Human Heart

The heart is a vital organ that functions as the central pump of the circulatory system. It is
responsible for pumping oxygenated blood to various parts of the body and receiving
deoxygenated blood from the body to be reoxygenated. Here's an overview of the heart,
its composition, function, and key parts:

Structure:

The heart is a muscular organ located in the chest cavity, slightly left of the center.

It is roughly the size of a closed fist and is enclosed within a protective sac called the
pericardium.

The heart is divided into four chambers: two atria (left and right) and two ventricles (left
and right).

The chambers are separated by the interatrial septum and the interventricular septum.

The heart is composed of specialized cardiac muscle tissue.

Function:

The heart's primary function is to pump blood throughout the body, supplying oxygen
and nutrients to organs and tissues.

The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to
the lungs for oxygenation.

The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the
rest of the body.

The heart achieves this by coordinated contractions (systole) and relaxations (diastole) of
its chambers.

Key Parts and Components:

Atria: The two upper chambers of the heart (left and right) receive blood from the veins.
Ventricles: The two lower chambers (left and right) receive blood from the atria and
pump it out of the heart.

Valves: The heart has four valves that ensure unidirectional blood flow.

Atrioventricular valves: The tricuspid valve (right side) and the mitral valve (left side)
separate the atria from the ventricles.

Semilunar valves: The pulmonary valve (right side) and the aortic valve (left side) separate
the ventricles from the arteries.

Coronary arteries: These arteries supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle itself.

Electrical conduction system: The heart has a specialized system that generates and
coordinates electrical impulses, ensuring proper rhythm and contraction of the heart
muscle.

Blood vessels: The heart is connected to a network of blood vessels, including arteries,
veins, and capillaries, which transport blood to and from the heart.

The heart, being a highly active muscle, requires a constant supply of oxygen and
nutrients. It receives these through the coronary arteries, which branch off the aorta.
Additionally, the heart's contractions are regulated by electrical signals generated by the
sinoatrial (SA) node, located in the right atrium. These electrical impulses travel through
specialized pathways, including the atrioventricular (AV) node and the bundle of His,
causing the synchronized contraction of the heart chambers.

Coronary Artery and Veins:

Coronary Artery: Coronary arteries are blood vessels that supply oxygenated blood to the
heart muscle. They branch off from the aorta, the main artery of the body, and deliver
vital nutrients and oxygen to the heart. Coronary arteries play a crucial role in
maintaining the heart's own blood supply, ensuring its proper function and overall
health.

Coronary Vein: Coronary veins are blood vessels that collect deoxygenated blood from
the heart muscle and carry it back to the right atrium of the heart. These veins drain the
waste products and carbon dioxide from the heart, allowing for the removal of metabolic
byproducts. The largest coronary vein is the coronary sinus, which receives blood from
smaller veins throughout the heart and empties into the right atrium.

electrical conduction system:

Sinoatrial (SA) Node: The SA node, often referred to as the natural pacemaker of the
heart, is a small cluster of specialized cells located in the right atrium near the opening of
the superior vena cava. The SA node initiates the electrical impulses that trigger each
heartbeat. It generates rhythmic impulses, causing the atria to contract and pump blood
into the ventricles.

Atrioventricular (AV) Node: The AV node is located in the lower part of the right atrium,
near the septum that separates the atria. It receives the electrical impulses from the SA
node and acts as a gatekeeper, delaying the impulses slightly before transmitting them to
the ventricles. This delay allows the atria to fully contract and fill the ventricles with
blood before the ventricles contract.

Bundle of His: After passing through the AV node, the electrical impulses travel down a
pathway called the bundle of His. It splits into two branches, the right bundle branch
and the left bundle branch, which extend through the ventricular septum toward the
apex of the heart.

Purkinje Fibers: The bundle branches further divide into a network of fine fibers known
as the Purkinje fibers. These fibers spread throughout the ventricles, delivering the
electrical impulses to the individual muscle cells of the ventricles. The Purkinje fibers
stimulate the ventricles to contract, pushing blood out of the heart and into the
circulatory system.
Valves:
Atrioventricular (AV) Valves:

Tricuspid Valve: The tricuspid valve is located between the right atrium and the right
ventricle. It consists of three leaflets or cusps that open and close to regulate the blood
flow between these two chambers.

Mitral Valve: The mitral valve, also known as the bicuspid valve, is situated between the
left atrium and the left ventricle. It consists of two leaflets and functions similarly to the
tricuspid valve, allowing blood to flow from the left atrium to the left ventricle while
preventing backflow.

Both the tricuspid and mitral valves open during the heart's relaxation phase, called
diastole, to allow blood to pass from the atria into the ventricles. When the ventricles
contract during systole, the AV valves close to prevent blood from flowing back into the
atria.

Semilunar Valves:

Pulmonary Valve: The pulmonary valve is located between the right ventricle and the
pulmonary artery. It consists of three semilunar cusps that open when the ventricles
contract, allowing blood to be pumped from the right ventricle into the pulmonary
artery and on to the lungs. When the ventricles relax, the pulmonary valve closes to
prevent blood from flowing back into the ventricle.

Aortic Valve: The aortic valve is situated between the left ventricle and the aorta, which is
the largest artery in the body. Like the pulmonary valve, it also consists of three
semilunar cusps. When the left ventricle contracts, the aortic valve opens, allowing
oxygenated blood to be pumped into the aorta and subsequently distributed to the rest of
the body. When the ventricle relaxes, the aortic valve closes, preventing backflow into the
ventricle.

Right Atrium:
The right atrium is one of the four chambers of the heart and is located on the right side
of the heart. It plays a crucial role in receiving deoxygenated blood from the body and
pumping it into the right ventricle for further circulation.

Anatomy:
The right atrium is a thin-walled chamber with several distinct anatomical features:

Superior Vena Cava: The superior vena cava is a large vein that carries deoxygenated
blood from the upper body, including the head, neck, and upper limbs, into the right
atrium.

Inferior Vena Cava: The inferior vena cava is another large vein that brings deoxygenated
blood from the lower body, including the abdomen, pelvis, and lower limbs, into the
right atrium.

Tricuspid Valve: The tricuspid valve is located between the right atrium and the right
ventricle. It consists of three leaflets or cusps that prevent the backflow of blood from the
ventricle into the atrium.

Function:
The right atrium has two primary functions:

Receiving Deoxygenated Blood: The deoxygenated blood from the body returns to the
heart via the superior and inferior vena cavae. These large veins deliver the blood into the
right atrium, filling it with deoxygenated blood.

Pumping Blood into the Right Ventricle: As the right atrium contracts, it pushes the
deoxygenated blood through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. This contraction
is coordinated with the relaxation of the right ventricle to allow efficient filling

Right Ventricle:
Anatomy:
The right ventricle has several anatomical features:

Tricuspid Valve

Pulmonary Valve: The pulmonary valve is located at the exit of the right ventricle and
marks the beginning of the pulmonary artery. It consists of three semilunar cusps that
open when the ventricle contracts and close to prevent blood from flowing back into the
ventricle.

Function:
The right ventricle performs the following functions:

Receiving Deoxygenated Blood: Deoxygenated blood from the right atrium enters the
right ventricle through the open tricuspid valve during atrial contraction.

Pumping Blood to the Lungs: The right ventricle contracts to pump deoxygenated blood
through the pulmonary valve and into the pulmonary artery. The blood is then carried to
the lungs, where it undergoes oxygenation and releases carbon dioxide.

The right ventricle has a unique structure and function compared to the left ventricle. It
has thinner muscular walls since it pumps blood to the nearby lungs, which require less
force compared to the systemic circulation. This adaptation allows the right ventricle to
pump blood efficiently without excessive strain.

Left Atrium:
Anatomy:
The left atrium has several anatomical features:

Pulmonary Veins: The pulmonary veins are responsible for bringing oxygenated blood
from the lungs back to the heart. There are typically four pulmonary veins: two from the
left lung and two from the right lung. They enter the left atrium, allowing oxygenated
blood to fill the chamber.

Mitral Valve: The mitral valve, also known as the bicuspid valve, separates the left atrium
from the left ventricle. It consists of two leaflets or cusps that open to allow blood flow
from the atrium into the ventricle and close to prevent backflow.

Function:
The left atrium performs the following functions:

Receiving Oxygenated Blood: Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left atrium
through the pulmonary veins. The left atrium acts as a reservoir for this oxygen-rich
blood, allowing it to collect before being pumped into the left ventricle.
Pumping Blood to the Left Ventricle: The left atrium contracts, pushing the oxygenated
blood through the open mitral valve and into the left ventricle. This contraction is
coordinated with the relaxation of the left ventricle, allowing efficient filling.

Left ventricle:
Anatomy:
The left ventricle has several anatomical features:

Mitral Valve:

Aortic Valve: The aortic valve is located at the exit of the left ventricle and marks the
beginning of the aorta, which is the largest artery in the body. It consists of three
semilunar cusps that open when the ventricle contracts and close to prevent blood from
flowing back into the ventricle.

Function:
The left ventricle performs the following functions:

Receiving Oxygenated Blood: Oxygenated blood from the left atrium enters the left
ventricle through the open mitral valve during atrial contraction.

Pumping Blood to the Body: The left ventricle contracts forcefully to pump oxygenated
blood through the aortic valve and into the aorta. From the aorta, the oxygenated blood
is distributed to the rest of the body through the systemic circulation.

The left ventricle has thicker muscular walls compared to the right ventricle. This is
because it needs to generate a higher level of force to pump blood throughout the
systemic circulation, which requires blood to travel greater distances and overcome
higher resistance.

Systole and diastole:

These four phases represent different stages of the cardiac cycle, which is the sequence of
events that occur during one heartbeat. Here's an explanation of each phase:

Isovolumic relaxation: This phase occurs immediately after the heart contracts (systole).
During systole, the ventricles contract and eject blood into the pulmonary artery (from
the right ventricle) and the aorta (from the left ventricle). Once systole ends, the
ventricles begin to relax. However, in this early phase of relaxation, the pressure within
the ventricles drops rapidly, but the volume remains constant because all valves are
closed. Hence, it's termed "isovolumic" relaxation.

Rapid filling phase: Following isovolumic relaxation, the pressure in the ventricles drops
below the pressure in the atria. This pressure gradient causes the AV valves (tricuspid and
mitral valves) to open, allowing blood to flow passively from the atria into the ventricles.
This phase is called the rapid filling phase because initially, there's a rapid influx of blood
into the ventricles due to the pressure difference.

Slow filling, or diastasis: As the ventricles continue to fill with blood, the rate of filling
decreases. This phase is known as diastasis. During diastasis, the atria continue to contract
weakly, helping to further fill the ventricles. However, the rate of filling is slower
compared to the rapid filling phase.

Final filling during atrial systole (atrial kick): In this phase, the atria contract more
forcefully, resulting in an additional surge of blood into the ventricles. This atrial
contraction is known as atrial systole. The additional volume of blood pushed into the
ventricles by atrial systole is sometimes referred to as the "atrial kick." This phase helps to
maximize the volume of blood within the ventricles before the next contraction

blood returns from the venous circulation to the atria due to the pressure gradient
favoring flow from the veins to the atria. Once the atria are filled, during the early
diastole phase, the pressure difference between the atria and the ventricles causes the AV
valves to open, allowing blood to flow from the atria into the ventricles, initiating the
filling of the ventricles for the next cardiac cycle.

Systole: Systole refers to the contraction phase of the heart when blood is ejected from
the chambers.
• Isovolumic Contraction (Early Systole): As the ventricles begin to contract, the pressure
within them rises rapidly. Initially, all valves are closed, so the volume of blood remains
constant (isovolumic). This phase prepares the ventricles for ejection.
• Ejection Phase: Once the ventricular pressure exceeds the pressure in the arteries
(pulmonary artery and aorta), the semilunar valves open, allowing blood to be ejected
from the ventricles into the arteries. This phase is when the majority of blood is pumped
out of the heart.
After systole, the cycle repeats with diastole, allowing the heart to continually fill and
pump blood throughout the body. These phases are tightly coordinated to ensure efficient
circulation and delivery of oxygenated blood to tissues.

Circulation:
Systemic circulation and pulmonary circulation are two distinct pathways within the
cardiovascular system that work together to transport blood throughout the body and
maintain vital physiological functions.

Systemic Circulation: Systemic circulation refers to the pathway of blood flow from the
heart to the body tissues and back to the heart. This circuit delivers oxygen-rich blood to
the tissues and organs while removing carbon dioxide and waste products.

Pathway: Oxygenated blood leaves the left ventricle of the heart through the aorta, the
largest artery in the body. The aorta branches into smaller arteries, which further divide
into arterioles and capillaries that reach the body's tissues. In capillaries, oxygen and
nutrients diffuse out of the blood and into the tissues, while carbon dioxide and waste
products diffuse into the blood.

Return to the Heart: Deoxygenated blood, now containing carbon dioxide and waste
products, enters venules and veins, which gradually merge into larger veins. The superior
vena cava and inferior vena cava return deoxygenated blood to the right atrium of the
heart, completing the systemic circulation loop.

Pulmonary Circulation: Pulmonary circulation refers to the pathway of blood flow

between the heart and the lungs. Its primary function is to transport deoxygenated blood
from the heart to the lungs for oxygenation and then return oxygenated blood to the
heart.
Pathway: Deoxygenated blood leaves the right ventricle of the heart and enters the
pulmonary artery, which carries it to the lungs. In the lungs, blood flows through the
pulmonary capillaries surrounding the alveoli, where gas exchange occurs. Carbon
dioxide is released from the blood into the alveoli, and oxygen from the alveoli diffuses
into the blood.

Return to the Heart: Oxygenated blood from the lungs travels through pulmonary veins,
which return it to the left atrium of the heart. From there, oxygen-rich blood enters the
left ventricle and is pumped out into the systemic circulation.