PC UPGRADE AND MAINTENANCE

With computer hardware, an upgrade is a term that describes adding new hardware in a computer that
improves its performance. For example, with a hardware upgrade, you could replace your hard drive
with an SSD or upgrade the RAM, providing a boost in performance and efficiency. Upgrading is the
process of replacing a product with a newer version of the same product. In computing and consumer
electronics an upgrade is generally a replacement of hardware, software or firmware with a newer or
better version, in order to bring the system up to date or to improve its characteristics.

How can I upgrade my computer system?

Upgrading the computer all depends on the type of computer you have and what you hope to
achieve with the upgrade. For example, the most common upgrade to a computer is upgrading
the computer memory to achieve better performance and greater memory capacity.

When someone want to do a system upgrade, he must think of a systematic procedure to do this process.
This involves the following:
1. To open the case of the pc
• Open the case and inspect whats inside there
➢ This can be done by either using Screwdriver/flat
• Many case variation are available
➢ Tower cases
➢ Mid tower cases
➢ Desktop cases
2. How to make a list of components to upgrade
• Example
➢ The RAM
➢ VGA card
➢ Mainboard
➢ Hard disk
3. Get prepared for a component change
• Obtain the required hardware/ software tools and component
4. Check and verify that the new component meet the requirements you want.

How to replace a case

Although it may look crowded at first glance, with a little practice, identifying various assemblies should
become almost automatic.
• An Average tower system incorporate seven key Items
➢ The Enclosure
➢ Power supply
➢ Motherboard
➢ Floppy disk drive
➢ Hard disk drive
 ➢ Video adapter
➢ Drive Control
The computer case holds all the internal parts of your pc
Case Size and form factors
Smaller cases are said to have smaller footprint and save space. However
Larger cases offer more room for expansion options and working a larger is somewhat easier.

AT AND ATX CASE

AT - Advanced Technology
ATX- Advanced Technology Extended
They are two form factors used in pc motherboards, which dictate their physical dimension and
layout. Developed by intel over the years.
Main difference between the ATX an AT
• PHYSICAL SIZE
➢ ATX- motherboard are larger in size
➢ AT- motherboard are smaller in size

COMPUTER HAZARDS
There are several hazards that can threaten the normal operation of a personal computer (PC). Here
are some typical examples:

1. Power Surges: Sudden spikes or surges in electrical power can damage PC components, such as
the motherboard, processor, or hard drive. This can happen due to lightning strikes, faulty wiring, or
power outages.

2. Power Outages: Unexpected power loss can lead to data corruption or loss if the PC is not
properly shut down. It can also cause hardware damage in some cases.

3. Overheating: PCs generate heat during operation, and if the cooling system fails or becomes
inefficient, the internal components can overheat. This can lead to system instability, crashes, and
even permanent damage to the CPU or GPU.

4. Physical Damage: Accidental impacts, dropping the PC, or mishandling can cause physical
damage to the components, including cracked screens, broken ports, or dislodged internal
connections.

5. Liquid Spills: Accidental spills of liquids onto the keyboard or other parts of the PC can damage
the internal circuitry, causing malfunctioning or complete failure of the affected components.

6. Malware and Viruses: Malicious software, such as viruses, worms, or ransomware, can infect a
PC and disrupt its normal operation. These threats can lead to data loss, unauthorized access, or
system instability.

7. Data Loss and Corruption: Various factors, such as hardware failures, software glitches, or user
errors, can result in data loss or corruption. This can be detrimental if important files, documents, or
media are affected.

VIRUS AND TYPES

Viruses, in the context of computing, refer to malicious software programs that are designed to
replicate themselves and infect computer systems. They can cause various types of damage,
including data loss, system crashes, unauthorized access, and more. Here are some common virus
types:

1. File Infector Viruses: These viruses attach themselves to executable files (e.g., .exe, .dll) and
replicate when the infected file is executed. They can spread to other files and often modify or corrupt
the host file.

2. Boot Sector Viruses: These viruses infect the boot sector of storage devices like hard drives or
floppy disks. When the infected device is accessed during system boot-up, the virus activates, loads
into memory, and can then spread to other storage devices.

3. Macro Viruses: Macro viruses infect files that support macros, such as documents or
spreadsheets. They embed malicious code within the macros and can spread when the infected file
is opened with macro functionality enabled.

4. Polymorphic Viruses: Polymorphic viruses have the ability to change their own code or signature
with each infection. This makes it challenging for antivirus software to detect and remove them.

5. Multipartite Viruses: Multipartite viruses infect both files and the boot sector. They can spread
through executable files as well as storage devices, making them more difficult to detect and remove.

6. Worms: While technically not viruses, worms are similar in nature. They are standalone programs
that can replicate themselves and spread across computer networks. Worms typically exploit security
vulnerabilities to gain access to systems and can cause widespread damage.

7. Trojans: Trojans are malicious programs disguised as legitimate software or files. They trick
users into executing or installing them, often leading to unauthorized access, data theft, or additional
malware installation.

8. Ransomware: Ransomware encrypts files on a victim's computer and demands a ransom in

exchange for the decryption key. It can rapidly spread across a network, causing widespread damage
and financial loss.

9. Spyware: Spyware is designed to gather information about a user's activities without their
knowledge. It can monitor keystrokes, track browsing habits, and capture sensitive information such
as login credentials or credit card details.

VIRUS AND WORMS

Viruses and worms are two types of malicious software (malware) that can infect computer systems,
but they differ in how they spread and replicate.

1. Viruses: Computer viruses are programs or code snippets that attach themselves to executable
files or documents. They rely on human action to spread, typically through sharing infected files or
executing infected programs. When a user runs an infected file or program, the virus can replicate
itself and spread to other files or systems. Viruses can cause various types of damage, such as
corrupting or deleting files, disrupting system functionality, or spreading to other computers via
email attachments or shared network resources.

2. Worms: Worms, on the other hand, are standalone programs that can spread independently
without human intervention. They exploit security vulnerabilities in operating systems, network
protocols, or software applications to gain unauthorized access to computer systems. Once inside,
worms can replicate themselves and use various methods to spread across networks, infecting other
connected devices. They can cause network congestion, consume system resources, compromise
data integrity, or even create backdoors for other types of malware to enter the system.

TO SUMMARIZE THE DIFFERENCES:

- Viruses require human action to spread (e.g., executing an infected file), while worms can self-
replicate and spread automatically without user interaction.
- Viruses typically attach themselves to files or programs, while worms are standalone programs.
- Viruses rely on infected files being shared or executed to spread, while worms exploit security
vulnerabilities to propagate themselves.
- Viruses can cause damage to files, system functionality, or spread to other computers, while worms
can create network-based disruptions and compromise the security of multiple systems.

Both viruses and worms can be highly destructive and are often designed with malicious intent,
aiming to disrupt computer systems, steal sensitive information, or carry out other harmful activities.
Protecting against these threats requires using up-to-date antivirus software, regularly patching
software and operating systems, practicing safe computing habits, and being cautious when opening
files or clicking on links, especially from untrusted sources.

SOURCES AND SPREADING OF VIRUSES

Computer viruses can originate from various sources and spread through different means. Here are
some common sources and spreading methods of computer viruses:

1. Infected Files and Software: Viruses often originate from infected files, such as executable files
(.exe), documents, spreadsheets, or even multimedia files. These infected files can be shared via
email attachments, file-sharing networks, or downloaded from compromised websites. When a user
opens or executes the infected file or software, the virus gets activated and may start replicating itself
or carrying out its malicious activities.

2. Email Attachments: Email attachments are a common vector for spreading viruses. Attackers
can send emails with infected attachments, typically disguised as legitimate files or documents.
When the recipient opens the attachment, the virus gets executed and may infect the recipient's
computer. To mitigate this risk, it is crucial to be cautious when opening email attachments,
especially from unknown or suspicious sources.

3. Infected Websites: Malicious actors can compromise legitimate websites by injecting viruses or
malware into the site's code or by hosting infected files. When users visit these infected websites or
download files from them, their systems can become infected. Keeping web browsers and security
software up to date and avoiding suspicious or untrustworthy websites can help reduce the risk of
infection.

4. Removable Storage Devices: Viruses can spread through infected USB flash drives, external
hard drives, or other removable storage devices. When an infected storage device is connected to a
computer, the virus can transfer itself to the host system, infecting files or even the boot sector. To
prevent such infections, it's important to scan removable storage devices with reliable antivirus
software before accessing their contents.

5. Software Downloads: Downloading software from untrusted or unofficial sources can expose
users to the risk of downloading infected or tampered files. Hackers may distribute malware-infected
versions of popular software or offer fake software updates that carry viruses. It is advisable to
download software only from official websites or reputable sources and verify the integrity of
downloaded files using checksums or digital signatures whenever possible.

To protect against viruses, it is crucial to have up-to-date antivirus software, regularly update
operating systems and applications, exercise caution when downloading files or opening
attachments, and practice safe browsing habits. Additionally, maintaining regular data backups can
help mitigate the impact of potential infections.

DETECTING AND REMOVING VIRUSES

Detecting and removing viruses from a computer system is crucial to maintain its security and
functionality. Here are the steps to effectively detect and remove viruses:

1. Install and Update Antivirus Software: Start by installing reputable antivirus software on your
computer. Ensure that it is regularly updated with the latest virus definitions and security patches.
This will enable the software to identify and remove the latest virus threats.

2. Perform a Full System Scan: Initiate a full system scan using your antivirus software. This scan
will thoroughly examine all files, programs, and system areas for any signs of viruses or malware.
Allow the antivirus software to complete the scan, as it may take some time depending on the size
of your system and the number of files to be scanned.

3. Quarantine or Remove Detected Threats: Once the scan is complete, the antivirus software will
display a report of detected threats. Review the report and take appropriate actions. Most antivirus
software offers options to quarantine infected files or remove them entirely from your system.
Quarantining isolates the infected files, preventing them from causing further harm.

4. Follow Antivirus Software Instructions: Follow any prompts or instructions provided by your
antivirus software for removing or resolving the detected threats. The software may provide
additional steps or recommendations for complete virus removal.
5. Update Operating System and Software: Keep your operating system, applications, and
software up to date with the latest security patches and updates. This helps to address any
vulnerabilities that viruses may exploit and enhances the overall security of your system.

6. Remove Suspicious or Unwanted Programs: Regularly review the programs installed on your
system and remove any suspicious or unwanted applications. Viruses can sometimes be bundled
with legitimate software or masquerade as legitimate programs. Uninstalling unnecessary or
suspicious software helps reduce the risk of virus infections.

7. Enable Real-time Scanning: Configure your antivirus software to perform real-time scanning,
which actively monitors files and programs for any virus activity. This provides proactive protection
against viruses by detecting and blocking threats in real-time.

UNDERSTAND THE NEED FOR PC UPGRADE .

PC upgrades are necessary to keep up with technological advancements, improve performance,
enhance capabilities, and ensure compatibility with modern software and applications. Here are some
key reasons why you may need to upgrade your PC:

1. Performance Improvement: Over time, as software and applications become more demanding,
your PC's performance may start to lag. Upgrading components like the processor, RAM, or storage
can significantly improve speed, responsiveness, and overall performance, allowing you to run
resource-intensive tasks smoothly.

2. Compatibility with New Software: Newer software versions often require more powerful
hardware or specific features that may not be supported by older PCs. Upgrading your PC ensures
compatibility with the latest software, enabling you to take advantage of new features and
improvements.

3. Gaming and Graphics Demands: If you're a gamer or work with graphics-intensive applications,
you may need to upgrade your PC to meet the requirements of modern games or design software.
Upgrading the graphics card, adding more RAM, or opting for a faster processor can enhance your
gaming or graphic design experience.

4. Storage Space and Speed: As data sizes continue to grow, you might find yourself needing more
storage space. Upgrading to a larger hard drive or solid-state drive (SSD) can provide the necessary
capacity. SSDs also offer faster data transfer speeds, resulting in quicker boot times and improved
application loading times.

5. Expanding Connectivity: If you need to connect newer peripherals or devices, such as high-
speed external drives, monitors with higher resolutions, or virtual reality (VR) headsets, you may
require hardware upgrades. Upgrading components like USB ports, graphics cards, or adding
expansion cards can provide the necessary connectivity options.

6. Security and Support: Older PCs may face vulnerabilities due to outdated hardware or
unsupported operating systems. Upgrading to newer systems ensures access to security patches, bug
fixes, and technical support from software and hardware vendors. This helps protect your PC from
emerging threats and ensures a reliable computing experience.

7. Energy Efficiency: Upgrading to newer PC components can result in increased energy efficiency,
which can reduce power consumption and save on electricity costs over time.

How to replace computer Motherboard

MOTHER BOARD

A motherboard is a printed circuit board used in a personal computer. It is also known as the
mainboard and occasionally abbreviated to mobo or MB. The term mainboard is also used for the
main circuit board in this and other electronic devices.

A typical motherboard provides attachment points for one or more of the following: CPU, graphics
card, sound card, hard disk controller, memory (RAM), and external peripheral devices.

All of the basic circuitry and components required for a computer to function sit either directly on
the motherboard or in an expansion slot of the motherboard. The most important component on a
motherboard is the chipset which consists of two components or chips known as the Northbridge
and Southbridge. These chips determine, to an extent, the features and capabilities of the
motherboard.

The remainder of this article discusses the state of the so-called "IBM compatible PC"
motherboard in the early 2000s. It contains the chipset, which controls the operation of the CPU,
the PCI, ISA, AGP, and PCI Express expansion slots, and (usually) the IDE/ATA controller as
well. Most of the devices that can be attached to a motherboard are attached via one or more slots
or sockets, although some modern motherboards support wireless devices using the IrDA,
Bluetooth, or 802.11 (Wi-Fi) protocols
The motherboard (also known as the main board, system board, backplane board, or planar board)
holds the majority of a computer’s processing power. As a minimum, a mother board contains the
system CPU, math co-processor (now routinely built into the CPU), clock/timing circuits, RAM,
cache, BIOS ROM, serial port(s), parallel port, and expansion slots. Each portion of the motherboard
is tied together with interconnecting logic circuitry. Some advanced motherboards also include
circuitry to handle drive and video interfaces. You can identify the motherboard easily as shown in
Fig. 1-6—it is the single large printed circuit board located just off of the enclosure’s base.
As you might expect, it is the motherboard more than any other element of the PC that defines the
performance (and performance limitations) of any given computer system. This is the reason why
motherboard upgrades are so popular, and often provide such stunning improvements to a PC. Let’s
break motherboard limitations down into the following nine categories:

CPU type
A CPU is responsible for processing each instruction and virtually all of the data needed by the
computer (whether the instruction is for BIOS, the operating system, or an application). The type of
CPU limits the PC’s overall processing power. For example, a PC with a Pentium II CPU runs
Windows 95 much better than a PC with a “classic” Pentium CPU. Also, a Pentium MMX CPU will
generally handle graphics-intensive ap-plications better than a “classic” Pentium CPU.

HOW TO REPLACE COMPUTER CPU

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
Most computer components are designed to perform only one or a limited number of functions, and
they only do so when it is specifically requested of them. The device responsible for organizing the
actions of these components is the processor, also referred to as the central processing unit, or CPU.
As the “brain” of the computer, the processor receives requests from you, the user; determines the
tasks needed to fulfill the request; and translates the tasks into signals that the required component(s)
can understand. The processor also does math and logic calculations.
central processing unit (CPU) refers to part of a computer that interprets and carries out, or processes,
instructions contained in the software. The term processor can refer to a CPU as well; see processor
(disambiguation) for other uses of this term. A microprocessor is a common type of CPUs that are
manufactured on a single integrated circuit. Most, but not all, modern CPUs are microprocessors.
Historically, a single-processor CPU was a set of refrigerator-sized racks of electronics very similar
to today's racks of processors in a server farm. One notable problem which continues to the current
day is cooling the electronics which had to run at high speeds, which requires the dissipation of wasted
energy, or heat.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

Central processing unit (CPU) refers to part of a computer that interprets and carries out, or processes,
instructions contained in the software. The term processor can refer to a CPU as well; see processor
(disambiguation) for other uses of this term. A microprocessor is a common type of CPUs that are
manufactured on a single integrated circuit. Most, but not all, modern CPUs are microprocessors.
Historically, a single-processor CPU was a set of refrigerator-sized racks of electronics very similar
to today's racks of processors in a server farm. One notable problem which continues to the current
day is cooling the electronics which had to run at high speeds, which requires the dissipation of wasted
energy, or heat.

The computer Mass storage unit (Hard Disk Drive)

A hard disk uses rigid rotating platters (disks). It stores and retrieves digital data from a planar
magnetic surface. Information is written to the disk by transmitting an electromagnetic flux through
an antenna or write head that is very close to a magnetic material, which in turn changes its
polarization due to the flux. The information can be read back in a reverse manner, as the magnetic
fields cause electrical change in the coil or read head that passes over it

A typical hard disk drive design consists of a central axis or spindle upon which the platters spin
at a constant speed. Moving along and between the platters on a common armature are the read-
write heads, with one head for each platter face. The armature moves the heads radially across the
platters as they spin, allowing each head access to the entirety of the platter.

The associated electronics control the movement of the read-write armature and the rotation of the
disk, and perform reads and writes on demand from the disk controller. Modern drive electronics
are capable of scheduling reads and writes efficiently across thedisk and remapping sectors of the
disk which have failed

The (mostly) sealed enclosure protects the drive internals from dust, condensation, and other
sources of contamination. The hard disk's read-write heads fly on an air bearing (a cushion of air)
only nanometers above the disk surface. The disk surface and the drive's internal environment must
therefore be kept immaculately clean to prevent damage from fingerprints, hair, dust, smoke
particles, etc. given the submicroscopic gap between the heads and disk

Visual Display Unit (VDU)

VDU is a device, such as a television screen, which produces a visible display of data. The VDU is
also called Monitor.

The computer monitor is an output device that is part of the computer's display system. A cable
connects the monitor to a video adapter (video card) that is installed in an expansion slot on the
computer’s motherboard. This system converts signals into text and pictures and displays them on a
TV-like screen (the monitor).

The computer sends a signal to the video adapter, telling it what character, image or graphic to display.
The video adapter converts that signal to a set ofinstructions that tell the display device (monitor) how
to draw the image on the screen.

Types of Monitors

There are many ways to classify monitors. The most basic is in terms ofcolor capabilities, which
separates monitors into three classes:

• Monochrome: Monochrome monitors actually display two colors,one for the background and
one for the foreground. The colors can beblack and white, green and black, or amber and black.
• Gray-scale: A gray-scale monitor is a special type of monochrome monitor capable of
displaying different shades of gray.
• Colour: Colour monitors can display anywhere from 16 to over 1 million different colors.
Color monitors are sometimes called RGB monitors because they accept three separate signals --
red, green, andblue.
There are mainly two types of monitors in use. They are:

1. CRT monitor 2. LCD Monitor

Working Principle

A CRT is a vacuumed sealed tube with no air inside. In a CRT monitor, the electron gun produces a
beam of electrons that travels through a focusing system, deflection coils, and then into the screen
to display a picture. Therest of this website is dedicated to explaining the details of the system.

The above figure is the inside of a Cathode-ray tube. A beam of electrons (cathode rays) is emitted
by the electron gun, passes through various focusing and deflection systems, and then hits specific
areas on a phosphor- coated screen.
 Electron Gun
The electron gun consists of a metal cathode, control grid, and various anodes as labeled
above in the figure. It is important to remember that electrons are small negatively particles,
because their direction is controlled by the type of voltage. Negative charges repel each other,
and opposites attract.

• First, heat is generated by an electric current passing through a

heating filament, and it causes electrons to fly off the cathode.
• Intensity of the electron beam is controlled by the voltage at thecontrol grid. A high negative
voltage in the control grid with stop the electron beam.
• Next, inside the vacuum of the CRT, the focusing anode concentrates the electrons into a small
beam so they can be accelerated.
• Finally, the negatively charged electrons are accelerated towards the screen by a high positive
voltage at the accelerating anode.

Focusing System

After the electron beam leaves the electron gun, the electrons go through another focusing
system. The focusing system, a metal cylinder, uses a positive electric field that causes the
electrons to converge into a small point.This assures that the electron beam will only hit one spot
on the monitor at a time. Improving the focusing system increases the sharpness of the picture
on the screen.

Deflection Coils

The magnetic deflection coils are used to hit the correct part of thescreen. They are mounted on
all sides of the cathode-ray tube, and they control the horizontal and vertical direction of the
electron beam. Varyingthe electricity running through the coils aims the beam at the proper screen
location
The Phosphor Coating

The light on the screen that a user sees is caused by electrons illuminatinga phosphor coating.
Part of the energy from the electrons is converted to heat by friction, and the rest of the energy
causes the phosphor to become “excited.” The phosphor does not hold its excited state for long,
and the lightquickly dwindles. Different phosphors hold the light for different amounts of time.
The amount of time it takes for the phosphor to lose 9/10ths of its original intensity is called the
persistence.

Color

A CRT monitor displays color by using the phosphor and the shadow- mask method. This is
the same system that televisions use. It is based on the RGB model, which means there is a red,
green, and blue dot at each positionon the screen. Three electron guns are used to activate each
color separately. Varying the intensity of each electron gun, or shutting the beams off, determines
the color. This is shown in the figure below. If all beams are off, then the dot is black. If all beams
are on, then the color of the dot is white. Today, the average monitor has the capability to display
millions of differentcolors.

Monitor
The function of a monitor is to produce visual responses to user requests. Most desktop computers
use cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors. CRTs use an electron gun to activate phosphors behind the
screen. Each dot on the monitor, called a pixel, has the ability to generate red, green, or blue,
depending on the signals it receives. This combination of colors results in the total display you
see on the monitor.

Computer Display (Monitor)

A computer display, monitor or screen is a computer peripheral device capable of showing still
or moving images generated by a computer and processed by a graphics card. Monitors generally
conform to one or more display standards. Sometimes the name "display" is preferred to the word
"monitor", as the latter can be ambiguous alongside the other senses of "monitor" meaning
"machine-level debugger" or "thread synchronization mechanism". Computer displays are
sometimes called heads, especially when talking about how many are connected to a computer.
Once an essential component of a computer terminal, computer displays have long since become
standardized peripherals in their own right.

CATHODE RAY TUBE

A modern CRT display has considerable flexibility: it can often handle all resolutions from 640 by
480 pixels (640×480) up to 2048 by 1536 pixels (2048×1536) with 32-bit colour
 Liquid Crystal Display

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up of any number of color or
monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. It is prized by engineers because
it uses very small amounts of electric power, and is therefore suitable for use in battery-powered
electronic devices.

REPLACING THE COMPUTER DISPLAY UNIT:

One of the most important items one has to care about regarding his personal computer is his
display unit.

To decide to replace a display unit is not a simple decision. The following are some guidelines
to tell you if you need to replace your display unit or not:

1- The size of monitor you have and the size of the newer one. Sometimes you have a 15” Cathode-
Ray-Tube (CRT) monitor. You may replace it with a 17” or 19 “one. A bigger monitor is better
for your sight.
2- The type of monitor. Some brand names are better than others. The difference in requirements
can be studied by the sheets with each. One of the most important things about a display unit is
its resolution. It is measured in pixels. The more the resolution of a display unit, the better it will
be. Also, there is another factor which is the dot pitch and it is measured in mms. The lower the
dot pitch, the better the display unit.
3- Sometimes one may think of replacing a CRT monitor with an LCD one. LCD monitors are better
for the person who sits a lot in front of a computer. It costs more but you feel better when using
it instead of a CRT monitor.

REPLACING A VGA CARD:

One may need to replace a video card if it fails or if he/she wants a newerone with better
specifications. The VGA card is very important in many software applications like video-editing,
animations, CAD, or else. When you decide to replace your old VGA card you must know in
advance that the newer one will meet your requirements and has compatibility with the
motherboard. The following are the steps of replacing a VGA card

Video cards are pretty reliable, though some of the newer ones run so hot that they have their own
cooling systems, and if the fan fails, the video processor can't be too far behind. Almost all
systems you crack open these days will feature an AGP video card, only the oldest system have
PCI video and only the very newest feature PCI Express. The first step to installing a video card
 is opening up the case, which varies with non-standard systems, but for a normal mid-tower, it
means two screws at the most. You want to remove the side that's above the motherboard, which
you can easily determine by looking at the back of the case.
The I/O core at the bottom with the ports is attached to the motherboard. As soon as the lidis off,
we remove the video card hold-down screw.

Keyboard and Pointing devices

The Keyboard is an input device of computers. Keyboard is also the primaryway to interact with
a PC.

Types of Keyboards
Keyboards have changed very little in layout since their introduction.In fact, the most common
change has simply been the natural evolution of adding more keys that provide additional
functionality.

The most common keyboards classified based on the number of keys are:

• 101-key Enhanced keyboard

• 104-key Windows keyboard
• 82-key Apple standard keyboard
• 108-key Apple Extended keyboard

Keyboards are available in various forms. The different types of keyboardsare:

1. Normal Windows compatible keyboard
2. Multimedia Keyboard

This is a keyboard which is provided with some additional or hot keys totake advantage of the
internet.
3. Ergonomic Keyboard

This is a keyboard designed to keep the handsin a natural position that helps avoid repetitive
stress injuries to the wrists
4. Cordless Keyboards

5. These keyboards do not make use of any cord or cable connection. This communicates the
data using radio frequency and is operated bya battery. The distance at which the key board
can be used is around15 feet.

6. Projection keyboards.

These are the latest types of keyboards. These are virtual keyboards
that can be projected and touched on any surface. The keyboard watches your fingers move
 and translates that action into keystrokes in the device.

Troubleshooting Keyboards

A good Keyboard will have to be smooth keys and working properly is a must thing. Keyboard
cleaning tips is very necessary for all of us who use computers. We all get tension when any
button of our Keyboard sticks and cannot work properly as we like. Mostly this happened because
of dust or dirt in Keyboard. then the Keyboard need cleaning. here some of Keyboard cleaning
tips are listed which is useful for all of us. this Keyboard cleaning guide will take you through
cleaning a Keyboard step by step. Proper cleaning and lubrication make the keyboard
performance smooth. There aremany types of computer keyboards are available in market.

Replacing a keyboard or a mouse.

Once a keyboard or a mouse has to be replaced, some issues have to be taken into consideration:
First, we must look at the motherboard if supports the type of the keyboard or a mouse. For
keyboards we have AT, PS2, USB and wireless types. Some old motherboards do not support
USB type, so we must be careful when we choose this type of keyboard. This also applies to mice,
but instead of AT we have serial mouse. The Input/Output ports that are found on the rear side of
a computer motherboard

Modems

The word "modem" is a contraction of the word’s modulator- demodulator. A modem is typically
used to send digital data over aphone line.

The sending modem modulates the data into a signal that is compatible withthe phone line, and
the receiving modem demodulates the signal back into digital data. Wireless modems convert
digital data into radio signals and back.

Modem standards

Most modem standards are referred to by a code assigned by the Consultative Committee for
International Telephony and Telegraphy(CCITT).

The standards fall into three categories:

1. Modulation (speed)
2. Error correction
3. Data compression

1. Modulation (speed) standards

Modulation (or speed) standards involve the rates and ways modems communicate
with each other, and how they negotiate the best communication speed they can
both use for the connection. These arecommon modulation standards:
2. Error correction standards

Error correction standards provide a way of correcting errors that result fromoutside interference,
such as noise on the phone line. Error correction ensures that data coming out of the receiving
modem is exactly the same as data going into the sending modem.
Error correction standards correct only those errors occurring between the two modems. They
cannot correct errors occurring between the modem and the computer (a connection which is
considerably more reliable when propercables are used and connections secured).

3. Data compression standards

Data compression standards provide a way of compressing data at the sending modem, transmitting
it across the modem link in compressed form,and then expanding it at the receiving modem.
If the data can be compressed, data compression increases the effective throughput. If the data
cannot be compressed, then modems with data compression gives little benefit.