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1.1 Anatomy and physiology

Anatomy ← the scientific disciplines that investigate the structure of the body. Also
examines the relationship between the structure of the body and functions.
Systemic anatomy ← study of organs in body such as cardiovascular, skeletal.
Regional anatomy ← study of regions in our body such as head, abdomen.
Surface anatomy ← the study of external features, such as bony projections serve as
landmarkd for locating deep structures.
Anatomical imaging ← use of X-rays. ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging. and
other technologies to create pictures of internal structures.
Microscopic anatomy ← Cytology, Histology
Gross anatomy ← visible in naked eye
Physiology ← the scientific discipline that deals with the processes or functions of living
things. it is important to recognize structures as dynamics.
Human physiology ← study of specific organism (human)
Cellular physiology ← focuses on processes inside cells such as the manufacturing of
substances including proteins.
Systemic physiology ← focuses on functions of organs.
Characteristics of life↓ ↓
Growth ← refers to an increase in the size of numbers of cells which produces an overall
enlargement in all part of an organism cell size.
Reproduction ← the formation of new cells or new organisms.
Organization ← refers to specific interrelationships among the individual parts of an
organism and how those parts interact to perform specific functions.
Metabolism ← the ability to use energy to perform other vital functions such as growth,
movement, and reproduction.
Responsiveness ← an organisms ability to sense changes in the external or internal
environment and adjust to those changes.
Development ← includes the changes of an organism undergoes through time,
beginning with fertilization and ending at death. Differentiation involves changes in cells
structure and functions.

1.2 Structural and functional organization of the human body

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6 Structural Levels ↓
1. chemical level ← structural and functional characteristics of all organism are
determined by their chemical makeup. Involve how atoms interact and combine into
molecules.
2. cell level ← basic structural and functional units of organism such as plants and animals.
Contain organelles that carry out particular functions such as digestion and movement
for the cell.
3. tissue level ← group of similar cells and materials surrounding them.
4. organ level ← composed of two or more tissue types that together perform one or more
common functions.
5. organ system level ← group of organs that together perform common function or set of
functions.
6. organism level ← any living thing considered as a whole, whether composed of one cell
such as bacterium or trillion of cells.
Organ system of the body
1. Integumentary system ← provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents water
loss, and helps produce vitamin D. Consists of skin, nails, sebacous glands, and sweat
glands
2. Skeletal system ← provides protection and support, allows body movements,
produces blood cells, and stores mineral and adipose tissue. Consist of bones,
associated with cartilages, ligaments, and joints.
3. Muscular system ← Produces body movements, maintains posture, and produces
body heat. Consist of muscles attached to connective tissue sheets of the skeleton by
tendons.
4. Lymphatic system ← removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats
diseases, maintains tissue fluid and balance, and absorbs dietary fats from the
digestive tract. Consist of the lymphatic vessels, Lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, and
other lymphatic tissues.
5. Respiratory system ← exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and
air and regulated blood pH. Consists of the lungs, diaphragm, and respiratory passages.
6. Digestive system ← Performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion,
absorption of nutrients and elimination of wastes. Consist of mouth, esophagus,
stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other accessory organs.
7. Nervous system ← major regulatory system that detects sensations and control
movements physiological processes, and intellectual functions. Consists brain, spinal
cord, nerves, and sensory receptors.
8. Endocrine system ← major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth,
reproduction, and many other functions. Consists of endocrine glands, including the
hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroi gland, adrenal gland, gonads, and other tissues that
secrete hormones.
9. Cardiovascular system ← transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones
throughout the body; plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of body
temperature. Consists of heart, blood vessels, and blood

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10. Urinary system ← removes wastes products from the blood and regulates blood pH,
ion balance, and water balance. Consists of kidneys, ureters, urethra, and urinary
bladder
11. Female reproductive system ← produces oocytes and the site of fertilization and fetal
development; produces milk for the newborn; produces hormones that influence sexual
function and behaviors. Consists of the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary
glands, and associated structures.
12. Male reproductive system ← produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and
produces hormones that influence sexual function and behaviors. Consists of the
testes, accessory structure, ducts, and penis.
Microbes in body
Cell-Microbe Ratio:
What is the relationship between microbial cells and human cells in the body?
→ Microbial cells and human cells coexist in the human body. The relationship is
symbiotic, meaning there is a mutually beneficial interaction between them.
State the fact: How many microbial cells are there for every human cell? → For every
human cell, there are approximately 1.3 billion microbial cells, indicating that microbial
cells outnumber human cells in the body.
1. Three Domains of Living Organisms:
Name the three domains of living organisms → The three domains of living
organisms are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
Compare the genetic separation in bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotic
cells. → Bacterial cells lack genetic separation, while archaeal cells share certain
structures, such as ribosomes, with bacteria.
2. Microbial Population on Human Body:
What is the term used to describe the total population of microbial cells on the human
body? → Microbiota
Explain the significance of the microbiota and why it's often referred to as "good
bacteria." → because it has positive contributions to human health. such as digestive
and immune system.
3. Microbiome:
Define microbiome and explain its relationship with microbial genes. → The
microbiome refers to the collection of microbial cell genes.
How does the microbiome contribute to human health? → The microbiome
contributes to human health by playing a role in various physiological processes.
4. Impact on Human Health:
Identify the five significant regions where microbes affect human health. → Microbes
affect human health in five significant regions: airway, skin, mouth, gastrointestinal
tract, and vagina.
Discuss the research findings on the role of microbial genes in human survival
compared to human genes. → Research suggests that microbial genes may be more
critical for our survival than human genes.

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5. Inflammatory Diseases and Microbiome:

Summarize the correlation between inflammatory diseases and the microbiome
community. → The microbiome, particularly in the gut, influences the immune system
and can impact the balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory
responses. An imbalance in the microbiome, known as dysbiosis (imbalance), has
been linked to conditions such as inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), rheumatoid
arthritis, and even neuroinflammatory disorders.
Clinical impact
Foundation of Medical Education:
What has been the historical foundation of medical education concerning the study of
the human body? → Anatomists and medical students traditionally studied the
structure and function of the human body by dissecting and examining the bodies of
deceased individuals, known as cadavers .
1. Burke and Hare Incident:
Who were William Burke and William Hare, and what infamous act are they known for?
→ William Burke and William Hare murdered 17 people in Scotland and sold their
bodies to a medical school.
Describe the outcome of the Burke and Hare incident and its implications. → Hare
testified against Burke, leading to Burke's hanging and public dissection .

1.4 Homeostasis
Homeostasis ← the maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body. Body
temperature is one of our body's variables. For cells, it is the volume, temperature, and
chemical content of cells.
Homeostatic mechanism ← that maintain normal body temperature include sweating or
shivering to maintain body temperature near an ideal normal value or set point. Mostly
regulated by nervous system and endrocrine system.
normal temperature of the body id → 96-98.6 F
Negative feedback mechanism ← when deviation from the set point is made smaller.
examples of maintenance of body temperature.
Three components
Receptor ← monitors the value of a variable, such as body temperature and
detecting stimuli.
Control center ← part of brain which determines the set point of the variable and
receives input from the receptor about the variable.
Effector ← such as sweat glands, which can adjust the value of the variable when
directed by the control center, usually back toward the set point.
Steps of feedback mechanisms↓ ↓
1. Receptor in the skin monitor body temperature changes.
2. Control center compare the value of variable against the set point

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A. Control center will stimulate the effector, the sweat glands to produce their
response which is secretion of sweat.
3. Once the Value of variable has return the effector do not receive any more information
from the control center.
Positive feedback mechanism ← occur when a response to the original stimulus results in
deviation from the set point becoming even greater.
example of normally occurring PFM
Near the end of pregnancy, the baby's large size stretches the uterus (receptor)
This stretching, especially around the opening of the uterus, stimulates contractions of
uterine muscles (control center)
Uterine contractions increase until push the baby against the opening of the uterus.
This positive feedback sequence ends when the baby is delivered from the uterus and the
stretching stimulus is eliminated.

1.5 Terminology and the body plan

Etymology ← the study of the origin of words and the way in which their meanings have
changed throughout history.
Etiology ← the cause, set of causes, or manner of causation of a disease or condition.
Body position
Anatomical position ← refers to a person standing upright with the face directed
forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward.
Supine ← when lying face upward
Prone ← when lying face downward
Ipsilateral ← same side with body part
Contralateral ← opposite side with body part
Directional terms
Anterior (ventral) ← the teeth are _ to the throat
Posterior (dorsal) ← brain is _ to the eyes
Medial ← the bridge of nose is _ to the eyes
Lateral ← the nipple is _ to the breatbone
Proximal ← the shoulder is _ to the elbow
Distal ← the ankle is _ to the hip
Superior (Cephalic) ← the mouth is _ to chin
Inferior (caudal) ← the nose is _ to the forehead
superficial ← the skin is _ to muscle
Body parts and regions
The central regions
1. Head

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Mouth → oral
Eye → Orbit
Ear → Otic
Cheek → Buccal
Chin → Mental
Nose → Nasal
Skull → Cranial
2. Neck
A. Neck → Cervical
B. base of skull → Occipital
C. back of neck → Nuchal
3. Trunk
A. thorax
Pectoral ← chest
Sternal ← breastbone
Mammary ← breast
Scapular ← shoulder blade
Vertebral ← spinal column
B. abomen
Abdominal ← abdomen
Umbilical ← navel
C. pelvis
Pelvic ← pelvis
Inguinal ← groin
Pubic ← genital
Lumbar ← loin
Gluteal ← buttocks
Perineal ← perineum
Sacral ← between hips
4. Limbs
A. Upper limbs
Clavicular ← collarbone
Axillary ← armpit
Brachial ← arm
antecubital ← front of elbow
Olecranon ← point of elbow
Antebrachial ← forearm

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Carpal ← wrist
Palmar ← palm
Digital ← fingers
B. Lower limbs
Coxal ← hip
Femoral ← thigh
Patellar ← kneecap
Popliteal ← hollow behind knee
Crural ← leg
Sural ← calf
Talus ← ankle
Dorsum ← top of the foot
Digital ← toes
Plantar ← sole
Calcaneal ← heel
Subdivision of abdomen
Regions
Hypochondriac R↓ ↓
Liver
Small intestine/large
Gall bladder
Right kidney
Hypochondriac L↓ ↓
Stomach
Liver
spleen
pancreas
small intestine/large
left kidney
Epigastric↓ ↓
Spleen
Pancreas
small intestine
liver
adrenal glands
Iliac R↓ ↓
Ascending colon

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Small intestine
appendix
cecum
Iliac L↓ ↓
Small intestine
Descending colon
Left Sigmoid colon
Lumbar L↓ ↓
Left kidney
small intestine
descending colon
Lumbar R↓ ↓
small intestine
liver
ascending colon
right kidney
Umbilical region↓ ↓
Transverse colon
Duodenum
Small intestine
Hypogastric↓ ↓
Small intestine
Sigmoid colon
bladder
reproductive organs
Planes
1. Sagittal plane ← separates the body or structure into right and left halves.
2. Medial plane ← a sagittal plane that passes through the midline of the body
3. Transverse plane ← separates into superior and inferior portions
4. Frontal (coronal) plane ← divides the body into front and back halves.
Body cavities
1. Dorsal body cavity ← encloses the organs of the nervous system, brain and spinal cord.
A. Cranial cavity (houses the brain)
B. Vertebral canal (houses the spinal cord)
2. Ventral cavity ← houses the vast majority of our internal organs referred as the viscera.
A. Thoracic cavity (houses heart and lungs)↓ ↓

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I. pleural cavities ← (encloses lungs)

II. mediastinum ← (encloses heart)
Thoracic Cavity membranes
1. pericardial cavity (housed in the mediastinum) ↓
A. parietal pericardium (OUTERMOST LAYER)
B. visceral pericardium. (INNERMOST LAYER)
C. pericardial fluid
2. Pleural cavities (houses lungs) ↓
A. parietal pleura
B. visceral pleura
C. pleural fluid
A. Abdominopelvic cavity (houses abdominal muscles)
I. peritoneal cavity (houses abdominal organs) ↓
1. parietal peritoneum
2. visceral peritoneum
3. peritoneal fluid
4. mesenteries ← regions of double-folded visceral peritoneum. pathway for
nerves and blood vessels to reach the digestive organs.
5. retroperitoneal ← protect organs behind the peritoneum.
Serous membranes of ventral body
serous membranes ← walls of body cavities and surface of internal organs
parietal serous membranes ← lines the walls of cavities
visceral serous membrane ← layer covering internal organs.
A. Inflammations of serous membranes
I. Pericarditis ← inflammation of pericardium
II. pleurisy ← inflammation of pleura
III. peritonitis ← inflammation of peritoneum

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