM
Continents in their long geological histories have been fragmented and
assembled many times. Take the case of a supercontinent Pangaea. Pangaea
was existed before the Mesozoic times (about 250 Million years ago) which
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Unit 12 Palaeomagnetism
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later on fragmented and individual fragments drifted at different locations all
over the globe. In the 4200 million year old long history of the Earth, the oldest
floor of the Pacific Ocean is only 300 million years old and that may be closed
completely in next 200 Ma due to ongoing plate tectonic activities. The
periodicity of ocean formation and closure is known as the ‘Wilson Cycle’ in
the honour of J. Tuzo Wilson – who proposed first time idea of opening and
closure of ocean basin. Following the example of Pacific, if one takes 500
million years duration from birth to death (disappearance) of an ocean then
continents must have witnessed operation of Wilson Cycle many times as each
cycle is of approximately 500 million year duration. Therefore, it is a very tough
task for the earth scientists to work out the size and location of the different
continental blocks in different cycles.
The changing magnetic conditions of the Earth in geological past have put their
signature on the continents in the form of what we observe today as
palaeomagnetic data. Apparent Polar Wandering (AWP) paths have been
successfully used in the reconstruction of the continents wherein the use of the
pole and angle of rotation necessary to bring the APW paths of two continents
together are determined (Fig. 12.10). Palaeomagnetic data, however, do not
provide information about the palaeolongitudes, therefore east-west separation
of the continents needs to be treated more carefully. The framework of the
continental margins and their fitting without overlapping are also taken into
consideration in this regard. More accurate reconstructions can be made for
Mesozoic and Cenozoic movements by making use of oceanic magnetic
anomalies. However, for Palaeozoic and Precambrian times, palaeomagnetic
methods are the only tool available which can provide quantitative
measurements regarding the continental reconstruction.

(a)

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(b)
Fig. 12.10: Reconstruction of continents based on palaeomagnetism; (a) APW
paths of different continents may help in finding a common
geomagnetic pole at a particular geological time; and b) Use of APW
for reconstruction of assembly of continents. (Source: https://qph.fs.
quoracdn.net)

12.10 ACTIVITY
Study the figures given below (Fig. 12.11) and perform the following:
a) Label the geographic and magnetic equator and poles in Fig. 12.11a.
b) Demarcate Gilbert Reversed, Gauss Normal, Matuyama Reversed and
Brunhes Normal epochs along with their duration in million years in Fig
12.11b.

(a) (b)
Fig. 12.11: Line drawing showing: a) Normal Earth’s magnetic field (EMF);
and b) Geomagnetic polarity time scale.

12.11 SUMMARY
Let us summarise what we have read in this unit:

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The Earth possesses magnetism due to flow of charged particles in the outer
liquid core.
The Earth’s magnetic poles are different than the geographical poles even
though they are located nearby. Hence, magnetic equator, latitudes and
longitudes of Earth are not same as those of the geographic ones.
The study of fossil magnetism in rock is studied under palaeomagnetism.
Palaeomagnetic studies have revealed that the magnetic poles of the Earth
have not been stationary in the geological past, but they have been changing
their location. This phenomenon is known as polar wandering.
The poles have also been changing their polarity known as polarity
reversals.
Based on the studies of the polarity reversals a geomagnetic time scale for
last 5.5 millions of year has been established.
The scale comprises two major epochs each of Normal (Gauss and
Brunhes) and Reversed (Gilbert and Matuyama) polarities.
The palaeomagnetic studies have substantially contributed to the studies of
continental drift and development of plate tectonic theory.

12.12 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Describe the salient magnetic behaviour of the Earth. Also, mention the
possible reasons of Earth’s magnetism.
2. Define palaeomagnetism. How palaeomagnetism is preserved in the rocks?
3. What do you understand by polar wandering?
4. What are normal and reversed polarities in geomagnetism? Name the major
divisions of geomagnetic time scale based on polarity reversals.

12.13 REFERENCES
Kearey, P., Klepeis, K.A. and Vine, F.J. (2009) Global Tectonics, Wiley
India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
Kearey, P. and Vine, F.J. (1996) Global Tectonics, Blackwell Science,
Oxford.
Wicander, R. and Monore, J.S. (2010) Historical Geology, Brooks/Cole
Cengage Learning, USA.

12.14 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

Gass, I.G., Smith, P.J. and Wilson, R.C.L. (1979) Understanding the Earth.
The Artemis Press Limited, Sussex.
Moores, E.M. and Twiss, R.J. (2007) Tectonics, W.H. Freeman and
Company, USA.
Mcelhinny,M.W. and Mcfadden, P.L. (2000). Paleomagnetism: Continents
and Oceans, Academic Press, USA.

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12.15 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Question 1
a) Supplement your answer with a diagram like Fig. 12.3 and do mention the
following differences:

Magnetic inclination Magnetic declination

It is the angle made with the It the angle between the horizontal
horizontal by the Earth's magnetic component of the field vector and the
field vector lines. magnetic meridian.
It is always measured on a vertical It is always measured on a horizontal
plane. plane.
By convention downward pointing By convention east ward pointing field
field vector is assigned a positive vector from true north is assigned a
value and negative values for positive value and negative values for
upward pointing vector. west ward pointing vector.
It is represented by English It is represented by English alphabet
alphabet ‘I’. ‘D’.
Also called as magnetic dip or dip Also called as magnetic variation.
angle.
It can be compared with plunge of a It can be compared with bearing of a
linear geological structure. linear geological structure.

b) Palaeomagnetism refers to fossil magnetism as well as a branch of science

that deals with study of natural remanent magnetism of the geological past
preserved in the rocks.
c) Magnetic equator represents all the places on the globe, where the
magnetic dip is zero.
Self Assessment Question 2
a)
Primary NRM Secondary NRM
It is acquired by the rock at the same It is acquired later after the
time as the formation of the rock itself. formation of the rock.
b) Magnetometer is used for geomagnetic surveys.
c) The chief cause of geomagnetism is the convection currents inside the
liquid outer core of the Earth which are responsible for circulation of
electrical charges.
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to section 12.2 and 12.3.
2. Refer to section 12.1 and 12.4
3. Refer to section 12.6.
4. Refer to section 12.7 and 12.8.

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