Gas Exchange in Humans

Features of gas exchange surfaces in humans:

1. Large surface area.
2. Thin surface.
3. Good blood supply.
4. Good ventilation with air.

Structure of The Lungs:

The lungs are enclosed in the thorax (chest region). They have a spongy texture and can
be expanded and compressed by movements of the thorax in such a way that air is
sucked in and blown out.
The lungs are joined to the back of the mouth by the windpipe or trachea.
The trachea divides into two smaller tubes, called bronchi (singular = bronchus), which
enter the lungs and divide into even smaller branches. When these branches are only
about 0.2 mm in diameter, they are called bronchioles.
These fine branches end in a mass of little, thin-walled, pouch-like air sacs called alveoli.
The epiglottis and other structures at the top of the trachea stop food and drink from
entering the air passages when we swallow.
The ribs, shown in cross section, form a cage, which has two main functions:
1. To protect the lungs and heart
2. To move to ventilate the lungs.

epiglottis
larynx (voice box)
larynx
trachea
cartilage ring
right bronchus
trachea alveoli section through rib

bronchiole intercostal muscle

bronchus left lung
lobes of
right lung blood vessels
of heart
right
atrium right
ventricle
diaphragm
The alveoli have thin elastic walls, formed from a single-cell layer or epithelium.
Beneath the epithelium is a dense network of capillaries supplied with deoxygenated
blood. This blood, from which the body has taken oxygen, is pumped from the right
ventricle, through the pulmonary artery.
In humans, there are about 350 million alveoli, with a total absorbing surface of about
90 m2. This large absorbing surface makes it possible to take in oxygen and give out
carbon dioxide at a rate to meet the body’s needs.
bronchiole to
pulmonary
ring of cartilage vein
trachea
air passage
from capillary
pulmonary
artery
bronchi

alveolus
bronchiole

(a) air passages in the lungs (b) the air passages end (c) blood supply of the alveoli
in tiny pockets (alveoli)

The movement of air into and out of the lungs, called ventilation, renews the oxygen
supply in the lungs and removes the surplus carbon dioxide.
Horseshoe-shaped hoops of cartilage are present in the trachea and bronchi to prevent
them collapsing when we breathe in. The lungs contain no muscle fibers and are made
to expand and contract by movements of the ribs and diaphragm.
The diaphragm is a sheet of tissue that separates the thorax from the abdomen. When
relaxed, it is domed slightly upwards.
The ribs are moved by the intercostal muscles. The external intercostals contract to pull
the ribs upwards and outwards.
The internal intercostals contract to pull them downwards and inwards. The figure shows
the contraction of the external intercostals making the ribs move upwards.
 external
intercostal
muscles

external intercostal
sternum muscle contracts
and swings
ribs upwards

sternum

rib spinal

spinal
column

Inhaling
1. The diaphragm muscles contract and pull it down.
2. The internal intercostal muscles relax, while the external intercostal muscles
contract and pull the ribcage upwards and outwards.
These two movements make the volume in the thorax bigger, so forcing the lungs to
expand. The reduction in air pressure in the lungs results in air being drawn in through
the nose and trachea. This movement of air into the lungs is known as ventilation.

Exhaling
1. The diaphragm muscles relax, allowing the diaphragm to return to its domed
shape.
2. The external intercostal muscles relax, while the internal intercostal muscles
contract, pulling the ribs downwards to bring about a forced expiration.
The lungs are elastic and shrink back to their relaxed volume, increasing the air pressure
inside them. This results in air being forced out again.
The outside of the lungs and the inside of the thorax are lined with a smooth membrane
called the pleural membrane.
This produces a thin layer of liquid called pleural fluid, which reduces the friction between
the lungs and the inside of the thorax.
 The Mechanism of Breathing:
3 air drawn in 3 air expelled
external intercostal contracted internal
muscles intercostal muscles
trachea
internal intercostal pleural membranes 1 ribs return
muscles
pleural
fluid 2 lungs return to
original volume spinal
column
2 lungs
expanded

rib
1 diaphragm
1 diaphragm relaxes and
returns to
pulled down contracted its domed relaxed
muscle of shape
diaphragm muscle of
(a) inhaling (exaggerated) (b) exhaling diaphragm

The Movement of Ribcage During Breathing”

spinal
column

sternum

rib

ribs swing up and ribs swing down and

increase volume of thorax reduce volume of thorax
(a) inhaling (b) exhaling

Breathing Rate and Exercise:

The increased rate and depth of breathing during exercise allows more oxygen to dissolve
in the blood and supply the active muscles. The extra carbon dioxide that the muscles put
into the blood is detected by the brain, which instructs the intercostal muscles and
diaphragm muscles to contract and relax more rapidly, increasing the breathing rate.
Carbon dioxide will be removed by the faster, deeper breathing.
Gaseous Exchange:
red cell capillary from
Gaseous exchange refers to pulmonary
the exchange of oxygen and artery
carbon dioxide, which takes
place between the air and the
blood vessels in the lungs. oxygen
enters dif en
fu sion of oxyg
The 1.5 liters of residual air in red
cells
the alveoli is not exchanged of e
during ventilation and oxygen on id film of
u si iox
f d moisture
has to reach the capillaries by dif on
rb epithelium
the slower process of diffusion. ca
of alveolus
The figure shows how oxygen carbon dioxide
reaches the red blood cells escapes into
alveolus
and how carbon dioxide to pulmonary vein
escapes from the blood.
The oxygen combines with the hemoglobin in the red blood cells, forming oxyhemoglobin.
The carbon dioxide in the plasma is released when the hydrogen carbonate ions (HCO3)
break down to CO2 and H2O.
The capillaries carrying oxygenated blood from the alveoli join up to form the pulmonary
vein, which returns blood to the left atrium of the heart. From here it enters the left ventricle
and is pumped all around the body, so supplying the tissues with oxygen.

Differences in Composition of Inspired and Expired Air:

Air in the atmosphere (which is breathed in) contains about 21% oxygen. Some of this is
absorbed into the bloodstream when it enters the alveoli, resulting in a reduction of
oxygen in exhaled air to 16% (the process of gaseous exchange in the alveoli does not
remove all the oxygen from the air). Gas exchange relies on diffusion to transfer the
oxygen into red blood cells and the air breathed in mixes with air that has not all been
breathed out from the previous breath, so the process of gas exchange is not very
efficient.
The remaining 79% of the air consists mainly of nitrogen, the percentage composition of
which does not change significantly during breathing.
Inspired air contains 0.04% carbon dioxide. Cells of the body produce carbon dioxide as
a waste product during aerobic respiration. The bloodstream carries carbon dioxide to the
lungs for excretion. It diffuses across the walls of the alveoli to be expired. The percentage
breathed out is 4%, 100 times greater than the percentage breathed in.
The lining of the alveoli is coated with a film of moisture in which the oxygen dissolves.
Some of this moisture evaporates into the alveoli and saturates the air with water vapor.
The air you breathe out, therefore, always contains a great deal more water vapor than
the air you breathe in.

The Relationship Between Physical Activity and The Rate and Depth of Breathing:
It has already been stated that the rate and depth of breathing increase during exercise.
In order for the limbs to move faster, aerobic respiration in the skeletal muscles increases.
Carbon dioxide is a waste product of aerobic respiration. As a result, CO2 builds up in the
muscle cells and diffuses into the plasma in the bloodstream more rapidly. The brain
detects increases in carbon dioxide concentration in the blood and stimulates the
breathing mechanism to speed up, increasing the rate of expiration of the gas. An
increase in the breathing rate also has the advantage of making more oxygen available
to the more rapidly respiring muscle cells.

Protection of The Gas Exchange System from Pathogens and Particles:

Pathogens are disease-causing organisms. Pathogens, such as bacteria, and dust
particles are present in the air we breathe in and are potentially dangerous if not actively
removed. There are two types of cells that provide mechanisms to help achieve this.
Goblet cells are found in the epithelial lining of
the trachea, bronchi and some bronchioles of
the respiratory tract. Their role is to secrete
mucus. The mucus forms a thin film over the
internal lining. This sticky liquid traps pathogens
and small particles, preventing them from
entering the alveoli where they could cause
infection or physical damage.
Ciliated cells are also present in the epithelial
lining of the respiratory tract. They are in a
continually flicking motion to move the mucus, secreted by the goblet cells, upwards and
away from the lungs. When the mucus reaches the top of the trachea, it passes down the
gullet during normal swallowing.