New Curriculum Grade 12th Geography

Major Geological Processes

Associated With Plate Tectonics

UNIT 1 LESSON #1
GRADE 11th GEOGRAPHY NEW CURRICULUM
1
 1.1 THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
At the end of this section, you will be able to
 identify the continents that constituted Laurasia & Gondwanaland.
 explain the geological evidences that support continental drift theory.
 explain why Alfred Wegener continental drift theory was not easily
accepted.
 describe how continental drift theory & plate tectonics are related.
 1.1.THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

• Continental drift theory

o It presupposes that the earth’s
continents have drifted or move over
geologic time relative to each other
across the ocean bed.

Alfred Wegner
• It suggests that the present
continents were formed from a
single continent is called PANGAEA.
• During the Carboniferous period (350
M.Y) Pangaea was located around the
South Pole.
 Pangaea started to break into
several parts in the Triassic period.
 It is breaking up in to LAURASIA &
GONDWANALAND.
 LAURASIA
• It is the northern
part of Pangaea.
• It is consisting of
North America &
Eurasia.
 GONDWANALAND
- It is the southern part of
Pangaea.
- It is consisting of South
America, Africa, Arabian
Peninsula , Indian Sub-
continent, Australia &
Antarctica.
 Both continents are
subdivided into the present
continents location through
the process of drifting.
 This drift as a whole took
place over millions of years.
9
▪ The concept was proposed by a German
meteorologist Alfred Wegener in 1912.
▪ The theory helped the idea of a large united
landmass consisting of most of the Earth’s
continental regions.
1 2 3 4
 1 Coastline Similarity

▪ The coastlines of Africa and South America have remarkable similarity

in opposite side of the Atlantic Ocean.
▪ These coastlines fit together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle.
1 Coastline Similarity

13
 2 ROCK TYPE & STRUCTURAL SIMILARITIES

❑ When we fit the continents of Africa & South

America “back together again”, we find that:
➢ Similar rock types extend from one continent
to the other.
➢ Similar age of rocks.
➢ Similar mountain belts also extend from one
continent to the next.
2 ROCK TYPE & STRUCTURAL SIMILARITIES

Similar mountain belts

• Canada match with Norway & Sweden.

• Appalachians mountains match with

United Kingdom mountains.

15
 3 FOSSIL EVIDENCE
 Cases of several fossil organisms had been found on either side of the
Atlantic Ocean, implying that the continents were once joined together.
• Fossils of organisms that could not fly or swim.
✓ Fossils of Mesosaurus are found on both sides of the Atlantic in South America
& Africa .
✓ Mesosaurus was a small reptile that lived about 250 million years ago.
3 FOSSIL EVIDENCE

17
 4. PALEO - CLIMATIC EVIDENCE

 Similarity of climatic data reconstructed

from rock structure are similar in the
present continents.
4 PALEO - CLIMATIC EVIDENCE

 Glaciers leave mark

rocks called striations
that show which
direction they move.
• Why was Wegener ’s continental drift theory is not easily accepted?

➢ It was rejected by scientific community of the time. There are 4 main

reasons for the rejection of the theory.
1. Wegener was not a geologist by profession, which of course was most
welcome by his opponents.
2. Most influential geoscientists at that time were based in the NH,
where as most of the conclusive data came from the SH.
3.Wegener thought that Pangaea did not break up until Cenozoic
era & scientists found it hard to believe that so much
continental drift could have occurred in so short a time.
4.lack of direct evidence for the movements of continents & the
needed explanation for the mechanism.
THANK YOU
 New Curriculum Grade 12th Geography

Major Geological Processes

Associated With Plate Tectonics

UNIT 1 LESSON #2
GRADE 11th GEOGRAPHY NEW CURRICULUM
23
 1.2. PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

At the end of this section, you will be able to

➢ explain what plate tectonic theory states.
➢ identify the major tectonic plates & their boundaries.
➢ identify the major continental & oceanic plates.
➢ explain how geological processes and plate boundaries affect human lives.
1.2. PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

KEYTERMS
▪ Plate tectonics
▪ Plate boundary
▪ Asthenosphere
▪ Lithosphere

25
 1.2. PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

• It is formulated based on theory of continental drift theory.

• It is developed in the late 1960s based on a broad synthesis of
geologic & geophysical data.
• It explain how the outer layers of the earth move & deform.
• The theory helps geologists to developed a better picture of the
Earth.
1.2. PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

 According to plate tectonic theory,

asthenosphere allows the upper
most mantle & crust to slide across
the top of it.

27
• Plate tectonics describe large scale motion of Earth’s lithosphere.

 Earth’s lithosphere is broken

into larger & smaller pieces
called plates.

28
 1.2. PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

 Plates are move slowly at a rate of a few cm per year & change size.
 It is made up of continental & oceanic rocks or both.
 It moves in different directions & meet each other at plate boundaries.
 1.2. PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

 Plate tectonic processes are useful to predict & explain geologic events.
 It influences the composition of the atmosphere & oceans.

 It is serves as a prime cause of long term climate change.

 It makes a significant contribution to the chemical & physical
environment in which life evolves.
• It is now universally & scientifically accepted theory.
• Today, science has shown that the surface of the Earth is in a constant
state of change.
• We are able to observe & measure mountains rising and eroding,
oceans expanding and shrinking, volcanoes erupting and earthquakes
striking.
• This theory serves as the foundation upon which we understand the
geologic processes that shape the Earth.
 1.3. PLATE MOVEMENTS AND PLATE BOUNDARIES

KEY TERMS
 Divergent : Constrictive
 Convergent : Destructive
 Transform : Conservative
• The way the plates interact at their
margins depends on whether the
crust forming the top of the plate
(at the point of contact) is oceanic
or continental.
 Continental crust is made up of granite (less dense) & Oceanic crust is a product of
basalt.

 As the plates move, they may:

1. Converge (Destructive) boundary
• Plates are come together.
2. Diverge (Constructive) boundary
• Plates are spread apart.
3. Conservative (Transform) boundary
• Plates are slide past each other along fractures.
 1. CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

 A convergent boundary is an area on earth

two or more lithospheric plate collide.
 One plate slide beneath the other a
process known as subduction. It is a plane
where many earthquake occur.
 CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES
Oceanic - Oceanic Plate Convergence
• Fast moving pacific plate was subducted
under water by the fast moving Philippine
plate.
• If two oceanic plates converge, subduction of
one under the other may produce an arc of
volcanic islands.
• Example : Mariana Islands of the W.P.O.
 CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES
Continent - Continent Convergence
• It is a process of two blocks of continental crust may converge.
• The resulting pressure can deform the crust. If one block is denser,
that block may slide under the other, mainly lifting the other plate
rather than sinking too much itself.
• E.g. The formation of mount Himalaya due to the convergence of
Indo-Australian Plate with the Eurasian Plate.
Convergent plate boundaries
 Convergent plate boundaries
Oceanic - Continent Plate Convergence
o Example: Andes mountain volcano formation
o It is formed due to the subduction of Nazca Plate
under the westward moving South American Plate.
o The denser oceanic crust is pushed down into the
mantle, causing it to melt & produce magma.
o The process forms volcano on the western crust of
south America.
▪ These are boundaries where two plates move toward each other. At such
boundaries, the denser plate will be forced under, or sub ducted
beneath, the less dense one.
▪ The subducted crust is eventually destroyed. This happens when oceanic
crust + continental crust & when oceanic crust + oceanic crust.
2. DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY

 It is occurred where plates move away

from each other at oceanic ridges, such
as in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean.
DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY
 At oceanic ridge the formation of new sea floor
due to rising magma from underlying
asthenosphere.
 The erupting magma pushes the plates on either
side away from each other in opposite directions.
 Sea floor spreading is the formation of long
undersea ridge with a rift in the middle due to
undersea volcanoes & crust expansion .
DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY

 Sea floor spreading is formed in areas

where the plates are separating.
 Shallow earthquakes are common at
oceanic ridges.

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DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY

• Continental Divergence
• It can producing fractures called rift valleys.
• E.g. G. E. A. R. Valley.
• Over millions of years, the continental crust
may separate completely, with the area
between flooding with water to become a
new ocean.
3. TRANSFORM FAULT BOUNDARIES

• Plates slide past each other laterally

along fractures in the crust is called
transform faults.
• The plates stick and then occasionally
slip, producing earthquakes.
TRANSFORM FAULT BOUNDARIES

• Most of them are found on the seafloor

along the undersea mountain chains
called oceanic ridges.
• The faults also occur on continents, such
as the San Andreas Fault in California.

46
 TRANSFORM FAULT BOUNDARIES

✓ As plates move past each other along transform faults, crust is

neither destroyed nor created.
✓ Generally, Plate tectonics is driven by the internal energy of the
Earth.
THANK YOU
 New Curriculum Grade 12th Geography

Major Geological Processes

Associated With Plate Tectonics

UNIT 1 LESSON #3
GRADE 11th GEOGRAPHY NEW CURRICULUM
49
 1.4. MAJOR GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES

▪ At the end of this section, you will be able to

o distinguish between endogenic & exogenic forces of the earth.
o explain processes like folding & faulting and their effect on the earth surface.
o draw a map to locate the major young fold mountains of the world.
o draw a diagram to show the formation of horst mountains and rift valleys.
o describe and locate a ring of fire and the countries found around this zone.
o examine the way in which the various internal & external forces affect the present land
surface.
 1.4. MAJOR GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES

 KEY TERMS
 Folding & Faulting
 Anticline & Syncline
 Vents & Fissures
 Craters & Tsunami
 1.4. MAJOR GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES
 The Earth is a dynamic planet.
 Geological processes occur constantly.
 Geological processes is the natural forces that shape the physical
makeup of our planet earth.
 Plate tectonics, erosion, chemical weathering & sedimentation affect
the Earth’s surface.
 1.4. MAJOR GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES

➢ Why geologists and earth scientists studied geological process?

 Improve the understanding of the planet’s history.
 Help to locate useful resources.
 Aid the prediction of potentially disastrous events, such as
earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions.
 The geological processes form changes on the surface of the earth. They
are:
1. Endogenic or Internal or Tectonic forces
2. Exogenic or External or Graditional forces.
 1.4.1. INTERNAL (ENDOGENIC) FORCES
• Internal forces
 It is used to describe pressure /forces that originates inside the
earth.
 It can create irregularities (unevenness) on the face of the earth.
 It can form ups & downs on the crust of the earth by breaking,
bending, or folding the rock.
 FOLDING
 It is occurs when rock layers are pushed by earth movements sideways.
 The movement may be only from one or two direction.
 The rock layers are compressed due to due pushing from two directions → folded.
 Anticline is upward-arching folds with the oldest rock layers are at the core.
 Syncline is downward-arching folds with the youngest rock layers at the core.

56
 If compression continues then simple folds are changed into
asymmetrical folds, over folds & over thrust folds.
 Asymmetrical fold: one limb is steeper than the other.
 Over fold: One limb is pushed over the other limb.
 Over thrust fold: When pressure is very great, a fracture occurs
in the fold & one limb is pushed forward over the other limb.
 TYPES OF FOLD MOUNTAINS
1. Young fold mountains
 Age : 10 – 25 my.
 They are formed during Alpine orogeny.
 Examples of fold mountains
• Andes : longest continental mountain range in the world.
• Himalayas :it is the home of the planets highest peak.
• Rockies , Alps, Atlas & Australian Alps.
61
 TYPES OF FOLD MOUNTAINS
2. Old fold mountains
 Age: 250 to 300 my.
 They are formed during the 1st & 2nd mountain-building periods.
 Armorican period : 250 million years ago .
 They are the mountains of munster & Galtees.

 Caledonian period : 400 million years ago.

 They are formed when the American & Eurasian plates collide.

 Example : Scandinavian (Caledonian), Appalachian & Urals.

Old Fold Mountains

63
64
 Similarity of fold mountains
1. They are formed from sedimentary
rock through compression.
2. Extends a greater lengths.
3. Have concave & convex slope
4. Found along continental margins
 FAULTING
• A fault is a crack on the earth’s crust.
• It is formed by the forces of tension & compression.
• It is occur in the rocks along a single line. When this happens, rocks are
displaced either upward or downward.
• It is roughly parallel to each other. Where parallel faults have occurred,
the land in between may sink down or may be forced to move upwards.
• Rift valleys & Block mountains landforms are the result of it.
 RIFT VALLEYS
 They are formed when the land between
two faults sinks down.
 The blocks on both sides of the valley form
plateaus.
 Example: The Great East African Rift Valley.
RIFT VALLEYS

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 BLOCK MOUNTAINS

o They are formed when the land between two

parallel faults is pushed upward.
o A block mountain is called horst.
o Example: Afar Horst Mountain
BLOCK MOUNTAINS

70
THANK YOU
 New Curriculum Grade 12th Geography

Major Geological Processes

Associated With Plate Tectonics

UNIT 1 LESSON #4
GRADE 11th GEOGRAPHY NEW CURRICULUM
72
EARTHQUAKE or Temblors

73
 Earthquake is the sudden shaking of the ground that occurs when
masses of rock change position below Earth’s surface.
 The shifting of the rock releases a great amount of energy, sending out
shock waves that travel through the rock, and cause the ground to
shake.
 These shock waves, called seismic waves by Earth scientists.
 It may be powerful enough to alter the surface, thrusting up cliffs and
opening great cracks in the ground.
 Earthquakes occur most often along geologic faults, which are fractures in the rocks
of Earth’s crust.
 Along faults, the rock masses on opposite sides of the fracture strain against each
other and sometimes “slip,” causing an earthquake.
 The major fault lines of the world are located at the fringes of the huge tectonic
plates.
 The intensity of earthquake is measured by an instruments called seismographs.
 The magnitude of earthquake is
measured by a Richter scale.
 It gives reading from 0- 9.
 The value of 0 (no movement) & 9
indicates (extremely severe).
 The kilogram of Trinitrotoluene
(TNT) is a unit of energy.
 1KG of TNT = 4.184 mega joules
 CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE

1. Changes in the shape of Earth’s outermost shell or (fault or ruptures of the crust).
2. Shifting of rock : causes seismic waves to spread through the rock in all directions.
 TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES

 There are two broad classes of seismic waves. They are

1. Body Waves
2. Surface Waves
 A. BODY WAVES : moved through the body of the Earth.
1. Primary waves
 It is spread in the crust from the point of
rupture or focus.
 Focus is a point of earthquake wave
originates.
 Epicenter is a point on the Earth’s surface
immediately above the focus.
 It is compress & expand the rock through
they pass & vibrate in the same direction.
 1. BODY WAVES
2. Secondary waves

• They are vibrate at right angles to the direction

of wave travel.
• They are propagated vertically & horizontally.
• They are located many thousands of miles away.

• Body waves are moved quickly through the

body of the Earth & followed by surface waves.
 2. Surface Waves
 They are Love & Rayleigh waves.
 They have a larger amplitude.
 They are responsible for destructive
shaking far from the epicenter.
 They are travel more slowly than body
waves.
 They are most powerful shake waves.
2. Seismic Waves
 EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES

1. Create dramatic changes at the Earth’s surface.

• In addition to the ground movements, other surface effects include changes
in the flow of groundwater, landslides & mudflows.
2. Damage of manmade structures
• It includes damaging of buildings, bridges, pipelines, railways, embankments,
dams, and other structures.
 EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
3. Devastating of fires
• It is producing the greatest property loss.
4. Tsunamis is underwater earthquake cause giant waves .
• It is Violent shaking of the seafloor produces waves that spread over the
ocean surface in ever-widening circles.
• In deep water a tsunami can travel as fast as 800 km/hr. By the time a
tsunami reaches shore, it has gained tremendous size and power, reaching
heights as great as 30 meters.
• Tsunamis can be catastrophic, with the potential to wipe out coastal
settlements.
Occurrence Of Earthquake
 Occurrence Of Earthquake
 Most earthquakes take place on one of the two great earthquake belts that girdle
the world.
 The belts coincide with the more recently formed mountain ranges & volcanic
activity.
1. The Circum - Pacific Belt or The Ring of Fire
 It circles the Pacific Ocean along the mountainous west coasts of N & S America
& runs through the island areas of Asia.
 It releases 80 % of earthquake energy.
2. Less active belt passes between Europe & North
Africa through the Mediterranean region.
 It runs eastward through Asia & joins the Ring of
Fire in the East Indies.
 It is releasing 15% of earthquake energy.
3. Along the mid oceanic ridges
 It includes Arctic , Atlantic & western
Indian Ocean & along Great East
African Rift Valley.
 The maximum depth earthquake focus may occur from quite close to the surface
down to about 700 kilometers.
❖ Deep earthquake produced 3% of earthquake energy.
❖ Its foci is 700 kilometers.

➢ Intermediate earthquake produced 12% of earthquakes energy.

➢ Its foci is ranging from 60 - 300 kilometers deep.

o Shallow Earthquake produced > 75% of the seismic energy each year.
o Its focus is 60 kilometers deep.

o Most parts of the world experience at least occasional shallow focus earthquakes.
 Benioff zones
• It is an area of the deeper focus earthquakes
origin.
• It is located in the mantle at places where
two tectonic plates converge.
• It is extends down along the plate that is
being sub ducted.
• Subduction is a process of one plate slide
beneath the other.
• It is a plane where many earthquake occur.
THANK YOU
 New Curriculum Grade 12th Geography

Major Geological Processes

Associated With Plate Tectonics

UNIT 1 LESSON #5
GRADE 11th GEOGRAPHY NEW CURRICULUM
96
VOLCANISM

 Volcanism is the process of forced out magma

(molten rocks), gases & solid materials on the
surface of the earth.
 Magma may reach the surface of the earth
through Vents & Fissures.
VOLCANISM

• Vents are holes like a pipe throw which magma flows

out into the surface of the earth.
• It is builds up a cone shaped mound is called crater.

98
Vent : Caldera

99
• Fissures are large & narrow cracks or fractures in a rock.
• It can accelerate magma flow quietly through long cracks
on to the earth surface.
• It is builds up a landform is called plateau.
• Volcano is a conical structure of accumulations of
erupted material.
• Magma & lava flows slowly in side & outside the crust.
 Occurrences of volcanoes
 Volcanoes occur mainly near the boundaries of tectonic plates.
 They are formed along belts of tension (divergent plates) &
compression (converge).
 Nearly 1,900 volcanoes are active today. Of these, almost 90% are
situated in the Pacific Ring of Fire
Occurrences of volcanoes

1. Pacific Ring of Fire (90%)

2. Oceanic ridges (Oceanic volcanoes)
3. Great Rift Valley of East Africa.
 VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Types of volcanoes Characteristics
• Criteria : Time of explosion
1. Extinct volcano • It is not erupting in the future or human history.
• E.g. Mt. Zuqualla, Ethiopia.
2. Dormant volcano • It is currently inactive but has erupted within historic
times, and expected to erupt again in the feature.
• E.g. Mount Kilimanjaro (Tanzania ),Mount Fuji (japan).
3. Active volcano • It is one that has erupted or thought to have erupted
during the last 500 years.
• E.g. Erta Ale, Ethiopia.
103
 TYPES OF VOLCANOES

• Volcanoes are usually classified by shape & size.

1. Shield volcanoes
2. Strato or composite volcanoes
3. Cinder cones
4. Craters
5. Calderas

104
 SHIELD VOLCANOES
 They are volcanoes that have a low, but broad profile.
 It is created by highly fluid lava flows that spread
over wide areas.
 It is non violent.
 The lava, usually composed of basalt, cannot build up
a cone with sides much steeper than 7 degrees.
 Example : Mauna kea (10,203masl)
 The Hawaiian Islands are
composed of shield volcanoes
 They are built up from the sea
floor to the surface (5 kms above.
107
 Strato Or Composite Volcanoes
• They are the most common volcanic form.
• Its steep cone is composed of alternating layers of lava & pyro clastics (rock
fragments).
• It have a steep profile.
• It have periodic & explosive eruption nature.
• It can causes widespread damage.
• The lava is highly viscous → cools & hardens before spreading very far.
STRATO OR COMPOSITE VOLCANOES
 Example
 Mount Fuji → Japan
 Mount Cotopaxi → Ecuador
CINDER CONE VOLCANO
 It is a conical hill of mostly cinder-sized
pyroclastics.
 It is only releases pyro clastic products.
 It has a steepest profile angle.
 At Steep profile angle debris remains
stable & does not slide downhill.
 CRATERS
 It have a central depression at the summit.
 They are formed by
1. massive collapse of material during volcanic activity
2. erosion during dormancy (later).
 Calderas
 It is a large crater.
 They are large, basin-shaped depressions.
 Most of them are formed after a magma
chamber drains.
 Intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks
 They are formed deep beneath the Earth’s surface through magma
solidification.
 The following are some of intrusive igneous rocks inside the earth’s
surface.
1. Batholith
2. Dyke
3. Laccoliths
4. Sill
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1. Batholiths
 It is a very large dome shaped intrusion of
igneous rock.
 It is located several kilometers deep in the crust
 It forms the core of a mountain.
2. Sill
 It is a near horizontal intrusion of igneous rock
between two rock layers.
3. Dike
 It is formed as the magma rises up through a
near vertical crack.
4. Laccolith
 It is a mushroom shaped body of intrusive
igneous rock.
➢ Most lava that comes from vents in oceanic
divergence zones & from mid oceanic volcanoes
are basaltic.

115
THANK YOU
 New Curriculum Grade 12th Geography

Major Geological Processes

Associated With Plate Tectonics

UNIT 1 LESSON #6
GRADE 11th GEOGRAPHY NEW CURRICULUM
117
 1.4.2. EXTERNAL (EXOGENIC) FORCES

• They are forces which derive their strength from the earth’s exterior or
originate within the earth’s atmosphere .
• They are forces that act on the surface of the earth from the outside.
• Denudation is the lowering of the land by wearing away the surface of
the earth.
• Denudation is a product of Weathering & Erosion.
 Weathering

• Weathering is the gradual break down of rocks into pieces. These rocks lie on the
surface of the earth.
• Weathering of rocks takes place in two ways. They are:
1. Physical weathering
2. Chemical weathering
 PHYSICAL WEATHERING
1. Physical weathering is the process by which rocks are broken into smaller pieces.
 Each fragment has similar chemical characteristics like the original.
 There are 3 important physical processes that cause rocks to break down into pieces.
They are:
I. Thermal expansion and contraction
II. Frost action
III. Plant and animal action
Thermal expansion and contraction
• It is common in hot & dry areas.
• In such areas the surface layers of rock are expand
& contract during daytime & night time t0c
differences respectively.
• The process of contraction & expansion accelerate
the rock layers peel off & fall to the ground like
peeling an onion is called exfoliation.
 II. Frost action

 It is very common in the cooler areas of the world.

 When water freezes, its volume increases. If water in the cracks of rocks
freezes, it expands & pushes the sides of the cracks. Then the cracks
widen & deepen.
 II. Frost action
 The process of break down of rocks
into pieces and the fragments collect
around the lower slopes of the rocky
outcrops is called screes.
 III. Plants action
 It is breaking of rocks by the roots of
plant.
 Seed can be carried in to rock cracks
by wind and water → Germinated and
become a plant → Plant grow become
a tree → the root exert pressure
→the rocks are break down.

125
III. Animals action

 The rocks are breakdown in to smaller pieces by

the creatures of the earth.
 Borrowing animals like worms, termites & mole
rates can dislodge soil → disintegrate the rocks.

126
2. CHEMICAL WEATHERING : DECOMPOSITION

 It involves complete changes in the internal structure of rocks.

 It can occur because of Rain action and Plants & animals.
 2. CHEMICAL WEATHERING : DECOMPOSITION
I. Rain action
 Water is the most important agent of chemical weathering. But rain water
dissolves O2 & CO2 as it falls through the atmosphere. It includes the following
processes.
A. Oxidation
 Some minerals like iron will rust when they become in contact with
rainwater that has dissolved oxygen from the atmosphere.
 Rusting makes iron weak and breakable.
 2. CHEMICAL WEATHERING : DECOMPOSITION
B. Carbonation
 Minerals that have carbonates are dissolved when they come in
contact with rainwater that has carbonic acid.
 Limestone is removal of rock in solution by acidic rainwater.
C. Hydrolysis
 It is the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce clay &
soluble salts.
 It is most active in limestone. When
water flows between layers of
limestone, it dissolves and erodes parts
of the rock.
 Finally it forms very larger & wider
underground water holes called caves.
 E.g: Weyb river in Bale or Sof Omar.
 Parts of sof - omer cave

 Stalactite is a limestone column that

hangs down from the ceiling.
 Stalagmite is a limestone upward column
from the floor due to the deposits of
limestone droplets.
 A stalactite hanging down from the ceiling
may join with a stalagmite is called pillars.
 II. Plants and Animals

 Bacteria in the presence of water break down certain minerals in the

soil.
 Plants also absorb minerals. Moreover, decaying vegetation produces
organic acid → break down of minerals. All these actions help to weaken
and breakup the rocks.
THANK YOU
 Erosion and Deposition
• Soil erosion is the movement of soil & rock particles from one place to another.
• The major agents of erosion : Running water ,Underground water, Wind, Sea
waves, Glaciers.

• Running water erosion

➢ It includes all sorts of water that flows on the surface of the earth.
➢ It is the more powerful in shaping the surface of the earth.
 Erosion and Deposition

 The ability of running water to erode & transport materials is directly

related to its speed & vegetation cover.
 Areas that have rich vegetation cover are less affected by erosion.
 Sheet erosion
✓ It occurs when surface water moves in a wide flow.
✓ This moving water erodes top soil evenly.
 Rill erosion
o It occurs when surface water cuts small channels (ditches) in the soil.
 Gully erosion
❖ when floods join together & cut the ditches wider & deeper.
❖ It is severe in areas where all (most) of the vegetation has been removed.
 TYPES OF EROSION
 Sheet erosion
✓ It occurs when surface water moves in a wide flow.
✓ This moving water erodes top soil evenly.
 Rill erosion
o It occurs when surface water cuts small channels (ditches) in the soil.
 Gully erosion
❖ when floods join together & cut the ditches wider & deeper.
❖ It is severe in areas where all (most) of the vegetation has been removed.

137
 Upper Course
 Landforms associated with the upper course of a river.
 A river is swift and strong.
 It forms cuts a deep gorge or canyon.
A. V- shaped valley is a narrow and step sided valley.
B. Gorge is a valley that is deep and narrow with steep walls.
C. Rapids are fast turbulent section of the river where the bed has
relatively steep gradient.
 Upper Course
D. Pot hole is rounded water filled depression in land.
E. Interlocking spurs
 They are fingers of land that jut out in to the river valley that stream
and rivers are forced to flow.
F. Waterfalls: a river flows over a hard.
 It is the flow of water rushes down steep hillside in the upland
areas.
Landforms associated with upper course of a river
 MIDDLE COURSE OF A RIVER

 Landform associated with a middle course of river.

 Wider and larger valley
 High volume of water increases due to confluence (tributaries + main river).
 Lateral erosion with transportation of eroded material.
 MIDDLE COURSE OF A RIVER

 Meanders
 It is the winding of a river. The river makes zigzag movements.
 Ox-bow Lake
 It is a crescent-shaped lake occupying a cut-off channel that has been
abandoned.
• River cliff
• It is the outside bank of a curve in a water channel.
Middle course of a river
 LOWER COURSE OF RIVER

 A river flows slowly with high volume of water.

 It has a wide & flat floored valley.
 It has lower slope & elevation.
 It is depositing the most fertile soils.
 FEATURES OF LOWER COURSE OF RIVER

 Flood plain is a land surface formed from sediments deposited along the banks
of the lower course of a river.
 Delta is a triangular piece of land found at the mouth of a river
 Distributaries are the splitting of the river due to low terrain.
 Estuaries is a zone of separation of salinity from fresh water.
Features of lower course of river
 WIND ACTION ALONG DESERT

 It is very powerful in desert and semi-desert areas.

 The most common features include:
 Sand dunes are little hills of sand.
 Barkhan is a hill with the shape of crescent moon or quarter moon.
 Loess deposits are fertile soils in the deserts.
 Example: North China large loess deposits.
FEATURES OF WIND ACTION
 THE WORK OF THE SEA
 The sea water performs both erosion and deposition activities.
 The most important features formed along the coastlands include:
 Beach
 Spit
 Lagoon
 Spit
 It is a low-lying, narrow deposits of
sand. or
 It is a silt attached at one end to the
land moving deep into the sea in the
other end.

150
 Beach
 It is strip of land along the sea coast
covered by varied types of sediments.

151
THE WORK OF THE SEA
• Lagoon is an area of salt water
separated from the sea by loose sand.
 MASS WASTING
 Mass wasting is the down slope movements of rock, regolith & soil under the
influence of gravity.
 Actual gravity is the controlling factor for mass wasting.
 The major factors of mass wasting includes
o Water
o Angle of the slope
o Human activities
 Mass Wasting due to water

Water
lack of materials
collected in reduce
Land soaks internal are in
Water rain water
the cohesion of
resistance motion due
sediment particles
of particles to gravity.
pores
 MASS WASTING

 The Angle of the Slope

➢ The steepest slope at which materials remain firm varies from 250 - 400.
➢ This depends on the size & shape of the particles.
 MASS WASTING
 Activities of people
➢ People create favorable conditions for mass wasting along steep &
unstable slopes.
➢ It is happened due to farming & overgrazing of the areas.
➢ Mass wasting occurred several times in different part of Ethiopia.
➢ It leads to destruction of human life and properties.
THANK YOU
New Curriculum Grade 12th Geography

CLIMATE CHANGE

Unit 2 : LESSON #1
GRADE 11th GEOGRAPHY NEW CURRICULUM
159
 BASIC CONCEPT OF CLIMATE CHANGE
 This unit addresses about basic concepts of climate change such as
➢ Global climate change
➢ Cause & consequences of climate change
➢ Adaptation & mitigation strategies
➢ International conventions & agreements on climate change.
➢ Climate resilient green economy of Ethiopia
 INTRODUCTION
 Climate change
➢ It is the most significant environmental challenges facing humankind today.
➢ There is no doubt about the existence of global warming & climate change.
➢ It is now time to find out what actions will be taken to resilient & fight cc.
 2.1. BASIC CONCEPTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

 define climate change
 conceptualize climate change
Weather
 It is an atmospheric condition which exists a short period of time.
 It is composed of temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity,
wind speed and direction, cloudiness & precipitation.
 Hotness or coldness, rainy or cloudiness, windiness or calmness on
the daily base are expressions of weather.
Climate
 It is the state of the atmosphere over long time periods, decades &
more.
 It is an average atmospheric condition which exists a long period of
time.
 It is an average of temperature, wind, humidity ,rainfall & so on.
WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE?
 Global climate is the average
climate around the world.
 Global warming is an increasing of
the average temperature of the
Earth for many years.
 According to the IPCC
• Climate change is a change in the state of the
climate that can be identified by changes in
the mean or the variability of its properties and
that persists for an extended period (decades
or longer).
• It is any change in climate overtime, due to
either natural variability or human activities.
 Climate is changing across our planet, largely as a result of human activities.

 The most convincing evidence of climate change derives from

observations of the atmosphere, land & oceans.
 A clear evidences shows that the atmospheric concentrations of GHGs
such as Co2,CH4 & N2O have increased over the last few centuries.
 2.2. TRENDS IN GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE
 The Earth’s climate has always changed & evolved.
 The 2001 3rd IPCC assessment report gave a collective picture of a
warming world & other changes in the climate system.
 The report documented that the 1990’s had been the warmest
decade worldwide & 1998 is the warmest year.
 It indicated the 20th C was likely to have been the warmest century in
the last 1,000 years.
• B1: World with rapid economic change &
introduction of clean energy.
• A1T : Future world rapid economy with non fossil
energy sources.
• B2 : Specific emission →Moderate level of GHG &
PG.
• A1B : Balanced range of energy sources with
climate mitigation .
• A2 : high emission, PGR & economic development.
• A1F1 : Intensive use of fossil fuel.
 Most of the warming experienced resulted from human activities over
the past 50 years.
 Human influence will continue to change atmospheric composition
throughout the 21st C.
 The average global surface temperature has warmed 0.800C in the past
century & 0.600C in the past 3 decades.
 According to 2001 IPCC projection if GHG emission is the leading cause
of climate change the mean global temperature will increase from 1.40C
to 5.80C by the end of the 21st C.
• IPCC has produced the world’s most comprehensive reports on climate change for
more than 25 years.
• It published in-depth climate assessments in 1990, 1995, 2001, 2007, 2013, and again
in 2021.
• The 2013, 5th assessment report states → human influence has been the dominant
cause of the observed warming since the mid 20th c. In the report, “extremely likely”
means a probability of at least 95%.
THANK YOU
New Curriculum Grade 12th Geography

Unit 2 : LESSON #2
GRADE 11th GEOGRAPHY NEW CURRICULUM
177
A. CLIMATE CHANGE CAUSED BY NATURAL EVENTS

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

 Describe the natural causes of climate change by giving examples.
 There are 3 “external” causes of climate change. These are changes in
1. Incoming solar radiation
2. The composition of the atmosphere
3. The Earth’s surface
• A theory ascribing climatic changes to variations in
the Earth’s orbit is called Milankovitch theory.
• The theory is developed by a Serbian
mathematician, astronomer, geophysics & civil
Engineer is called Milutin Milankovitch.
• He 1st proposed the idea in the 1930’s.
➢ The theory explains the Earth travels through
space in 3 separate cyclic movements
combine to produce variations in the amount
of solar energy that reaches the Earth.
 The 3 separated cyclic movement of the earth

Eccentricity Obliquity Precession

Change in the shape of earth’s orbit Tilt of the tilting of the earth Wobbles
#1. Orbital Eccentricity
• It is changes in the shape of the earth’s orbit
around the sun over time.
• Earth’s orbit is not perfectly circular in its current
configuration but is instead slightly elliptical.
When Earth’s orbit is highly
elliptical, we receive more radiation
at perihelion than at aphelion.
 2.ORBITAL PRECESSION
 Precession of Earth’s orbit is the way Earth slowly
wobbles on its axis as it orbits the Sun.
 It is spinning top slows down.
 It is caused by the gravitational pool of the moon,
sun & planets.
 It is 26,000 year cycle.
 The impact of wobble is that a gradual change occurs
with tilted toward or away from the Sun at aphelion &
perihelion.
 3.Obliquity
The axis of Earth is tilted 23.5° from the plane of its
orbit around the Sun (ecliptic).
This tilt fundamentally explains the seasonal
differences that we experience.
Obliquity is the variations that occur with respect
to the axial tilt of Earth.
It is tilt the tilt of Earth’s axis varies between 22.0° &
24.5°.
The greater the tilt angle is the more energy the
pole receive.

187
 24.5°

o As tilt increases, the seasonal

contrast becomes greater (winters
are colder & summers are warmer).
 A tilt of 24.5° → 8% more solar
radiation received at high latitudes in
summer.
 This greater variation occurs because
the subsolar point reaches higher
latitude when Earth is tilted more.
 B. Variations in Solar Output
❖ Solar output variation is measured by sophisticated instruments.
❖ It shows the output of sun’s energy called brightness.
❖ It varies slightly by a fraction of 1% with sunspot activity.
❖ One well-known solar variation is the 11-year solar cycle is called solar sunspot cycle.
❖ Solar sunspot cycle is a periodic changes in the number & size of sunspots on the
Sun's surface.
❖ It shows energy budget or variation in solar radiation.

191
 The energy emitted by the sun varies due to the
number of sun spots on the sun’s surface.
 Sunspots are dark areas or cooler part of the
sun’s surface.
 It’s temperature is lower than the surrounding
areas.
• It is caused by the sun’s intense magnetic activity.
• Approximately 11 years the number of sun
spots changes a maximum number to minimum
number.
• Sun spot change causes slight difference in
energy emitted by the sun up to 1.3 W/Km2 .
• About 300 years ago, there was a period of
reduced solar activity is called the little ice age

193
SOLAR SUNSPOT CYCLE

 During periods of high solar activity, the Sun emits

more energy, resulting in increased solar irradiance.
 During periods of low solar activity, solar irradiance
decreases.
 More sun spot deliver more energy to the
atmosphere, so the global temperature should rise.
 C. Atmospheric Particles (Aerosols)
▪ They are tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in Earth's atmosphere.
▪ They can have both natural & human made sources.
▪ They can affect the climate & air quality (affect human health).
▪ They can directly interact with solar radiation by scattering & absorbing sunlight.
▪ Example of direct effect → Sulfates
✓ It is emitted from volcanic activity, oceanic phytoplankton & land vegetation,
Biogenic emission (soil, oceans & plants),Mineral weathering etc.
✓ It reflect sunlight back to space & resulting a cooling effect on the climate.
▪ E.g. Black carbon (soot)
✓ It is particles from incomplete combustion from Gas & diesel engines, coal, deforestation,
dug & crop residue etc.
✓ It absorb sunlight & contribute to warming.
 Aerosols can influencing cloud formation & properties (indirect effect).
 Aerosols can have both cooling & warming effects depending on their type & location.
 D. PARTICLES NEAR THE SURFACE
• Particles can enter the atmosphere in a variety of natural ways.
• Example :
• Wildfires produce tiny smoke particles & dust storms sweep.
• Flaming volcanoes release sulfuric aerosols into the lower
atmosphere (Troposphere).
• These particles cool the surface of the earth by preventing sunlight.
 E. Volcanic eruptions
 Scientists agree that volcanic eruptions can have a major impact on climate.
 During Volcanic eruptions, fine particles of ash & dust (as well as gases) can be
ejected into the atmosphere .
 The sulfur gases ejected into the stratosphere, combine with water vapor in the
presence of sunlight to produce tiny, reflective sulfuric acid particles that is forming a
dense layer of haze.
E. Volcanic eruptions
 The haze may absorbing & reflecting back to
space a portion of insolation. It can leads to
cool the air at Earth’s surface, especially in
the hemisphere where the eruption occurs.
THANK YOU
New Curriculum Grade 12th Geography

Unit 2 : Lesson #3
GRADE 11th GEOGRAPHY NEW CURRICULUM
202
 #1. AEROSOLS INJECTED INTO THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE
 Aerosols are tiny solid & liquid particles.
 They can enter the atmosphere from both human-induced & natural sources.
 Human-induced sources of aerosols
• Emissions from factories
• Vehicles (autos, trucks)
• Aircraft
• Power plants
• Home furnaces & Fireplaces.
 Many aerosols are not injected directly in to the atmosphere, but form when gases
convert to particles.
 For example :
✓ Sulphates & nitrates → reflect incoming sunlight.
✓ Soot (black carbon) → absorb sunlight.
 Many of the particles that reduce the amount of sunlight reaching Earth’s surface
tend to cause a net cooling of the surface air during the day.
 #2. Land Use Changes
❖ Fossil fuels continue to spew GHG into the air, the climate will
change the earth’s surface will warm.
❖ Studies show that about ½ of the rainfall in the amazon river
basin is returned to the atmosphere through evaporation &
transpiration from the leaves of trees.
❖ Deforestation → Decrease in evaporative cooling → Warming.
 #2. LAND USE CHANGES
▪ Deforested area will change in to desert.
▪ Desertification changes the albedo result
from the overgrazing & excessive cultivation
of grasslands in semi-arid regions.
 #3. INCREASING GREENHOUSE GASES EMISSION
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• It is both harmful & beneficial for life on Earth.
• It is accelerated by human activities by burning of fossil fuels.
• It is strongly absorbs infrared radiation (thermal radiation) & warming of
the lower atmosphere.
• The leaves of trees remove CO2 from the atmosphere (photosynthesis).
• When the trees are cut & burned, or left to decay, the CO2 goes back into
the atmosphere.
#3. INCREASING GREENHOUSE GASES EMISSION

 NO2 & CH4 are GHG that causes climate change.

 These 3 gases are differ in how they absorb energy & life time in the atmosphere.
 For example:
▪ CO2 stays for a long period of time (>100 years).
▪ NO2 & CH4 last relatively for short time.
▪ Ammonia (NH3) causes 21× as much warming = mass of CO2 over 100 years.
Note: Naturally, atmospheric GHGs maintain life on earth.
• If the GHGs were absent earth’s average atmospheric temperature
would be 330C or less. These affects all ecosystem on earth.
• While, the problem of GHGs effects are increasing in the amount of
those gases in the atmosphere due to human causes that resulted
for deviation from the natural or normal conditions.
 #4. Global Warming
➢ The Earth’s atmosphere is in a warming trend that began around the turn of the 20th C.
➢ The average global surface air temperature since the late 1800s has risen by 10C.
➢ Signs of increasing global warming
• Amount of water locked in the world’s glaciers ice sheets decreasing
• Rising of sea level.
• Growing season may be getting longer.
• Changing of the leaf color.

212
 The main indicators of global warming
Humidity
Glaciation
Temperature over land Temperature over oceans

Snow cover Air temperature near surface (Troposphere)

Tree lines shifting pole ward & upward Sea surface temperature

Sea level
Spring coming earlier
Sea ice Ice sheets

Species migrating pole ward and upward Ocean heat content

THANK YOU
New Curriculum Grade 12th Geography

Unit 2 : LESSON #4
GRADE 11th GEOGRAPHY NEW CURRICULUM
215
• If the world continues to warm as Consequence of
predicted by climate models, where
will most of the warming take place?
climate change
 Consequences of Climate Change

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• examine the impacts of climate change on human beings
and other life forms.
• assess the impacts of climate change on the physical
features such as water and forest.
 #1. INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE
➢ Climate models predict that land areas
will warm more rapidly than the global
average in the northern high latitudes in
winter.
➢ From 2001 - 2006 greatest surface
warming is occurred over the landmasses
of NH (Canada & Russia).
➢ The dark green boreal forests of the high
latitudes absorb up to 3x as much solar
energy.
➢ Temperature rises
• Organic matter in the soil should decompose at a faster rate →adding more
CO2 to the air → accelerate the warming.
• Affect human health (heat & cold related deaths & illness increase & decrease
respectively).
• More frequent droughts & unpredictable rainfall in the lower latitude.
• In Polar Regions areas of the world, rising temperatures produce
complex interactions among temperature, precipitation, & wind
patterns.
• Antarctica →more snow might actually fall in the warmer air.
• Arctic sea ice dropped dramatically during the summer of 2007 & 2012.

220
• Sea ice is frozen sea water that floats
on the ocean surface forming &
melting with the polar seasons. Some
persist year after year in the arctic
providing vital habitat for wildlife such
as polar bears.
 #2. Change In Precipitation

 As with temperature, changes in precipitation will not be evenly distributed,

as some areas will tend to get more precipitation & others less.
❖ Since the middle of the 20thC
 Precipitation has increased over the middle & high-latitude land areas of
the NH.
 Precipitation has decreased over subtropical land areas.
 Precipitation has an effect on agriculture.
 #3. Sea Level Rise
 As land-based ice sheets & glaciers retreat, the oceans continue to expand & get
warm.
 During the 20thc average global sea level rose by about 17 cm.
 From 1900 to 2010, globally increased by 19 cm, with the pace accelerating from
the 1990s onward.
 It is resulted from melting glaciers & ice sheets.
 It is affecting peoples who live near coastlines around the world.
 It is damaging of coastal ecosystems such as coral reefs.
 It contaminate the coastal groundwater supplies with saltwater.
 #4. EFFECTS ON ECOSYSTEMS
❖CO2 can be expected to act as a “fertilizer” for some plants.
❖CO2 accelerating plant growth.
❖In some ecosystems, certain plant species could become dominant &
others are eliminated.
❖In tropical areas : decreasing of crop yield.
❖Higher latitude : longer growing season & an earlier snow melt.
 Inter-linkage climate change

• Changes impact on species

distribution & human wellbeing
Consequence of Climate Change
 Consequences Of Climate Change

• Global warming increase in average temperature of earth near surface air & ocean.

• Desertification : spread over human habitats, crop lands & wet lands.

• Drought : Potential evaporation is greater than potential precipitation

• A rise in sea level : melting of glaciers → overflow of sea water.

• Shift of the direction of global wind : shifting of jet stream wind influence the normal
position of global winds & disturb rainfall distribution.

• Shift of tropical zone : it extends north & southward by not < 1 degree.

• Expansion of tropical disease : increase in malaria breeding grounds.

• Loss of biodiversity : move species to cooler habitat or die.

• Sea water is becoming more acidic: it kills coral reefs.

 Future impact on our climate system has been summarized from the 2013 5th
Assessment Report of (IPCC) as follows:
 Climate - driven changes in species distributions affect human well-being both
directly & indirectly.
 For example
 Direct → emerging diseases & changes in food supply.
 Indirectly → degrading ecosystem health.
230
THANK YOU
New Curriculum Grade 12th Geography

2.5. ADAPTATION & MITIGATION

STRATEGIES TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Unit 2 : Lesson #5
GRADE 11th GEOGRAPHY NEW CURRICULUM
232
 2.5. ADAPTATION & MITIGATION STRATEGIES TO CLIMATE CHANGE

At the end of this section, you will be able to

▪ elaborate the main adaptations & mitigations strategies to climate change.
▪ describe adaptation to climate change.
▪ define mitigation to climate change.
▪ differentiate between mitigation & adaptation strategies.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) highlights 2 fundamental response
strategies. They are mitigation and adaptation.
 CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION
 According to IPCC, adaptation to climate change refers to:
➢ It is “adjustments in ecological, social or economic systems in response to actual
or expected stimuli & their impacts.
➢ Adaptation is changes in processes, practices & structures to moderate potential
damages or to benefit from opportunities associated with climate change”
 CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION

• Soil conservation

Adaptation strategies of • Terracing

climate change in Ethiopia • Changing crop planting date
• Water harvesting
• Planting trees & irrigation
• Crop diversification
 TYPES OF ADAPTATION
✓ Depending on its timing, goal & motive of its implementation,
adaptation can either be :
✓Reactive or anticipatory
✓Private or public
✓planned or autonomous
✓Short or long term
✓Localized or widespread (IPCC 2001).
 TYPES OF CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION

Reactive adaptation Anticipatory Adaptation

 It is takes place after the initial impacts of  It is takes place before impacts become apparent.
climate change have occurred.  In natural systems, there is no anticipatory
 Example adaptation.
 Example
 Changing the length of growing seasons.
 Early warning system
 Changes in ecosystem composition
wetland migration  New building codes

 Changing in farm practices etc.  Designed standards incentive for relocation etc.
 Private or public adaptation
 The distinction is based on whether adaptation is motivated by private (individual)
households & companies or public interest (government).

 Planned adaptation
▪ It is consequence of deliberate policy decision.
 It is based on the awareness that conditions have changed or are expected to change.
 It is some form of action is required to maintain a desired state.

 Autonomous adaptation
 It involves changes that systems will undergo in response to changing climate
irrespective of any policy, plan or decision.
 CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION
 Mitigation is avoiding & reducing emission of heat trapping GHGs in to the
atmosphere to prevent the planet from warming to more extreme temp.
 For example
✓ reducing source of heat trapping GHGs from the burning of fossil fuels.
✓ enhancing the sinks that accumulate & store these gases such as the oceans,
forests & soil.
THANK YOU
New Curriculum Grade 12th Geography

2.6. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS &

AGREEMENTS ON CLIMATE CHANGE

Unit 2 : Lesson #6
GRADE 11th GEOGRAPHY NEW CURRICULUM
243
 2.6. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS & AGREEMENTS ON CLIMATE CHANGE

➢ At the end of this section you will be able to:

✓ analyse the major international conventions & agreements in view of their
strengths & limitations
✓ explain the current status of International Conventions & Agreements on Climate
Change.
2.6. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS & AGREEMENTS ON CLIMATE CHANGE

➢ In 1979 the 1st World Climate Change Conference recognized climate change
as a serious problem & called on all governments to address it.
➢ Between 1980 -1990 a number of intergovernmental conferences focusing on
climate change were held.
➢ A World Climate Programme was set up, directed by the WMO, UNEP & the
International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU).
SEVERAL INTERGOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCES ON CLIMATE CHANGE

 The Toronto Conference on the Changing Atmosphere (1988) .

 It advanced a public debate, when more than 340 participants from 46
countries.
 All countries recommended developing a comprehensive global framework
convention to protect the atmosphere.
 Following a proposal by Malta, the UN General Assembly addressed climate
change for the 1st time by adopting Resolution 43/53.This recognized that
“climate change is a common concern of mankind’’.
The WMO & UNEP established the IPCC in 1988.
Aims of IPCC
• Assess the magnitude & timing of climate changes.
• Estimate the impacts of climate changes.
• Present strategies for how to respond climate change.
SEVERAL INTERGOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCES ON CLIMATE CHANGE

 The IPCC published the 1st Assessment Report on the state of the global climate
(1990), which had a potent effect on policy makers & on public opinion.
 The 2nd World Climate Conference met in Geneva in November 7, 1990, and,
unlike the 1979 Climate Conference, included ministers as well as scientists.
 The international negotiation committee (INC) met for five sessions between
February 1991 and May 1992.
 THE CONFERENCE OF PARTIES (COP)

Location COP Year Agreements

Berlin, 1 March – April 27, 1995 Agreed to meet annually to maintain
Germany control over global warming & see the
need to reduce emission of polluting
gases.
Geneva, 2 July 8 – 19,1996 The adoption of the Kyoto protocol,
Switzerland an international treaty that
committed developed countries to
reduce their GHG emissions.
 THE CONFERENCE OF PARTIES (COP)

Location COP Year Agreements

Bonn Agreements 6 Nov, 2000 - Emissions trading system
- Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).
- Rules for accounting for emissions
reductions from carbon “sinks”.
Marrakech, Morocco 7 Oct,2001 - It is adopted the respective decisions
(Marrakech Accord)
New Delhi, India 8 Oct, 2002 - Work programme on education, training
and public awareness.
 COP (Conferences Of Parties on climate change)

Location COP Year Agreements

Milan ,Italy 9 December ,2003 Adopted decisions on
afforestation & reforestation
activities under the CDM.

Buenos Aires ,Argentina 10 December ,2004 Programme of work on

adaptation and response
measures.
 KYOTO PROTOCOL
❖ It was adopted in 1997 & put into force in February 2005.
❖ It was held with COP 11 in Montreal in November & December.
❖ In 2006 of a total UN membership of 191 nations, 189 countries and the
European Community have joined the Convention (and 164 countries &
the European Community have joined the Kyoto Protocol).
❖ It is the most universally supported international agreement.
 The Protocol set mandatory targets for reducing GHGs emissions in countries that
adopt the plan.
 The overall goal was to reduce GHGs emissions in developed countries by at least 5
%.
 Industrialized nations that participated in the Kyoto Protocol, emissions expected to
be dropped by more than 22 %.
 USA did not ratify the protocol.
 Many developing nations such as China were not required to carry out emission
reductions, since they had been responsible for only a small part of the accumulated
CO2 up to that point.
 As a result, the global total of GHGs emissions actually increased by more than 25 %
from 1990 to 2012.
 PARIS AGREEMENT
 The Kyoto Protocol has been followed by it.
 which was introduced in 2015.
 It is adopted by virtually every one of the world’s nations.
 Under this agreement, each nation set voluntary targets for reducing emissions and
will report their progress on a regular basis.
 In mid-2017, the USA announced its intention to withdraw from the Paris
Agreement. The current regime it trying to reconsider it again.

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 PARIS AGREEMENT

 In addition, several cities & countries, including Costa Rica, Iceland & Norway,
have pledged to become carbon neutral.
 Carbon neutral mean all of their GHGs emissions would be offset by activities
such as planting trees, so that the country ends up with no net emissions.
 Many global businesses are also striving to become carbon neutral.
 THE CONFERENCE OF PARTIES (COP)

Location COP Year Agreements

Dubai (UAE) 28 November 30 up to - Transition away from fossil fuel

December 12, 2023 rapidly ramp up renewable energy.
Baku (Azerbaijan) 29
THANK YOU
New Curriculum Grade 12th Geography

Positive benefits of cutting down

Greenhouse gases emission

Unit 2 : Lesson #7
GRADE 11th GEOGRAPHY NEW CURRICULUM
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 Positive Benefits Of Cutting Down Greenhouse Gases Emission

Slow down the enhancement of Earth’s greenhouse effect

Reduce global warming
Reduce acid rain
 Diminish haze
low the production of photochemical smog
Produce significant health benefits.
o The best way to limit global warming is to reduce GHGs emissions by reducing/avoiding
the use of fossil fuels.
o Burning natural gas produces less carbon dioxide than burning oil and coal
o The 1st step to reduce climate change is using of renewable energy.
o They are naturally replenished on a human timescale.
o It includes sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, geothermal heat.
 2.7. PILLARS OF CLIMATE RESILIENT GREEN ECONOMY OF ETHIOPIA

 Ethiopia’s plan is to follow a green growth path that fosters development and
sustainability.
 The Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy follows a sectoral
approach.
1. Improving crop livestock production practices for higher farmer income & food
security while reducing emissions.
2. Protecting & re-establishing forests for their economic and ecosystem services
including carbon stocks.

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 2.7. PILLARS OF CLIMATE RESILIENT GREEN ECONOMY OF ETHIOPIA

3. Expanding electricity generation from renewable sources of energy for

domestic & regional markets
4. Leapfrogging to modern and energy - efficient technologies in transport,
industrial sectors & buildings

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THANK YOU