Road Design 1

Lecture No. 7
Horizontal Alignment - Horizontal Curves

Dr. KAN Kuchvichea

2022-2023
General
• Horizontal alignment consists of straights and circular curves, often connected by transition curves. Key
design criteria include:
• Driver perception: Curves should have large radii to maintain speeds consistent with adjoining straights.
Provide curve perception sight distance for safe speed adjustment.
• Direct alignment: Use the largest practicable curve radii to minimize sudden changes and maintain a
uniform travel speed.
• Geometric consistency: Avoid isolated small-radius curves, especially after long straights, to reduce crash
risks. For instance, a curve with a radius <600 m increases the risk of run-off-road and head-on crashes.
• Speed reduction: A curve causing a 30 km/h speed drop increases crash risk by 5.1 times. Sharp curves (e.g.,
100 m radius) have a 5.5 times higher crash risk than straight sections.
• Curve design: For curves with lower standards, ensure differences in design speeds are within limits (Table
7.1). Use consistent speed values for major roads for a uniform driving experience.
• Avoid features that require large vehicles to brake on curves, like intersections on small-radius curves, as
braking distances are not offset by the truck’s higher driver eye height.
General
Table 7.1: Maximum decrease in speed value between geometric elements
for low and intermediate speed rural roads

1.Curve speed should be less than the limiting curve speed if the decrease in operating speed exceeds the maximum. Adjust the alignment if
possible. Use the Operating Speed Model to check this.
2.If a desirable speed decrease cannot be achieved, apply alternative speed reduction measures.
3.For decreases in speed greater than 10 km/h between successive elements, use warning signs and chevron markers if revising the alignment
is not feasible.
4.Larger speed decreases are acceptable for interchange ramps and connecting roadways, as drivers expect such changes when transitioning
between roadways.
Note: Maximum speed decrease values apply mainly to low and intermediate speed roads. Major roads should maintain a consistent speed
for each horizontal element.
General

Figure 7.1: Identification of roadways on long, steep grades

Horizontal Alignment Design Procedure
• Step 1: Identify and categorize major controls on the alignment as
mandatory or discretionary.
• Step 2: Choose an operating speed suitable for the road class and terrain.
Obtain minimum curve radii from Table 7.5 and ensure they exceed these
minimums. Refer to Figures 7.5-7.7 for speed, curve radii, and
superelevation guidance.
• Step 3: Prepare a trial alignment with straights and curves using radii
from Step 2. Ensure consistency in curves on low and intermediate speed
roads. Avoid floodways on curved sections.
Use symbols: T (Tangent), C (Circular curve), S (Spiral or transition curve).
Horizontal Alignment Design Procedure
• Step 4: Develop a trial gradeline considering vertical controls and drainage.
Coordinate horizontal and vertical alignments. Increase curve radii by 10% for every
1% increase in grade over 3%.
• Step 5: Verify that curve radii align with vehicle operating speeds using procedures
from Chapter 3.
• Step 6: Adjust the alignment to:
• Meet all mandatory controls
• Achieve discretionary controls as feasible
• Ensure curve radii match operating speeds
• Satisfy controlling criteria, including intersections and access points
• Minimize earthworks.
Tangents
Tangents (straight sections) are common in horizontal alignment but can lead
to driver monotony, fatigue, and excessive speed. Long tangents may also
cause glare from headlights at night.
Desirable tangents on two-lane, two-way roads should facilitate overtaking
and be as long as terrain allows. Avoid very long straights (e.g., 1,000 m)
that encourage speeds above design limits, and short tangents that provide
inadequate separation between curves.
In flat topography, long straights may be necessary, but curves should be
introduced with long arcs to avoid a kinked appearance. Headlights can be
a nuisance unless the alignment change is significant.
Circular Curves
Horizontal Curve Equation
Horizontal curve design is based on the kinematics equation where centripetal
acceleration (CA) equals the total lateral acceleration:
𝑣2 𝑉2 where
𝐶𝐴 = = 𝑒+𝑓 𝑔 𝑒+𝑓 = v = vehicle speed (m/s) or V (km/h)
𝑅 127𝑅
R = curve radius (m)
𝑣2 𝑉2 e = pavement superelevation (m/m)
𝑅= =
𝑒 + 𝑓 𝑔 127 𝑒 + 𝑓 f = side friction factor (between the tyre and the pavement)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2).
Design process involves:
•Determining vehicle speed and corresponding side friction factor, which typically
decreases with speed.
•Selecting R and e values that satisfy the equation while ensuring superelevation is
within the desirable/maximum range.
Types of Horizontal Curves
1. Simple Curves
Simple curves are continuous arcs of constant radius (R), providing
roadway deflection without tapers. They are computed in a horizontal
plane and are commonly used for their simplicity in design, survey, and
construction (Figure 5-1).
Types of Horizontal Curves
1. Simple Curves
Notes:
PI = Point of Intersection of Tangents
PC = Point of Curvature (Beginning of Curve)
PT = Point of Tangency (End of Curve)
R = Radius of Curve, m
C = Mid-point of Long Chord
∆
T = Tangent, Distance 𝑇 = 𝑅 tan 2 , m
∆
LC = Length of Long Chord 𝐿𝐶 = 2𝑇 cos ,m
2
∆𝑅
L = Length of Curve 𝐿 = 57.2958, m
∆
E = External Distance 𝐸 = 𝑇 tan 4 , m
Δ = Deflection Angle Between Tangents or Central Angle, degrees
∆
𝑀 = 𝑅 1 − cos 2
Figure 5-1: Simple Curve Nomenclature
Types of Horizontal Curves
2. Compound Curves
• Compound curves are sequences of simple curves with deflections in the same direction, used
when field conditions (e.g., obstacles) prevent using a simple curve.
• Radius ratio: The flatter arc's radius (R1) should be no more than 1.5 times the sharper arc's
radius (R2). Avoid radii less than 1,000 m.
• Design speed: For radii <1,000 m, curves should have a design speed within 5 km/h of each other
and above the minimum operating speed.
• Curve limitations: Limit to two diminishing radii curves and avoid on steep downgrades.
• One-way road: Prefer a smaller curve before a larger one.
• Vehicle stability: Differences in friction between curves can cause instability for motorcycles and
trucks. Provide sufficient distance for deceleration where needed.
Types of Horizontal Curves
2. Compound Curves

Given: R1, 𝑅2 , Δ1, and p

∆
𝑇1 = 𝑅2 + 𝑝 tan
2
𝑅1 − 𝑅2 − 𝑝 ∆2 = ∆ − 2∆1
∆1 = cos−1
𝑅1 − 𝑅2 ∆= 2∆1 + ∆2
𝑇 = 𝑇1 + 𝑅1 − 𝑅2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∆1
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 − 𝑅2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∆1
𝑅2 + 𝑝
𝐸= − 𝑅2
cos ∆/2
𝑀 = 𝑅2 − 𝑅2 cos ∆/2 − ∆1

𝑦 = 𝑅2 + 𝑝 − 𝑅2 cos ∆1
Types of Horizontal Curves
3. Broken Back Curves
Broken back curves are horizontal curves turning in the same
direction, connected by a short straight or two small unidirectional
curves joined by a large radius curve. They should be avoided due to
challenges with superelevation and grading.
• Case 1: If the straight length is less than 0.6V (about two seconds of
travel time), it may be tolerated in urban areas but can cause
instability for motorcycles and trucks. Prefer a single curve if
feasible.
Types of Horizontal Curves
3. Broken Back Curves
• Case 2: For straight lengths between 0.6V and 2V to 4V, the visual
appeal and alignment can be compromised. Prefer a single curve or
adjust the alignment to exceed the minimum straight length of 2V
meters (absolute minimum) and 4V meters (desirable minimum).
Exceeding these values improves the visual and operational quality of
the alignment. If not possible, use compound curves or transitional
alignments.
Types of Horizontal Curves
3. Broken Back Curves

Figure 7.2: Types of broken back curves

Types of Horizontal Curves
3. Broken Back Curves

Figure 7.3: Drivers’ view of broken back curves

Types of Horizontal Curves
4. Reverse Curves
Reverse Curves: Two curves turning in opposite directions, connected by a common
tangent or short tangent section.
• Straight Alignment: Provide a straight section between curves for superelevation and
crossfall adjustments.
• Spacing: Ideally > 0.7V for a crowned section; if unavoidable, use spirals or a straight
section ≥ 0.35V.
• Curve Radii: For back-to-back curves, radii must exceed minimum radius for e=0 (i.e.,
𝑉2
𝑅> ).
127𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥

• Truck Considerations: Join curves with a tangent ≥ 0.6V or use spirals for proper
vehicle tracking and deceleration space.
Types of Horizontal Curves
5. Transition Curves
General
Transition curves (or spirals) are used to
smoothly connect straights and circular
curves, typically based on the clothoid spiral
for uniform centripetal acceleration changes.

Figure 7.4: Mathematical spiral - Clothoid spiral

Types of Horizontal Curves
5. Transition Curves
Purpose:
• Smooth transitions: Facilitate vehicle travel by reducing abrupt
changes in direction and superelevation.
• Truck tracking: Reduce transient conditions and improve stability.
• Aesthetic: Prevents a kinked appearance where curves connect to
straights.
Types of Horizontal Curves
5. Transition Curves
Design Guidelines:
• Length: Transition lengths are based on superelevation runoff, usually
rounded to standard lengths (e.g., 40, 60, 80 m) for uniformity.
• Spacing: Avoid reverse curves with spacing less than about 0.7V. If
unavoidable, use spirals or a straight section of at least 0.35V.
• Curves: For large radii curves or speeds under 60 km/h, spirals may
not be necessary. For radii exceeding specified limits, spirals are
typically not needed.
Types of Horizontal Curves
5. Transition Curves
Spiral Length:
• Minimum Lengths: Based on operating speed and a 2-3 second transition path.
• Adjustments: Match superelevation changes; avoid excessive water flow depths.
• Driver Behavior: Drivers naturally make a 2-3 second transition path without a spiral.
• Truck Requirements: Trucks need more width due to tracking and swing, influencing
spiral length and width.
Note: Maximum radii for spirals and minimum lengths depend on design speed and
curvature.
Types of Horizontal Curves
5. Transition Curves
Table 7.2: Maximum radius requiring a spiral
Table 7.3: Minimum spiral lengths
Types of Horizontal Curves
5. Transition Curves
Design Procedure for Spiral Curves
1. Curve Radius: Select radius based on horizontal alignment design.
2. Spiral Requirement: If radius is less than values in Table 7.2 for the speed, consider adding a spiral.
3. Alternative Options: If transition is difficult, use wider lanes or sealed shoulders, but check other
geometric parameters.
4. Braking Areas: For loops or braking areas, consider a straight approach without a spiral.
5. Superelevation: Select Lsd from Table 7.9; calculate Sro.
6. Spiral Length: Use greater of Sro or Lsp (Table 7.3) as spiral length.
7. Spiral Shift: If shift < 0.3 m (or 0.25 m for speeds >100 km/h), no transition is necessary.
Formula: 𝑝 = 𝐿2𝑝 /24𝑅 .
8. Rounding: Round spiral length to next 5 or 10 m; calculate set out points.
Where
𝑝 : Shift (offset from PC to straight) in meters.
𝑅 : Radius of the circular curve in meters.
𝐿𝑝 : Length of transition curve from TS to SC in meters.
Side Friction and Minimum Curve Size
Side Friction on Curves
• Radial Force: Vehicles need radial force for centripetal acceleration when
traveling on curves. Side friction between tyres and road provides this force.
• Side Friction Factor (f): Measures frictional force; values vary by road surface,
tyre condition, and driver behavior. Recommended values are shown in Table 7.4.
• High-Speed Roads: Use desirable maximum values on intermediate/high-speed
roads with uniform traffic flow for driver comfort and lane stability.
• Low-Speed Roads: Absolute maximum values can be used in urban or
mountainous areas with lower speeds and more driver tolerance for discomfort.
• Curves in Constrained Areas: Table 7.5 lists minimum radii for urban areas, but
these can cause poor alignment in rural roads, affecting safety.
 Side Friction and Minimum Curve Size
Table 7.4: Recommended side friction factors for cars and trucks

Note: ARRB research into the stability of high centre of gravity articulated vehicles indicated that the least stable vehicles may
roll over at side friction values as high as 0.35 (Mai & Sweatman 1984).
Side Friction and Minimum Curve Size
Comparison of Side-Friction Factors

① Estimated point of impending skid assuming smooth tires and wet PCC pavement.
② Side-friction factors used for design.
Side Friction and Minimum Curve Size
1. Minimum Radius Values
• Factors: Minimum radius is based on emax and fmax (from Table
7.4).
• Methodology: For curves flatter than the minimum, apply methods to
balance superelevation and side friction for the radius and design
speed.
• Determination: Use the Horizontal Curve Equation and fmax
values to determine the minimum radius for a given speed (see Table
7.4 for minimum radii and Table 7.6 for desirable maximum values).
Side Friction and Minimum Curve Size
1. Minimum Radius Values
Table 7.5: Minimum radii of horizontal curves based on superelevation and side friction at desirable maximum values on
sealed pavements

1. Maximum superelevation for Road Classification R2, R1.

2. Maximum superelevation for Road Classification R3.
3. Maximum superelevation for Road Classification R6 to R4.
4. Maximum superelevation for Road Classification U6 to U1.
Side Friction and Minimum Curve Size
1. Minimum Radius Values
Table 7.6: Minimum radii of horizontal curves based on superelevation and side friction at desirable maximum values on
unsealed pavements

1. Maximum superelevation for Road Classification R2, R1.

2. Maximum superelevation for Road Classification R3.
3. Maximum superelevation for Road Classification R6 to R4.
4. Maximum superelevation for Road Classification U6 to U1.
Side Friction and Minimum Curve Size
1. Minimum Radius Values
On steep downgrades
Increased Radius: For grades over 3%, increase minimum curve
radius by 10% for each 1% increase in grade using:
𝐺−3
𝑅𝑀𝐼𝑁 𝑜𝑛 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 = 𝑅𝑀𝐼𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 7.5 1+
10
𝐺−3
𝑅𝑀𝐼𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 = 𝑅𝑀𝐼𝑁 1+
10
where G = grade (%) , R = radius (m)
Side Friction and Minimum Curve Size
1. Minimum Radius Values
On steep downgrades
•Superelevation: If the curve radius can't be increased, consider using:
•Preceding curves to limit speed.
•Max side friction and superelevation.
•Effective Superelevation: For grades steeper than 3%, adjust
superelevation with:
𝐺+𝑒
𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐹𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 7.5 𝑡𝑜 7.7 𝑒 + where
6
𝐺+𝑒 G = grade (%)
𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑒+ e = superelevation (%)
6
Side Friction and Minimum Curve Size
2. Minimum Horizontal Curve Lengths and Deflection Angles not Requiring Curves
Purpose: Prevent road alignment kinks and maintain aesthetics, though not absolute limits.
General Guidelines:
• Flat terrain: Curves should ideally be double the minimum length for aesthetics.
• Two-lane roads: Curves should be 120-150 m long; mountain roads can be as short as
30 m.
• Divided roads: Curves shorter than 300 m appear too short.
Curve Provision: Required for noticeable changes in direction; very small changes don't
need curves.
Deflection Angles: Maximum allowable angles without horizontal curves are in Table 7.6.
Side Friction and Minimum Curve Size
2. Minimum Horizontal Curve Lengths and Deflection Angles not
Requiring Curves
Table 7.6: Maximum deflection angles not requiring horizontal
curves and minimum horizontal curve lengths

Note: Minimum length of the horizontal curve includes the length of the circular arc and adjoining transitions (spirals) TS = Tangent to Spiral,
ST= Spiral to Tangent. Calculated from Lh=V2/36, where Lh = length of horizontal curve and V = design speed (km/h).
Curve Widening
Travelled Way Widening on Horizontal Curves:
• Purpose: To match operating conditions on curves with those on tangents.
Generally unnecessary for modern roads with 3.65 m lanes but may be
needed for specific speeds, curvature, and widths.
• Widening Formula:
𝑤 = 𝑊𝑐 − 𝑊𝑛
where:
• w = widening needed (m)
• W_c = width of travelled way on curve (m)
• W_n = width of travelled way on tangent (m)
Curve Widening
• Calculations:
• Track Width (U): 𝑈 = 𝑢 + 𝑅 − 𝑅2 − σ 𝐿2𝑖

• Front Overhang (𝐹𝐴 ) : 𝐹𝐴 = 𝑅 2 + 𝐴 2𝐿 + 𝐴 − 𝑅

• extra width allowance (Z): 𝑍 = 0.1 𝑉/ 𝑅
where: u = track width on tangent (out-to-out tires), m
R = radius of curve or turn, m
Li = wheelbase of design vehicle between consecutive axles (or sets of tandem axles) and articulation points, m
A = from overhang of inner lane vehicle, m
L = wheelbase of single unit or tractor, m
V = design speed of the roadway, km/h

• Design Values:
• Table 5-14: Provides "w" values for the WB-20 design vehicle.
• Minimum Widening: Not considered if less than 0.6 m. Values below this apply to multilane roads, not two-lane roads.
Curve Widening

Widening Components on Open Roadway Curves

 Curve Widening
Calculated and Design Values for Travelled Way
Widening on Open Roadway Curves (Two-Lane
Roadways, One-Way or Two-Way)

Notes:
1. Values shown are for a WB-20 design vehicle and
represent widening in metres.
2. Values less than 0.6 m may be disregarded.
3. For 1+2 roadways, multiply above values by 1.5.
4. For 2+2 roadways, multiply above values by 2.0.
Curve Widening