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EXTENSION CONCEPT PrINCIPLES ScOPE
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The word 'extension is derived from the Latin roots 'ex' meaning 'out' and 'tensio anc
meaning 'stretching. Extension is that type of education which is stretched out to people usn
in the rural areas far and near, beyond the limits of the educational institutions to which
the formal type of education is usually
confined.
Education is an integral, pait of extension. Because of this, and because of the fact
thatextension is pursued in agriculture and many other disciplines to educate, motivate and
Change the behaviour of the people, this particular branch of science is also known as
extension education. Dro

/tducation: Informal, Formal and Non-Formal ste

ted
Education is the process of developing capabilities of the individuals so that they can
uately respond to their situations. Coombs and Ahmed (1974) drew a distinction between
Ne three
types of education as follows
ormal Education is the lifelong process by whicn every person acquires and
mulates knowledge, skills, attitudes and insights from daily experiences and exposure
the environment at home, at work, at play etc.

Sinumal Education is the highly institutionalized, chronologically graded and hierarchically V

structur 'edu
education system', spanning lower primary school and the upper reaches' of the
university.
Outsid
Sub-
Non-For
Formal Education is an organized, systematic, educational activity carried on
Iramework of the formal system to provide selected types of learning to particular
inthe population, adults as well as children according to their needs. Example,
agricultural extension.
1
 2
Extension Communication and Management
Extension education differs from formal education in a number of ways. Some of them
are

Formal Education Extension Education

1.
Teaching is largely confined to the Teaching is largely Qutside the four
premises of the
institution. walls of the institution.
2. The learners are
homogeneous with The learners are heterogeneous and
common goals. have diverse goals.
Strict adherence toinstitutional norms Freedom and choice of subject matter
and free
no
choice for the learners. Teft to the learners.
4. There is a
fixed curiculum, after There is fixed curriculum. It is
no
completion of which the students are flexible depending on the needs of the
examined and degrees are awarded.
learners. No examinations are taken
and no degrees are awarded.
Knowledge flows from teacher to the The extension agent also learns from
leamers those whom he or she teaches.
6. The teacher only instructs the students. The extension agent teaches a great
deal through local leaders.
7. Formal education starts with the Extension education starts with
theoretical and works upto the practical situation of the learners in
practical. which they live and work, and
develops into theoretical or basic
understanding of them.
Key Elements in Non-Formal Education
In non-formal education, six
key elements have been identified
and Bowen (1993). These by Etling, Radhakrishna
are
1. Non-formal cducation is
learner-centered.
teaching. The leamer participates in determining Emphasis
is on
the educational
learning rather than on
substantial control over the content objectíves and exerts
and methods. Local initiative,
are
encouraged in order to equip learners to analyze critically andself-help and innovation
take action to
their own practical problems. resolve

There are
variety, options and
primarily by the learners. flexibility in curriculum,
.
which are
generated
3 Informal human relationships are essential.
4. Reliance on local
resources, which means that costs are
quality. Both conventional and unconventional sources are used, kept
low without
and
sacrificing
available resources are
deployed efficiently.
5. Educational content and methodology are directly related to
and have immediate use. leamers' life styles
Extension Concept Principles Scope
b. Less bureaucratic control and more decentralization allow local approaches to the
solution of local
problems.
The Concept of Development
Concept is an abstract idea, which is generalized from particular instances. There have been
changes in the concept of development over time. According to Dube (1992). in the first
phase.development essentially meant economic development and emphasis was exclusively
on economic growth. The basic idea was to ensure capital formation and raise output by
providing the desired inputs. It was presumed that the trickle down effect of growth would
lead to
equitable distribution of benefits.
In the second phase, it was felt that economic development and technological change
are hindered by institutional factors. Thus, modification in the institutional framework of
sOCiety and alterations in attitudes and values were contemplated, to facilitate and accelerate
the process of economic development. Nationalization of banks, setting up of Rural banks.
and emphasis on Radio and Television were such
attempts.
Concepts of human-centered development emerged in the third phase. It called for
greater access for the common people to planning process, strategies geared to meet basic
needs, human resource mobilization, and human capital formation. Re-emphasis on Panchayats
may be mentioned here as an example. Environmental issues and energy consciousness led
to re-thinking about development.
Melkote (1991) emphasized that development should include
1. cquity in distribution of information and other benefits of development.
active participation of people at grass roots level,
i. independence of local communities and nations to tailor development projects to
their own objectives, and
iv. integration of the old and new ideas, the traditional and modem systems, the
endogenous and exogenous elements to constitute a unique blend suited to the
needs of a particular community.
In essence, development must always have a strong distributive thrust, and progress
must be visible in the life pattern of the mass of people.

The Concept of Sustainability

Sustainability, according to Nicodemus (1992), is the successful management of resources
to satisfy changing human needs, while maintaining or enhancing the quality of environment
and conserving natural resources.

Intensive cultivation of land without conservation of soil fertility and soil structure
would lead ultimately to the birth of deserts. Irigation without arrangements for drainage
would result in soil geting alkaline or saline. Indiscriminate use of pesticides and agricultural
chemicals could cause adverse change in biological balance, as well as lead to an increase
in the incidence of diseases through the toxic residues present in the plants, animals, soil,
 Communió ation and Management
Extension

would lead to the rapid depletion

and air. Unscientific tapping of underground water
Wer
of this valuable resource.
of numerous locally adapted
nrough ages of actual farming, the rapid replacement areas would
result in
one or two high yielding strains in large contiguous
aienes With Forest denudation is one
he spread of serious diseases capable of wiping out entire crops.
nutrition and food security.
O ne most serious factors promoting the unsustainability of both
considerations of ecological
concems lead to the conclusions that unless
nese both the development and
with those of economic efficiency in
dissemination of coupled
Sustainability are technology, the future of agriculture will be gloomy. The concept of
rich in technology
sustainable agriculture involves the evolution of a new type of agriculture
and information, with much less intensive energy use and market-purchased inputs.
structured that
In this context, Agarwal (1992) emphasized that a society should be so
it will leam fast from its mistakes in the use of its natural and other resources and rapidly

its human-nature relationships in accordance with the knowledge

it has gained. Such
rectify
of those who
a society will be one in which decision-making is largely the responsibility
will also suffer from the consequences of those decisions.
control
Sustainability thus demands the creation of a political order in which firstly,
of natural resources rests to the maximum ex tent possible with local communities who are
those resources; and secondly, decision-making within the community is as
dependent on
participatory, open and democratic as possible.

The Concept of Extension

The use of the term 'extension' originated in England in 1866 with a system of university
extension which was taken up first by Cambridge and Oxford Universities, and later by
other educational institutions in England and in other countries. The term 'extension education'
was first used in 1873 by Cambridge University to describe this particular educational
innovation. The objective of university extension was to take the educational advantages of
universities to ordinary people (Swanson and Claar, 1984).

Historically, extension has meant education in agriculture and in home economics for
rural people. This education is practical, aimed at improving farm and home (Blackburn

and Flaherty, 1994).

According to Ensminger (1957) extension is education and that its purpose is to change
attitudes and practices of the people with whom the work is done.

Leagans (1961) conceptualized extension educati0n as an applied science consisting of

content derived from research, accumulated field experiences and relevant principles drawn
from the behavioural sciences synthesized with useful technoloEy into a body of philosophy,
principles, content and methods focussed on the problems of out-of-school education for

adults and youth.

The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) refers to extension as an out-of-school
education and services for the members ot the rarm tamily and others directly or indirectlv
Extension Concept Principles Scope 5

engaged in farm production. to enable them to adopt improved practices in production,

management, conservation and marketing.
The National Commission further stated that agricultural extension is not only imparting
nowledge and securing adoption of a particular inmproved practice but also aims at changing
the outlook of the farmers to the point where they will be receptive to, and on their own
initiative, continuously seek means of improving their farm occupation, home and ramy
life in totality.
There has beena change of emphasis in various
aspects of extension, such as, a greater
interest in human factor and concern with the rural community and even the region as a
whole (Arnon, 1989).

Equally important are rural development issues that are sensitive to diverse client needs.
Problems and issues must be understood not only in terms of local concerns and olutions,
but also in terms of a national and
global perspective, because local entities are interdependent
with the rest of the world.

In addition to practising in the field, extension is formally taught in colleges and

universities leading to the award of degrees. Research is also carried out in extension. What
is unique for extension is the
application of the knowledge of this discipline in socio-economic
transformation of the rural communities. In this context, Extension may be defined as the
science of developing capability of the
people for sustainable improvement in their quality
of life.
The concept of extension is based on the following basic premises. Following Hassanullah
(1995). these are
1. People have unlimited potential for personal growth and development.
2.2. The development may take place at any stage of their lives, if they are provided
with adequate and appropriate learming opportunities.
3 .Adults are not interested in learning only for the sake of leaming. They are
motivated when new learning provides opportunity for increased productivity and
improved standards of living.
4.
4. Such learning is a continuous need of rural populations and should be provided
on a continuing basis because the problems as well as the technologies of production
and living are continuously changing.
5. Given the required knowledge and skills people are capable of making optimal
choices for their individual and social benefits.

Need for Extension

The need for extension arises out of the fact that the condition of the rural people in
general, and the farm people in particular, has got to be improved. There is a gap between
what isthe actual situation and what ought to be-the desirable situation. This gap has
to be narrowed down mainly by the application of science and
technology in their enterprises
and bringing appropriate changes in their behaviour.
 6 and Management
Extension Communication

nor are they equipped

ccoraing to the researchers neither have the time
Supe (1987),
and to ascertan Irom
J o D of persuading the villagers to adopt scientific methods, visit the research
rural problems. Similarly it is difficult for all the farmers to
stations and obtain firsthand information. Thus there is need for an agency to nterpret tne
tarmers to researcn
g research to the farmers and to carry the problems of the
ot
for solution. This
gap is filled by the extension agency.

Levels of Extension
extension service.
xtension is generally thought of at two levels, extension education and
Extensionat these two levels are interrelated, but at the same time maintain their separate
identity.
Extension Education--The extension education role is generally performed by the higher
learning institutions like the Agricultural and other Universities and Colleges. ICAR Institutes.
Home Science Colleges and apex level Training and Extension Organizations. At the
university level, extension is integrated with teaching and research. while at the research
institutes, extension is integrated with research. At the other apex level organizations,
extension is generally integrated with training in extension.

The extension education function of these institutions and organizations is to educate,

train and develop professionals for teaching and research in extension and for the extension
service, and also to develop methodology for research in extension and field extension work.
The field extension work of these institutions and organizations is generally limited to the
neighbouring villages or blocks, which are considered as their extension laboratories.

Extension Service-The main responsibility of extension service is with the State

Govermment. The departments of Agriculture, Horticulture, Animal Husbandry, Veterinary,
Forestry, Fishery, Sericulture etc. of the State Government carry out extension work with
the farmers and rural people over the entire State. The departments maintain close contact
with the relevant Universities and Research Institutes for obtaining appropriate technology
and methodology for extension work, and ror providing them with feedback information

from the field for research.

The extension service provided by the departments of the State Government. is

location-specific. input-intensive and. target and result oriented. The extension service works
in close coordination with other development departments, input supply agencies, credit
institutions and Panchayats. The extension servicehas the main responsibility of educating
and training the farmers, farm women, rural youth and village leaders of the State and for
for
take the help of the universities, research institutes t e and
this pupose they ing
extension organizations.

Two more trends in extension are Currently visiDIein india. These are, decentralization
raluzation
coordination with Panchayats (Local Self.C
closer
extension through
of
Ommercialization of extensicn through prOVISIOn OISpeciali2ed services by commercia
a cost.
companies at
 Extension Concept Principles Scope 7

The Philosophy of Extension

Philosophy is the pursuit of wisdom, a body of general principles or laws of a field of
knowledge. Essentially philosophy is a view of life and its various components. The practical
mplication is that the philosophy of a particular discipline would furnish the principlesor
guidelines with which to shape or mould the programmes or activities relating to that
discipline.
According to Kelsey and Hearne (1967), the basic philosophy of extension education
e a c h people how to think, not what to think. Extension's specific job is furnishing
the inspiration, supplying specific advice and technical help, and counseling to see that the

People as individuals, families, groups and communities work together as a unit in

Dueprinting their own problems, charting their own courses, and that they launch forth
to achieve their
objectives. Sound extension philosophy is always forward looking
esciMA

Objectives of Extension
Objectives are expression of the ends towards which our efforts are directed. The fundamental
objective of extension is to develop the rural people economically. socially and culturally
by means of education. More specifically, the general objectives of extension are-
1. To assist people to discover and analyze their problems and identify the felt needs.
2. To develop leadership among people and help them in organizing groups to solve
their problems.
3. To disseminate research information of economic and practical importance in a
way people would be able to understand and use.
4. To assist people in mobilizing and utilizing the resources which they have and
which they need from outside.
5 To collect and transmit feedback information for solving management problems.
According to the National Commission on Agriculture (1976), agricultural extension
aims at improving the efficiency of the human capital in effort
rapidly increase the
an to
rate of agricultural production. The agricultural extension programme
to impart the seeks
necessary skills to the farmers for understanding improved agricultural operations to make
available to them timely information on improved practice, in an easily understandable
form,
suited to their level of literacy and awareness, and to create in them a
favourable attitude
for innovation and change.
Van den Ban and Hawkins (1988) visualized extension as a
process which helps farmers
to analyze their present and expected future situations; to become aware of problems that
arise in such analyses; increases knowledge and develops insight into
to structure their existing knowledge; helps farmers to
problems and helps
acquire specific knowledge related
to certain problem
solutions and their consequences so that
they can act on possible
alternatives: to make a responsible choice which, in their opinion, is
situation; increases farmers motivation to implement their choices; and optimal
for their
and improve their own opinion-forming and decision-making skills.
helps to evaluate

2
 Communication
and Management
Extension

the useruiness of
for judging
suggested several criteria
earne (1967)
uio objectives. These are
extension
A r e they dynamic? Are they likely to promote action aims of extension?
toward the general
2. Will they lead by
c
ney Socially desirable? and permitted
of maturity of the group
3.
Are they achievable by the level
available resources? levels of
achievement?

lead to constantly higher

4. Are they developmental? Will they
5. be defined in terms of behaviour or changes in
people
Can they actual progres of
measurable? Can evidence of
6. be evaluated? Are they
Can they
individuals be secured?
worded clearly?
1 Are they specific, consistent, and

Function of Extension
human behaviour by means
The function of extension is to bring about desirable changes in
may be brought about in
their knowledge, skill, attitude, understanding,
of education. Changes
goals, action_and confidence.
who
Change in knowledge means in what people know. For example, farmers
change in extension
did know of a recent
not HYV crop came to know of it through participation
audio-visual
Extension Workers (VEWs) who did not know of
programmes. The Village
aids came to know of them after attending a training course.

The farmers learnt the

Change in skill is change in the technique of doing things.
VEWs learnt
technique of growing the HYV crop which they did not know earlier. The
the skill of using the audio-visual aids.

Change in attitude involves change in the feeling or reaction towards certain things.
The farmers developed a favourable attitude towards the HYV crop. The VEWs developed
a favourable feeling about the use of audio-Visual aids in extension programme.

Change in understanding means change in comprehension. The farmers realized the

importance of the HYV crop in their farming system and the extent to which it was
economically profitable and desirable, in comparison to the existing crop variety. The VEWs
understood the use of audio-visual ads afd the extent to which these would make extension
work more effective.

Change in goal is the distance in any given direction one is expected to go during a
neriod of time. The extent to which
the farmers raised their
goal in crop
say, increasing crop vield in a particular season by five quintals per hectare by production,
cultivating
he HYy crop. The VEVWs set tne goal O gettng an improved practice, adopted by the
farmers within a certain period or time by using audio-visual aids

Change in action means n

change perrormance
or
doing
t the HYV crop earlier cultivated it. The VEWs
things. The farmers who did
who earlier did not use
ALdio-visual aids in their extension programmes started using them
m.
 Extension Concept Principles Scope 9

Change in
confidence involves change in self-reliance. Farmers felt sure that have
the
aoiy or
raising crop yield. The VEWs developed faith on their ability to do
ey
extension work. The better
development of confidence or self-reliance is the solid foundation ror
making progress.
To
bring desirable change in behaviour is the crucial function of extension. For
purpose the
extension personnel shall this
Work more
continuously seek new information to make extensio
effective. The farmers and homemakers also their
continuously seek means of improving their farm and home. The task is difficult
on
initiativebecause
own
sna
millions of farm families with little education, scattered in large areas with their own beliers,
values, attitudes, resources and constraints are pursuing diverse enterprises.

The Extension Educational Process

Extenston education is a participatory process and involves five essential and interrelated
steps. The sequence of steps is discussed on the basis of concept developed by Leagans
(1967).
TEACHING
(What to teach &
how to teach)

OBJECTIVES EVALUATION
(What it 2 4 (What has been
should be) the result)

RECONSIDERATION
SITUATION
5
(What it is now) | (What next to do)

Fig. 1: The Extension Educational Process

consists of collection of facts and analysis of the situation.

First Step. The first step
and their enterprises, the economic, social, cultural, physical
and
Facts about the people
in which they live arnd
work. These may be obtained by appropriate
technological environment
the people.
rapport with
survey and establishing
with the local people to identify the problems
are to be analyzed
The responses obtained a. survey in a community and
the community. For example, after
and resources available in low income of the farm family from
was identified as
analysis of the data, the _problem
their production ènterprise.
crop
10 Communication and Management
Extension

be accompllSnu
decona Step. The next step is decidine on realistic obiectives which may e
n e cOmmunity. A limited number of objectives should be selected by. invoivin
Oca people. The objectives should be specific and clearly stated, and on completion Snoutd
satisfaction to the community. Objectives should state the behavioural changes
bing
people as well as economic and social outcomes desired.

the problem identified low income from crop production

Cxample, was as
enterprise. A deeper probe into the data revealed that low income was due to oW i el

of crops. which was attributed to the use of local seeds with low yield potential. application
of little fertilizer and lack of protection By taking into consideration the capacuy
measures.
and competency of the people in the community and the availability of resources, tne
objective was set up to increase the crop yield by 20 percent within a certain period O

ime. It was estimated that the increased yield shall bring increased income, which shal
enhance the family welfare.
Third Step. The third step is teaching, which involves choosing what should be taught
(the content) and how the people should be taught (the methods and aids to be used). It
of economic and practical importance relevant to the
requires seclecting research findings
community. and selection and combination of appropriate teaching methods and aids.
Based on the problems identified in the particular example, technologies like use of
HYV seeds, application of fertilizer and plant
protection.measures were selected as teaching
content. Result demonstration. method demonstration, farmers' training and farm publications
were chosen as teaching methods, and
tape recorder and slides were selected as teaching
aids.

Fourth Step. The fourth step is evaluating the teaching, i.e. determining the extent to
which the objectives have been reached. To evaluate the results of an educational
programme
objectively, it is desirable to conduct a re-survey. The evidence of changed behaviour should
be collected, which shall not only provide a measure of success, but shall
also indicate the
deficiencies, if any.
In the example.
the re-survey after the fixed period of time,
indicated that the cron
vield had increased by 10 percent. It, therefore, indicated that there was a
gap of 10 Dercent
in crop yield in comparison to the target (objective)
ot 20 percent
also indicated that there had been two important deticiencies in
fixed earlier. The re-survev
carrying out the
educational programme, such as, there was lacCK Or proper water management and extension
could not apply the fertilizer and plant protecton measures as the farmers
per recommendation
lack of funds. due to

Fifth Step. The fifth step 1s

re-ConsideraOn
Orne
programme on the light of, the results of evaluation. The entireidentified
problems extensionin th
educational
of evaluation may become the starting point Or nc ncAL of the s
pnase extension
programme, unless new problems have developed or new situations have ar en.ucationaleducationa
After re-consideration of the results of evaluation wirn
the people,
tena the
objectives were again set up. For example, these were, training the farrmersfollowina
on teaching hing
management practices and putting up demonstrations on water managemenrperpeople
water