DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENT
DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT IN FRONT OF P.C.E. PURNEA
 Department of Civil engineering
PURNEA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PURNEA
Affiliated to Aryabhatta Knowledge University, Patna
Approved by AICTE New Delhi
(Recognized by Govt. of Bihar 854303)

A Project report on
DESIGN OF A FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT IN FRONT OF P.C.E, PURNEA

Submitted by:-
1. IRSHAD AHAMAD - 18101131036
2. SUMIT KUMAR - 18101131037
3. RAJAN KUMAR - 18101131038
4. SACHIN RAJ - 18101131039
5. ARADHANA - 18101131040
6. SUSHMITA KUAMRI - 18101131041

Session: - 2018-2022
Under the guidance of – Mr. Saurabh Kumar
(Asst. Professor)

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 TABLE OF CONTENT:-
 CERTIFICATE ........................................................ 4

 DECLARATION ..................................................... 5

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................... 6

 ABSTRACT ............................................................ 7

 LIST OF FIGURES ................................................ 8

 LIST OF TABLES ................................................... 8

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................. 9-22

TYPES OF PAVEMENTS ..................................... 9-10

COMPONENTS OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMEN ....... 12-13

TEWST FOR FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT ............... 14-16

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENT .......................................................... 16-17

DEFECTS IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT ................ 17-22

2. OBJECTIVE ............................................................. 22

3. LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................... 22-25

4. METHODOLOGY ................................................ 26-33

5. RESULT AND DISCUSSION ................................... 33-39

6. FUTURE SCOPE ........................................................37

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7. CONCLUSION ...................................................... 38

8. REFERENCE .......................................................39-40

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 PURNEA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
PURNEA

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the interim this dissertation entitled

“DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT” submitted by
SACHIN RAJ (18101131039) to the Dept. of Civil
Engineering PCE, Purnea is a record of bonafide work
under supervision of Prof. Saurabh Kumar. This
dissertation has not been submitted for any other degree
elsewhere to the best of my knowledge.

Prof. Saurabh Kumar Prof. Saurabh Kumar External Examiner

(Project Guidance) (HOD)

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 DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the thesis work entitled “DESIGN OF
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT” in partial fulfilment is a bonafide
record of our own work carried out under the supervision of
prof. Saurabh Kumar (HOD) Dept. Of Civil Engineering PCE,
Purnea.
I further declare that the thesis either in part of full, has
not will not submitted by us for the award of my degree
elsewhere.

1. IRSHAD AHAMAD - 18101131036

2. SUMIT KUMAR - 18101131037

3. RAJAN KUMAR - 18101131038

4. SACHIN RAJ - 18101131039

5. ARADHANA - 18101131040

6. SUSHMITA KUAMRI - 18101131041

Date: 6th August 2022

Place: PCE, Purnea

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are expressing our deep sense of gratitude to our respected
H.O.D Prof. Saurabh Kumar, Department of Civil Engineering ,
Training and Placement Officer, PURNEA COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING, Purnea for his constant guidance, innovative
suggestion, and warm encouragement throughout the project.

We thank our faculty members for their help and suggestions given
during course of program. We are thankful to one and all, which
help directly or indirectly in completing this project report.

We learnt more from this project and experienced new things

deeply.

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 ABSTRACT

In nowadays it is very important to have a proper road network for the purpose
of good transportation. Few places road network is not available while the
traffic is higher and enough to execute comfortable and safe driving.
Pavement is constructed to provide smooth and comfort moment of the traffic.
Flexible pavement will be subjected to load which builds stress on the
pavement materials. In flexible pavement the transmission of stress takes
place particles-to-particles and then to the lower grades of layer’s through the
granular structure. The pavement is subjected to the wheel loading action on
it and the load is to be distributed to a larger area, such that the decrease in
stress will occur with respect to the depth.
The satisfactory performance of the pavement will result in higher savings in
terms of vehicle operating costs and travel time, which has a bearing on the
overall economic feasibility of the project. A deep analysis of the existing
pavement is greatly required at this point of time, as an excessive amount of
vehicle loads is passing it throughout the day.
Now flexible pavement are preferred over cement concrete roads as they have
a great advantage that these can be strengthened and improved in stages with
the growth of traffic. Another major advantage is that they are less expensive
with regard to initial investment and maintenance.

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1. Flexible Pavement Cross-Section ........................................ 10

Fig. 2. Rigid Pavement Cross-Section ............................................ 10
Fig. 3. Casagrande’s liquid limit apparatus .................................... 15
Fig. 4. Alligator Cracks Formed in Flexible Pavements ................. 18
Fig. 5. Depression Distress ............................................................. 18
Fig. 6. Shoving ............................................................................... 19
Fig. 7. Potholes in pavement .......................................................... 20
Fig. 8. Bleeding.............................................................................. 21
Fig. 9. Longitudinal cracks ............................................................. 21
Fig. 10. Transverse cracks .............................................................. 22
Fig. 11. Hot Dry Oven at 105 degree C ............................................................ 26
Fig. 12. Casagrande’s Liquid Limit Apparatus ................................................. 27
Fig. 13. Cross-section of flexible pavement as function of G ............................ 30
Fig. 14. Load during C.B.R. Test .................................................... 31
Fig. 15. C.B.R. Test machine ........................................................................... 32
Fig. 16. Soil after 25 number of blows ...........................................35

LIST OF Tables
Table. 1. Difference between flexible pavements and rigid pavements ....... 11
Table. 2. Traffic vehicle is divided into three group based on cumulative
vehicle /day ............................................................................................... 31
Table .3. Observation table for liquid limit test ..........................................33
Table .4. Observed data from compaction test ............................................ 35
Table.5. Dry density corresponding to the water content ........................... 36
Table. 6. Penetration corresponding to the applied load .............................. 38

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 1. INTRODUCTION
A layered structure supported by the sub-grade soil to form the carriageway
of the road is called a road pavement. The primary function of a pavement is
to transmit loads to the sub-base and underlying soil. Modern flexible
pavements contain sand and gravel or crushed stone compacted with a binder
of bituminous material, such as asphalt, tar, or asphaltic oil. Such a pavement
has enough plasticity to absorb shock.
Purpose of a Road Pavement
 The main purpose is to carry heavy wheel loads of vehicular traffic.
 To distribute the vehicular load over a large area of the underlying sub-
grade soil.
 Generally to provide a smooth road pavement surface.
 To prevent ill effects of weathering agencies on sub-grade soil.
Requirements of a Good Road Pavement
 Generally road pavement should be suitable to all type of traffic.
 They should be easy to construct and cheap in budget.
 It should be durable and strong.
 They should not develop corrugation.
 It should provide good visibility at night.
 Riding a bike or driving a vehicle must be safe and comfortable on the
pavements.
 Maintenance cost should be low.

TYPES OF PAVEMENT
Commonly we have two types of pavement they are Rigid Pavement and
Flexible Pavement.

Flexible Pavement
Flexible pavement can be defined as the one consisting of a mixture of
asphaltic or bituminous material and aggregates placed on a bed of compacted
granular material of appropriate quality in layers over the subgrade. Water
bound macadam roads and stabilized soil roads with or without asphaltic
toppings are examples of flexible pavements. The design of flexible
pavement is based on the principle that for a load of any magnitude, the
intensity of a load diminishes as the load is transmitted downwards from the
surface by virtue of spreading over an increasingly larger area, by carrying it

PAGE 9
deep enough into the ground through successive layers of granular material.
Thus for flexible pavement, there can be grading in the quality of materials
used, the materials with high degree of strength is used at or near the surface.
Thus the strength of subgrade primarily influences the thickness of the flexible
pavement.

SURFACE COURSE

BASE COURSE

SUBBASE

SUBGRADE

Fig. 1. Flexible Pavement Cross-Section

Rigid Pavement
A rigid pavement is constructed from cement concrete or reinforced concrete
slabs. Grouted concrete roads are in the category of semi-rigid pavements.
The design of rigid pavement is based on providing a structural cement
concrete slab of sufficient strength to resists the loads from traffic. The rigid
pavement has rigidity and high modulus of elasticity to distribute the load over
a relatively wide area of soil. Minor variations in subgrade strength have little
influence on the structural capacity of a rigid pavement. In the design of a
rigid pavement, the flexural strength of concrete is the major factor and not
the strength of subgrade. Due to this property of pavement, when the subgrade
deflects beneath the rigid pavement, the concrete slab is able to bridge over
the localized failures and areas of inadequate support from subgrade because
of slab action.

CONCRETE SLAB

BASE COURSE

SUBBASE COURSE

SUBGRADE

Fig. 2. Rigid Pavement Cross-Section

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TABLE. 1. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
AND RIGID PAVEMENTS
Sl.
Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement
No.
It consists of one layer
It consists of a series of layers with
Portland cement concrete slab
1. the highest quality materials at or
or relatively high flexural
near the surface of pavement.
strength.
It reflects the deformations of It is able to bridge over
2. subgrade and subsequent layers on localized failures and area of
the surface. inadequate support.

Its stability depends upon the Its structural strength is

3. aggregate interlock, particle friction provided by the pavement slab
and cohesion. itself by its beam action.

4. Pavement design is greatly Flexural strength of concrete is

influenced by the subgrade strength. a major factor for design.

It distributes load over a wide

It functions by a way of load
area of subgrade because of its
5. distribution through the component
rigidity and high modulus of
layers elasticity.

Temperature variations due to

Temperature changes induce
6. change in atmospheric conditions heavy stresses in rigid
do not produce stresses in flexible pavements.
pavements.

Flexible pavements have self- Any excessive deformations

healing properties due to heavier occurring due to heavier wheel
7.
wheel loads are recoverable due to loads are not recoverable, i.e.
some extent. settlements are permanent.

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 COMPONENTS OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

The components of a typical flexible pavement structure are:-

 Prepared soil subgrade
 Granular sub-base cum drainage layer
 Granular base course
 Bituminous binder and/or surface course

The flexible pavement structure consists of a number of layers. The top

surface of the pavement has to sustain the highest magnitude of stresses and
wear and tear due to the moving traffic loads. The surface course has also to
withstand the adverse effects of rain fall, flow of surface water and the
resultant adverse effects of rain fall, flow of surface water and the resultant
adverse effects of variations in water content and temperature due to climatic
conditions of the locality. As the lower layers of the pavement are subjected
to less severe stress and other adverse conditions, inferior and cheaper
materials may be made use of.

Function of surface course

Surface course or wearing course is the top most layer of flexible pavement
which has direct contact with the vehicular loads. Since it is directly in contact
with traffic, good quality aggregates and high dense bitumen or asphalt is
recommended for the construction of surface course. The main function of
surface course is to provide skid resistance surface, friction and drainage for
the pavement. It should be water tight against surface water infiltration. The
thickness of surface course generally provided is 25 to 50 mm.

Function of binder
Binder course is also constructed using aggregates and bitumen but with less
quality than materials used for surface course. In general, its thickness is about
50 to 100 mm. If economy is not a problem, binder course and surface course
can be constructed monotonically using good quality materials with 100 to

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150 mm thickness. The function of binder course is to transfer the loads
coming from surface course to the base course.

Function of base course

The base course is important layer of pavement structure and it distributes the
loads from top layers to the underneath Sub-base and sub-grade layers. It
provides structural support for the pavement surface. It is constructed with
hard and durable aggregates which may either stabilized or granular or both.
The thickness of base course must be great enough to reduce the load capacity
on sub-grade and Sub-base courses. The minimum base course thickness
recommended is 100 mm. sub surface drainage system can be provided with
in the base course.

Function of sub-base
The Sub-base course is provided beneath the base course and it also functions
as same as base course. If the sub-grade soil is strong and stiff, then there is
no need to sub-base course. Granular aggregates are used to construct sub-
base course. If sub-grade is weak minimum 100 mm thick sub-base course
should be provided.

Function of soil subgrade

Subgrade is the bottom most layer which is nothing but natural soil layer
compacted up to required depth generally about 150 to 300 mm to receive the
loads coming from top layers. This layer is termed as foundation for the
pavement system. The sub-grade should be strong enough to take the stresses
and also it is important to keep the stresses coming from top layers should be
within the limit of sub-grade capacity. To reduce the amount of stress on soil
sub-grade, provide thick layers of base course, Sub-base course and surface
course.

TEST FOR FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Test done before designing any road pavement are:-
 WATER CONTENT TEST
 ATTERBERGS LIMIT TEST

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  CBR TEST
 SIEVE ANALYSIS
 COMPACTION TEST
 BITUMINOUS TEST

From the above mentioned test the test that we had performed are: -
Water Content Test, Atterbergs Limit Test, CBR Test and Compaction Test.

WATER CONTENT
Water content test is done by various methods like:-
 Oven drying method
 Pycnometer method
 Sand bath method
 Alcohol method
 Calcium carbide method
 Radiation method
 Torsion balance method
But we had done this water content test by oven drying method.

ATTERBERGS LIMIT TEST

The Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the nature of a fine grained soil.
Depending on the water content of the soil, it may appear in four states:
1. Solid
2. Semi-solid
3. Plastic
4. Liquid

Shrinkage Limit
The shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where further loss of moisture
will not result in any more volume reduction.

Plastic Limit

PAGE 14
The plastic limit (PL) is the water content where soil starts to exhibit plastic
behavior. A thread of soil is at its plastic limit when it is rolled to a diameter
of 3 mm or begins to crumble. To improve consistency, a 3 mm diameter rod
is often used to gauge the thickness of the thread when conducting the test.

LIQUID LIMIT
Liquid limit (LL) is defined as the limit of water content at which the soil is
just about to pass from the plastic state into the liquid state. The liquid limit
is the minimum moisture content at which the soil tends to flow as a liquid.

Fig. 3. Casagrande’s Liquid Limit Apparatus

COMPACTION TEST
Compaction test is used to determine the Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)
and maximum dry density of a soil sample by the Standard Proctor
Compaction test. For the construction of highways, airports, and other
structures, it is necessary to compact soil so the strength of the soil get
improved.

Compaction is the process of densification of soil mass by reducing the air

voids. The purpose of laboratory compaction test is to determine the proper
amount of water at which the weight of the soil grains in a unit volume of the
compacted soil is maximum and this value is thus called the Optimum
Moisture Content (OMC).

PAGE 15
 Factors influencing the performance of pavement:-
I. Traffic
Traffic is the most important factor influencing the performance. The
performance of pavements is most likely influenced by the loading
magnitude, configuration and the number of load repetitions by heavy
vehicles. The damage caused per pass to a pavement by an axle is
defined relative to the damage per pass of a standard axle load, which
is defined as an 80 KN single axle load.
II. Moisture
Moisture can significantly weaken the support strength of natural
gravel materials, especially the sub grade. Moisture can enter the
pavement structure through cracks and holes in the surface, laterally
through the subgrade, and then form the underlying water table
through capillary action. The result of moisture content is the
lubrication of the particles, loss of particle interlock and subsequent
particle displacement resulting in pavement failure.
III. Subgrade
The subgrade is the underlying soil that supports the applied wheel
loads. If the sub grade is too weak to support the wheel loads, the
pavement will flex easily which ultimately cause the pavement to fail.
IV. Construction quality
Failure to obtain proper compaction, improper moisture conditions
during construction, quality of materials, and accurate layer thickness
(after compaction) all directly affect the performance of the pavement.
These conditions stress the need for skilled staff and the importance of
good inspection and quality control procedures during construction.
V. Weather condition
Change in weather builds different types of stress on the pavement.
VI. Use of chemical
The frost heave and use of chemicals damage the road to some extent
and makes it difficult to use.
VII. Ultraviolet rays

PAGE 16
 The ultraviolet rays cause oxidation of the pavement materials and
bring it to a brittle state. On a hot sunny day, when the temperature of
the pavement rises to 140 degree Celsius. This is the softening point
of liquid asphalt. This results in the expansion of the pavement and
make it to move. Then the sudden reduction in temperature will make
the pavement to contract. This expansion and contraction leads to the
initial cracking of the pavement
.
Defects in the Flexible Pavement
As we know that there are many layers in the flexible pavement and if there is any
instability in any of the layers will result in the complete failure of the pavement
system. So it becomes necessary for us to build each layer with care and precision.
There are different types of failures in flexible pavements. That why it becomes
necessary to go through these failure and find the suitable ways to mitigate it.

I. Alligator Cracking of Flexible Pavements

Alligator cracks are sometimes called as map cracking. This is a fatigue failure
caused in the asphalt concrete. In this failure series of interconnected cracks are
observed due to such distress. The tensile stress is maximum at the asphalt surface
(base). This is the position where the cracks are formed, i.e. the area with maximum
tensile stress. A parallel of longitudinal cracks will propagate with time and reaches
the surface. Repeated loading and stress concentration will help the individual
cracks to get connected. These will resemble as a chicken wire or similar to the
alligator skin. This is termed as the alligator cracking. It is also known as the
crocodile cracking. These cracking is observed only in areas that have repeated
traffic loading. Alligator cracking is one of the major structural distress. This distress
is later accompanied by rutting.

PAGE 17
 0

Fig. 4. Alligator Cracks Formed in Flexible Pavements

Source- https://i0.wp.com/theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/alligator-
cracks-in-flexible-pavements.jpg?resize=316%2C407&ssl=1

II. Depressions in Flexible Pavements

There are certain areas in the pavement that are localized and have a lower elevation
compared to the surrounding pavement level. These lowering are depressions found
on the pavement. They are mainly noticed only when they are filled with water
(After rain). Depressions in flexible pavements are a very common distress found in
parking lot construction as well as in overlays. These depressions can be caused
either by the foundation soil settlement due to continuous loading or it can be
formed during the construction. There are different severity levels that are
considered for the depression in the flexible pavement that is constructed for airfield
purposes.

Fig. 5. Depression Distress

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 Source- https://i0.wp.com/theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/depression-
in-flexible-pavements.jpg?resize=225%2C168&ssl=1

III. Corrugations in Flexible Pavements

The corrugations are distress seen in the pavement at regular intervals in the form
of ridges and valleys. These are usually less than 5 feet, along with the direction of
the pavement. The ridges form of corrugations will be perpendicular to the traffic
direction. Unstable pavement plus traffic will create such distress. Where the traffic
starts and stops, this distress are observed.

IV. Shoving
A form of plastic movement that is seen in the form of the wave is called as shoving
distress. These are also observed perpendicular to the direction of the traffic.

Fig. 6. Shoving

V. Potholes

The pavement fatigue is the main reason behind the formation of potholes. The occurrence
of fatigue cracking will interlock to form alligator cracking. These chunks between the
cracks formed in the pavement will become loose and will be picked out under continuous
loading and stresses. This will leave a pothole on the pavement. In cold temperatures, the
water trapped in the pothole will carry out the freezing and thawing action that leads to
additional stresses and crack propagation. Once the pothole is formed, the distress grows
resulting in the continuous removal of pavement chunks. Water entrapped will increase
this rate of expansion of distress. The pothole can expand to several feet in width. They
don’t develop too much in depth. The vehicle tires are damaged due to large potholes.

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 Fig. 7. Potholes in pavement

Source- https://i0.wp.com/theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/transverse-
cracking-flexible-pavements.jpg?resize=374%2C236&ssl=1

VI. Rutting of Flexible Pavements

The depression formed in the surface is called the rutting. This is formed in the wheel path
surface. This depression will make the other sides of the wheel to undergo uplift. This
pavement uplift is also called as shearing. These ruts like depressions are evident after rain.
Where these depressions would be filled with water. There are two types of rutting that can
occur;

 Pavement Rutting
 Subgrade Rutting

VII. Bleeding
The phenomenon of formation of a film of asphalt binder over the surface of the pavement
surface is called as bleeding. The occurrence of bleeding will give a shiny glass like
reflecting surface. The layer will have bubbles which are seen as blisters. The asphalt
binder formed will be sticky in nature. The filling of asphalt binder into the aggregate voids
during hot weather conditions and their expansion in later situations will result in bleeding.
As the process of bleeding cannot be reverted in cold temperatures, they remain on the top
of the pavement as such. The bleeding can be caused due to the following factors:

 Excessive asphalt binder in the mix

 Excessive application of the binder during surface treatment
 Lower air void content - no adequate voids for the bitumen to penetrate

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 Fig. 8. Bleeding

Source - https://i0.wp.com/theconstructor.org/wp-
content/uploads/2017/03/transverse-cracking-flexible-
pavements.jpg?resize=374%2C236&ssl=1

VIII. Longitudinal and transverse cracking

This distress can be considered as either a structural or an environmental distress. The
longitudinal cracks are formed parallel to the pavement alignment or the center line of the
pavement.

Fig. 9. Longitudinal cracks

Source- https://i0.wp.com/theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/transverse-
cracking-flexible-pavements.jpg?resize=374%2C236&ssl=1

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 Fig. 10. Transverse cracks

2. OBJECTIVE

The objective of laying pavement is to support the wheel loads and to transfer the
load stresses through a wider area on the soil subgrade soil through the pavement
layers. The reduction in the wheel load stress due to the pavement depends both in
the thickness and the characteristic of the materials used the different pavement
layers placed over the soil subgrade.
 To provide the road which can withstand the expected traffic loading.
 To limit the stresses induced in the subgrade by traffic to a safe level.
 To provide the surface that can be strong on surface strength and in moisture
content.
 To provide the surface that is smooth and should be safe in friction and
drainage.
 Flexible pavements can take maximum load carrying capacity in the form of
load magnitude.
 Flexible pavement is designed to protect the subgrade of road and to avoid
tensile stress

3. LITERATURE REVIEW
Designing flexible pavements of a district road in front of Purnea College Of
Engineering, Purnea. Connecting road designed and estimated at the least
price providing the localized material for the sub-grade which is morrum in

PAGE 22
nature from the traffic value survey the commercial vehicle per day has been
obtained. Most part to conclude that a safe and durable road with culverts have
been designed taking all the technical specifications into consideration.
Flexible pavement for NH-31. The designed is carried out by the performing
overall tests.
Budiyono (2012) conducted a study about analysis damage of Road with
the method of PCI and alternative solution (case study joint streets of
Purwodadi - Solo Km 12+000 - Km 24+000). This study said that pursuant to
solution and description at visual perception as base evaluate at handling of
damage of road of Purwodadi-Solo KM 12+000 - KM 24+000 damage type
that happened is brats of crocodile cracking, shoving, depression, corrugation,
patching, and slippage cracking with dominant damage is damage of raveling
broadly 216,943 m2 is assessing PCI obtained equal to 70,791 meaning the
including a condition of ( good), hence handling of damage majored at road
segment having lowest PCI at first. There is at segment 13, 5, 19, see the
condition of joint streets.
Khan (1998) describes the Group Index Method and California Bearing
Ratio Method for design of flexible pavements. In Group Index Method the
thickness is obtained by first determining the Group Index of soil. The curves
are plotted between Group Index of subgrade and thickness for various traffic
conditions. California Bearing Ratio Method, the curves are plotted between
California Bearing Ratio Percent and depth of construction.
Arora (2003) have reported various methods for design of flexible
pavements. These various methods are Group Index Method, CBR Method,
California Resistance Value Method and McLeod Method. In the Group Index
Method, the thickness of base and surfacing is related to the volume of traffic.
In CBR Method the curves are plotted between CBR and pavement thickness
for light, medium and heavy traffic. California Resistance Value Method uses
California Resistance value, called R-value. In McLeod Method curves are
plotted between depth of construction and CBR for traffic conditions
Punmia et. al (2005) have reported stresses in homogeneous mass; elastic
deformation under circular load and Burmister analysis for flexible pavement.
Charts for vertical deflections have been developed. The design curves by

PAGE 23
Group Index Method and California Bearing Ratio Method have been
developed. In Group Index Method, the curves are plotted between Group
Index and thickness. In California Bearing Ratio Method curves are plotted
between thickness of construction and California Bearing Ratio. Subagio
et.al (2005) discusses a case study for multi-layer pavement structural
analysis using methods of equivalent thickness. An approximate method has
been developed to calculate stresses and strains in multilayer pavement
systems by transforming this structure into an equivalent one-layer system
with equivalent thicknesses of one elastic modulus. This concept is known as
the method of equivalent thickness which assumes that the stresses and strains
below a layer depend on the stiffness of that layer.
Das (2008) discusses the reliability issues in bituminous pavement design,
based on mechanistic empirical-approach. Variability’s of pavement design
input parameters are considered and reliability, for various proposed failure
definitions, of a given pavement is estimated by simulation as well as by
analytical method. A methodology has been suggested for designing
bituminous pavements for a given level of overall reliability by mechanistic
empirical pavement design approach.
Tarefder et. al (2010) present that reliability is an important factor in
flexible pavement design to consider the variability associated with the design
inputs. In this paper, subgrade strength variability and flexible pavement
designs are evaluated for reliability. Parameters such as mean, maximum
likelihood, median, coefficient of variation, and density distribution, function
of subgrade strength are determined. Design outputs are compared in terms of
reliability and thickness using these design procedures. It is shown that the
AASHTO provides higher reliability values compared to the probabilistic
procedure. Finally, the reliability of the flexible pavement design is evaluated
by varying hot mix asphalt properties. Alternative designs are recommended
for the existing pavement thickness by modifying material and subgrade
properties to mitigate different distresses.
Jain et. al (2013) discuss about the design methods that traditionally being
followed and examine the “Design of rigid and flexible pavements by various
methods and their cost analysis by each method”. Flexible pavements are

PAGE 24
preferred over cement concrete roads as they have a great advantage that these
can be strengthened and improved in stages with the growth of traffic and also
their surfaces can be milled and recycled for rehabilitation. The flexible
pavement is less expansive also with regard to initial investment and
maintainer. Although rigid pavement is expansive but less maintenance and
have good design period. It is observed that flexible pavements are more
economical for lesser volume of traffic. The life of flexible pavement is near
about 15 years whose initial cost is less needs a periodic maintenance after a
certain period and maintenance costs very high. The life of rigid pavement is
much more than the flexible pavement of about 40 years, approximately 2.5
times life of flexible pavement whose initial cost is much more than flexible
pavement but maintenance cost is very less.
Dilip et.al (2013) discuss the uncertainty in material properties and traffic
characterization in the design of flexible pavements. This has led to significant
efforts in recent years to incorporate reliability methods and probabilistic
design procedures for the design, rehabilitation, and maintenance of
pavements. This study carries out the reliability analysis for a flexible
pavement section based on the first-order reliability method and second-order
reliability method techniques and the crude Monte Carlo Simulation. The
study also advocates the use of narrow bounds to the probability of failure,
which provides a better estimate of the probability of failure, as validated from
the results obtained from Monte Carlo Simulation.
Maharaj and Gill (2014) performed axisymmetric finite element analysis
by varying different parameters to develop design charts. The parameters
varied are thickness of pavement, pressure and elastic modulus of subgrade.
The pavement and base course has been idealized as linear elastic material
while the subgrade has been idealized as nonlinear material by Drucker-
Prager yield criterion. The pavement, base course and soil have been
discretized by four nodded isoperimetric finite elements. Four types of design
charts have been developed. Each of the design charts has three parameters.
For two known parameters, the third parameters can be obtained. Based on
literature review it is found that very few literatures are available on design
chart of flexible pavements.

PAGE 25
4. METHODOLOGY
Water Content:-
OVEN DRYING METHOD
Water content can be defined as the ratio of weight of water to the weight of
the solids in a given mass of soil. It is denoted by w.

w = Weight of water present in a given soil mass / Weight of dry soiL

Procedure:-
First of all we have to take a clean container and weight it with the help of
weighing machine and name it as W1. Add some soil sample to the
container weigh it and name it as W2. This gives us the weight of the wet
soil + container. Now we can easily get the weight of the wet soil
alone by simply subtracting the Weight of the container. Then move the container
with wet soil to the oven for heating. We have to heat the soil at 105 to 110 degree
Celsius for 24 hrs. Then again measure the weight of the container including the soil and
name it as W3.

Fig. 11. Hot Dry Oven at 105 degree C

Calculation:-
Weight of container (W1) = 68.9 g
Weight of container + weight of soil (W2) = 808.1 g

PAGE 26
Weight of dry soil + weight of container (W3) =705.4 g
Weight of moisture (W2 – W3) = 102.7 g
Weight of dry soil (W3 –W1) = 636.5 g
Water/Moisture content = Weight of water present in a given soil mass /
Weight of dry soil
The natural moisture content of the soil sample is = 16.92%.

Liquid Limit Test:-

Procedure:-
Take a container then add a soil sample and water to the container. Assume
the soil was previously sieved, air-dried, and then pulverized. Mix the soil
with the water to make it into a uniform paste. Take a Casagrande cup from
the apparatus. The cup is assumed to have been appropriately adjusted such
that the cup's drop point is exactly 10 mm above the base. Then move the
soil to the Casagrande apparatus. It is made into a soil pat by squeezing and
spreading to form an approximately horizontal surface. Then cut a clean
straight groove down the center of the soil pat using a grooving tool.

Fig. 12. Casagrande’s Liquid Limit Apparatus

PAGE 27
Then move the Casagrande apparatus to rotate the cup at a rate of
approximately two drops per second and count the number of drops/rotations
it takes to make the two halves of the soil pat come into contact at the
bottom of the groove along a distance of 13 mm (1/2 in).Take a sample,
using the spatula, from edge to edge of the soil pat. The sample should
include the soil on both sides of where the groove came into contact. Finally
determine the water content of this sample at 25 number of blows.
Repeat these steps at different water content. Observe the values obtained for
different trials in the table. Each trial uses the soil from the previous trial but
with added water to increase the water content.
Also observe the corresponding graph obtained and derive the liquid limit
value by taking the water content at drops.

Compaction Test:-

Procedure:-
The mould with base plate is cleaned and dried and weighed it to measure
the nearest 1 gm. Grease is applied on the mould along with base plate and
collar completely. About 16- 18 kg of air-dried pulverized soil is taken. 4%
of water is added to the soil if the soil is sandy and about 8% if the soil is
clayey & mixed it thoroughly. The soil is kept in air tight container and
allowed it to mature for about an hour. About 3 kg of the processed soil is
taken and divided into approximately three equal portions. One portion of
the soil is put into the mould and compacted it by applying 25 number of
uniformly distributed blows. The top surface of the compacted soil is
scratched using spatula before filling the mould with second layer of soil.
The soil is compacted in the similar fashion as done in for the first layer and
scratched it. The same procedure for third layer is also repeated. The collar
is removed & trimmed off the excess soil projecting above the mould using
straight edge. The mould is cleaned and also the base plate from outside &
weighed in to the nearest gram.

PAGE 28
 The soil is removed from the top, middle and bottom of the case and the
average of water content is determined. About 3% water or a fresh portion of
the processed soil is added and the steps from 5 to 12 are repeated.

Following are the methods to design a flexible pavement:-

 EMPERICAL METHODS
o GROUP INDEX METHOD
o CBR METHOD
o CRV METHOD
 SEMI EMPRICAL METHOD
o TRIAXIAL METHOD
 THEORETICAL METHOD
o BURMISTER ELASTIC LAYER THEORY

I. GROUP INDEX METHOD

Given by D.J. Steel.

The thickness requirement of the pavement is calculated on the basis of group
index value. It is based on the index property of of the soil. Index property are
those property which are used for classification of soil.
Such as: - liquid limit, plastic limit, shrinkage limit etc.
Higher the value of GI represents weak soil subgrade, the greater will be the
thickness of the pavement.

The value of GI varies from 0 to 20.

GI = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd
Where,
a = it is the value of that portion of the material which passes through
0.075mm sieve in excess of 35% but not exceeding 75%.
Its value lies between 0 to 40.
a = p -35%
 a not greater than 40%.

PAGE 29
 b = it is the value of that portion of material passing through 0.075mm sieve
in excess of 15% but not exceeding 55%.
Its value lies between 0-40.
b = p – 15%
 b not greater than 49%.
c = liquid limit in excess of 40% and not more that 60%.
Its value lies between 0-20.
c = WL -40%
 c not greater than 20.
d = plasticity index exceeding 10% and not more than 30%.
d = Ip – 10%
Its value lies between 0-20.
Demerits of GI method:-
Quality of pavement material is not consider same thickness of pavement is
required even if better quality material is used.
Note:-
 Total thickness of material depends on GI index value.
 Thickness of base course and surface course depends upon GI and
traffic.
 Thickness of subcase course is obtained from subtracting total
thickness by surface course and base course.

f(GROUP INDEX,
TOTAL THICKNESS SURFACE COURSE TRAFFIC)

f(GROUP INDEX)

BASE COURSE

SUB BASE

SUB GRADE

Fig. 13. Cross-section of flexible pavement as function of GI

PAGE 30
 Table. 2. TRAFFIC VEHICLE IS DIVIDED INTO THREE GROUP
BASED ON CUMMULATIVE VEHICLE /DAY

TRAFFIC CUMMULATIVE VEHICLE

PER DAY
Length <50
Medium 50-300
High >300

II. CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO

METHOD
CBR method for flexible pavement design is based on strength parameter of
soil subgrade and subsequent pavement material. In order to design a
pavement by CBR method the soaked CBR value of soil subgrade is evaluated
and appropriate design curve is chosen by design wheel load.

Working:-
A soil sample is taken inside the vessel (150mm x 127mm) and load is applied
gradually over the soil.
Load value corresponding to penetration value are being measured.
Load value of 2.5mm penetration and 5mm penetration are somewhat P1 and
P2. These loads are compared with standard load value over the standard
aggregate for 2.5mm penetration and 5mm penetration.

CBR Value = load taken by soil/load taken by standard

aggregate X 100
P = rate of loading =
50mm (dia. of plunger)

Surcharge
4 days
4 days

PAGE 31
 Fig. 14. Load during C.B.R. Test

CBR VALUE IN %
 At 2.5 mm penetration
CBR 2.5mm = P1/1370kg X 100
 At 5mm penetration
CBR 5mm = P2/2055kg X 100

STANDARD STRESS
 At 1370kg standard stress will be 70 kg/cm2.
 At 2055 kg standard stress will be 105 kg/cm2.

Note:-
CBR of soil sample is the average of three specimen prepared from a sample
from a particular location.
Generally 2.5mm penetration is more than 5mm CBR but in some case if
5mm CBR is more than 2.5mm CBR then test is repeated again and
whichever value comes higher will be considered as CBR value.

Fig. 15. C.B.R. TEST MACHINE

PAGE 32
5. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
WATER CONTENT CALCULATION
Calculation:-
Weight of container (W1) = 68.9 g
Weight of container + weight of soil (W2) = 808.1 g
Weight of dry soil + weight of container (W3) =705.4 g
Weight of moisture (W2 – W3) = 102.7 g
Weight of dry soil (W3 –W1) = 636.5 g
Water/Moisture content = Weight of water present in a given soil mass /
Weight of dry soil
The natural moisture content of the soil sample is = 16.92%.

LIQUID LIMIT CALCULATION

Observe the corresponding graph obtained and derive the liquid limit value by
taking the water content at drops.
Calculation:-
Water/Moisture content = Weight of water present in a given soil mass /
Weight of dry soil
Weight of container (W1) = 39.9 g
Weight of container + weight of soil (W2) = 159.7 g
Weight of dry soil + weight of container (W3) =148.6 g
Weight of moisture (W2 – W3) = 11.1 g
Weight of dry soil (W3 –W1) = 108.7 g

TABLE .3. OBSERVATION TABLE FOR LIQUID LIMIT TEST

Observation Observation Observation

Parameters
No. 1 No. 2 No. 3

Weight of container 2.11 2.09 2.12

PAGE 33
Weight of container +
11.6 10.66 8.61
wet soil

Weight of container +
8.39 7.13 5.72
dry soil

Weight of dry soil 6.28 5.04 3.6

Moisture content (%) 51.11 70.03 80.27

No. of blows 41 29 17

Liquid Limit Flow Curve

90
80
70
60
Moisture content (%)

50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Number of blows

Fig. 6. Liquid limit flow curve

PAGE 34
 Fig. 16. Soil after 25 number of blows

COMPACTION TEST CALCULATION

In the laboratory, the different values of moisture contents and the resulting
dry densities obtained and a graph is plotted on the basis of the data obtained.
The points thus obtained are joined together in a curve. The maximum dry
density and the corresponding OMC are noted from the curve.
Wet density of the compacted soil is calculated as: γt = (w1 - w2) / V
Where w1 = Weight of mould with moist compacted soil, w2 = Weight of
empty mould, V = Volume of mould
The dry density of the soil shall be calculated as: γd = Wet density of
compacted soil (γt) / (1 + Water content of soil (w)).

Calculation:-
Volume of mold= 2124g/cc

TABLE. 4. OBSERVED DATA FROM COMPACTION TEST

Weight of 328.3 325.8 338.8 339.0 322.0
container &
wet soil
Weight of 321.6 314.7 321.6 316.3 297.8
container &
dry soil
Weight of 65.3 67.2 52.3 58.1 60.5
container

PAGE 35
Wet density 1.932 2.033 2.125 2.171 2.122
g/cc
Dry density 1.883 1.945 1.997 1.995 1.920
g/cc
Weight of 256.3 247.5 269.3 258.2 237.3
dry soil g
Weight of 6.7 11.1 17.2 22.7 24.9
moisture
Moisture 2.6 4.5 6.4 8.8 10.5
content

TABLE.5. DRY DENSITY CORRESPONDING TO THE WATER

CONTENT.
Soil sample no. Water content (%) Dry density
(g/cc)
1 2.6 1.883
2 4.5 1.945
3 6.4 1.997
4 8.8 1.995
5 10.5 1.920

PAGE 36
 2.02
2
Dry density (g/cc)

1.98
1.96
1.94
1.92
1.9
1.88
1.86
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
water content(%)

Fig. 7. Dry Density vs. Water Content graph

Optimum Moisture Content = 7.92 %

Maximum Dry Density = 2.1g/cm3

CBR TEST CALCULATION

Calculations:-
Diameter of plunger = 50mm
Area of plunger = 19.63cm2
Optimum moisture content = 15%

PAGE 37
TABLE. 6. PENETRATION CORRESPONDING TO THE APPLIED
LOAD

Penetration Load of dial Axial load

of plunger reading (kgf)
in (mm) (kgf)
0.0 0 0
0.5 8 15.2
1 15 28.5
1.5 23 43.7
2 29 55.1
2.5 34 64.6
3 37 70.38
4 43 81.7
5 48 91.2
7 57 108.3
10 63 119.7
12 67 127.3

load vs penetration graph

140
120

100
load in (kgf)

80

60

40

20

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
penetration (mm)

Fig. 11. Axial load v/s Penetration graph

PAGE 38
CBR value in (%) =
 2.5mm  4.715328
 5mm  4.437956

7. CONCLUSION
Designing flexible pavements of national highway besides of Bakhtiyarpur
College of Engineering (NH-30). Connecting road designed and estimated at
the least price providing the localized material for the sub-grade which is
morrum in nature from the traffic value survey the commercial vehicle per
day has been obtained.
The natural moisture content of the soil sample is = 16.92%.
The Liquid limit of the soil sample is = 10.21%.
Optimum Moisture Content = 13.74 %
Maximum Dry Density = 2 g/cm3
CAUSES OF INITIAL CONCAVITY OF CBR CURVE:-
 Bottom portion of the plunger and the top surface of the soil are not
truly horizontal.

PAGE 39
  The top portion of the soil is too soft or irregular
Practical training is very helpful for us. Theoretical as well as practical
knowledge is essential to enter in any industry. Practice is a complement
to the science or theory learned. There are many changes we had done
for the point of learning. That will surely increase our knowledge and
dedication to achieve more.
The process of construction of flexible pavement includes
various steps that we had discussed above.

6. FUTURE SCOPE
This section sets out the guideline for design of road pavement to meet the
required design life, based on the subgrade strength, traffic loading and
environmental factors, and including the selection of appropriate materials for
subgrade, sub base, and wearing surface.
In future we want to work on making this one the eco-friendly. This road serve
the people and provide safe and pleasurable ride.

PAGE 40
8. REFERENCES
[1]. L. R. Kadiyali, Transportation Engineering, Khanna Publishing, 2016.

[2]. N. L. Arora, A Textbook of Transportation Engineering, New India Publication,

1997.

[3]. S.K .Khanna, C.E.G. Justo Book of Highway Engineering.

[4]. IS: 2720 (Part II) – 1973, Method of Test for soil: Part II

[5]. “IRC 37-2001”: Guidelines for the design of flexible pavement.

[6]. “Highway Engineering”10th Edition by S.K. Khanna and C.E.G Justo.

[7]. “Highway Engineering”7th Edition by New Chand and Bros.

[8]. https://i0.wp.com/theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/showing-in-
flexible-pavements.jpg?resize=280%2C217&ssl=1

PAGE 41
 [10]. https://i0.wp.com/theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/transverse-
cracking-flexible-pavements.jpg?resize=374%2C236&ssl=1

[13]. https://i0.wp.com/theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/longitudinal-
cracking-flexible-pavements.jpg?resize=315%2C247&ssl=1

[14]. “Study on Failures and Maintenance of Flexible Pavement”, International

Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research (IJSETR), Volume 3,
Issue 4, PP. 2984 –2990

[15]. Mr. Etikala Nagaraju 2015. “Pavement Rehabilitation and Maintenance”,

International Journal of Civil Engineering (SSRJ – IJCE), Volume 21, Issue 6, PP. 38
– 40.

[16]. Aggarwal S, Jain S S and Parida M (2005), ‘Use of Pavement Maintenance

Management systems in Developing Countries’, Indian Highways, 5 – 17.

[17]. IS 2720(Part 16):1987 Methods of test for soils: Laboratory determination of

CBR (second revision). Reaffirmed- Dec 2016.

[18]. Final Report: SPS-1 Project 0101 Strategic Study of Structural Factors for
Flexible Pavements, U.S. 280 Westbound Lee County, AL, Southern Region
Coordination Office, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, February
1996.

PAGE 42