(Hi lol, if you’ve been on one of these before you know the drill, add whatever you think is

missing or any additional info, diagrams are added last I’ll get to that eventually thanks!)

Transport in Humans

Circulatory System
● Essential components of the circulatory system
○ The heart
○ Blood vessels
○ The blood
~ Humans need an elaborate circulatory system because the low volume to surface
area ratio does not allow efficient movement of substances into or out of the body
through the body’s surface.
~ This kind of transport system takes nutrients and oxygen to every living cell and
moves harmful metabolic waste substances to excretory organs for disposal.
● The heart is divided into four chambers
○ Left and right atrium
○ Left and right ventricle
~ The two chambers on the right side are completely separated from the chambers
on the left by the septum.

~ The heart is a double pump, with the right side pumping deoxygenated blood and
the left pumping oxygenated blood.

~ Oxygenated blood has more oxygen than carbon dioxide. Deoxygenated blood
has more carbon dioxide than oxygen.

~ The septum divides the heart in half and prevents oxygenated blood from mixing
with deoxygenated blood.

~ The ventricles of the heart have thicker walls than the atrium because they are
responsible for pumping blood throughout the body.

~ The walls of the left ventricle are the thickest because it pumps oxygenated blood
all around the body except to the lungs. The right ventricle only pumps
deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

~ The walls of the aorta are thicker than the walls of the pulmonary artery because
the aorta has to withstand the high pressure of blood coming from the left ventricle.
~ The function of the heart is to maintain constant circulation of the blood around
the body by its pumping action.

~ The walls of the heart consist of cardiac muscle, which never tires.

~ Cardiac muscle is myogenic. It is able to initiate its own contractions even after
the nerves connecting it to the brain are!

~ Heart muscles contract whenever an electrical impulse moves across it.

~ Heartbeat is controlled by the pacemaker (sinoatrial node): a group of special

nerve tissue found at the junction of the superior vena cava and right atrium.

~ Should the natural pacemaker fail, the patient can be fitted for an artificial device
for keeping a normal rhythm of heart contractions through electrical signals to the
heart muscles.

~ The human infant has a heart rate of 130 beats per minute, and this slows down
to 75-72 beats per minute when the adult body is resting.

~ Athletes may show a below average heart rate called bradycardia as an

adaptation to ongoing strenuous activity their nervous system has adjusted the
cardiac pacemaker rate of contraction.

~ Heart rate can increase under the influence of the hormone adrenaline, up to 200
beats per minute. This is called tachycardia. It occurs during stress or vigorous
exercise to pump more blood to the lungs to receive oxygen and to the muscles to
provide extra oxygen and glucose for increased respiration and energy production.

The Cardiac Cycle

● There are two phases of cardiac cycle

○ Systole
○ Diastole
~ Atria contract together, blood is expelled into the ventricles. This is called atrial
systole. The bicuspid and tricuspid valves are opened to allow blood to flow to the
ventricles and the semilunar valves at the base of the pulmonary artery and the
aorta are closed to prevent backflow of blood into the pulmonary artery and aorta.
This is called ventricular systole.
~ The ventricles contract at the same time which pumps blood into the pulmonary
artery and the aorta.

~ The bicuspid and tricuspid valves are closed, preventing the backflow of the blood
into the aorta.
~ Connected to the valves are strong heart tendons or heart strings, that are
controlled by the papillary muscle.

~ The heart tendons, or heart strings, prevent the valves from bursting under the
pressure caused by the contractions of the ventricles.

`` Diastole `` is a pause during which all the parts of the heart relax and the atria
fills with blood.

~ Blood flows through the heart as follows:

● Vena cava brings in deoxygenated blood and enters through the right atrium.
● Blood passes through the tricuspid valve and enters the right ventricle, which
pumps it to the pulmonary valve and into the pulmonary artery.
● The pulmonary artery takes the deoxygenated blood to the lungs to obtain
oxygen and excrete carbon dioxide. It becomes oxygenated and leaves the
lungs to return back to the heart in the left atrium via the pulmonary vein.
● Blood leaves the left atrium through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle
which pumps it through the aortic valve and into the aorta.
● The aorta transports oxygenated blood to the rest of the body where it
delivers oxygen to the cells and obtains carbon dioxide to be transported to
the lungs and excreted.
~ During exercise the heart rate increases pumping more blood to the muscles,
carrying more glucose and oxygen for increased respiration.

~A fit athlete can increase their cardiac output on the heart muscles that are
stronger and the volume of each heart chamber can be increased. This enables the
athlete to increase their stroke volume so that the same volume of blood can be
pumped in fewer beats than in an unfit person with a weak cardiac output.

● For a fit athlete:

○ Size of the heart increases over time
○ Stroke volume, the volume of blood pumped at each heartbeat,
increases
○ Cardiac output, the volume of blood pumped in one minute, increases
■ Cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate

Heart Disease

~ The heart has its own blood supply called coronary circulation; providing food and
oxygen and removing dissolved metabolic waste substances.

~ The lining of the coronary arteries can be damaged and roughened by fatty
deposits called atheroma.
~ The buildup of atheroma in the coronary arteries is one of the causes of
arteriosclerosis, a general term covering the degeneration of blood vessels. It
increases the risk of blood clots forming.

~ A blood clot in one of the coronary arteries can interrupt the blood flow to that
part supplied by the artery, causing it to stop working and the person to suffer a
heart attack.

~ A clot that stays in place is a thrombus. The blockage it causes is thrombosis.

~ A clot that is dislodged and traveling in the bloodstream is an embolus.

Risk factors associated with heart disease

Avoidable Unavoidable

Obesity Age

High cholesterol Being male

Permanently raised blood pressure Genetics

Stress –

Symptoms of a heart attack

● Severe pain in chest
● Sweating
● Faintness and sickness
● Shortness of breath
● Tiredness
● Anxiety
● Fast heartbeat
● Feeling of ingestion
● Low blood pressure

~ The size of the heart attack depends on the size and position of the blocked
coronary artery.
~ If a small branch of the artery is blocked, a small amount of muscle dies causing a
small heart attack.
~ If a large artery is blocked the whole heart may stop beating; a cardiac arrest.

Treatment of Coronary Disease

~ Coronary bypass surgery: coronary arteries damaged by atherosclerosis can be

bypassed using parts of an artery or vein taken from another part of the body.
~ Heart transplant surgery: becomes necessary with severe heart damage or
complete heart surgery.

Circulation

Circulation is the movement of the blood around the body.

● Two types
○ Closed Circulation: blood must travel in the blood vessels around the
body.
○ Double Circulation: blood passes through the heart twice to make one
complete trip around the body.
■ Pulmonary Circulation = blood travels from the heart to the
lungs and back to the heart.
■ Systemic Circulation = blood travels from the heart, around the
body, and back to the heart.

Blood Vessels

~ Blood travels around the body through blood vessels. Blood vessels are open-
ended, forming a complete circuit.
~There are three types of the blood vessels:
● Arteries: carry blood away from the heart.
○ Smallest arteries are called arterioles
● Veins: returns blood to the heart
○ Smallest veins are called venules
● Capillaries: link arteries to veins and the point of substance exchange. Walls
consist of a single layer of flat cells which allows plasma to leak out easily.
This allows water, CO2, dissolved foods (?), oxygen and other substances to
move freely between the cells of the body tissue.

Blood

~ Blood is a transport fluid. It is the only liquid tissue in the body.

~ Blood consists of two parts
● Plasma - 55%
● Formed elements (RBC’S, WBC’s, platelets) - 45%
~ The volume of blood in an adult human is 5-6 L.
~ Plasma is the liquid part of the blood. It is clear, pale yellow fluid consisting of
90% water. Blood cells float in plasma. The remaining 10% consists of a large
number of substances including:
● Food = glucose, amino acids, carried from the intestines to tissues .
● CO2 = being carried from tissues to lungs to be removed.
● Waste products = being carried from tissues to lungs to kidneys, eg. urea.
● Hormones = carried from glands to tissues or other glands.
 ● Minerals = in the form of ions, eg. sodium, calcium.
● Plasma proteins
○ Albumin: helps maintain osmotic pressure
○ Fibrinogen: for clotting
○ Globulins: proteins in the blood, some are antibodies
● Serum is the liquid which is left over after blood has clotted. As fibrinogen is
used up in clotting, serum is different from plasma in having no fibrinogen.

Blood Cells

~ Blood contains two types of cells:

● Red blood cells
● White blood cells
● Cell fragments called platelets

Red Blood Cells

~ Called Erythrocyte or red blood corpuscles.

~ Carries oxygen from lungs to tissues.
~ Has a biconcave shape which allows it to fold and bend.
~ Contains hemoglobin, a red pigment which when combined with oxygen becomes
oxyhemoglobin.
~ Lacks a nucleus.
~ Made in the bone marrow and has a lifespan of 120 days.
~ They are broken down in the liver and spleen and excreted. Some of the rion from
the hemoglobin is sent from the liver to the bone marrow for the production of new
red blood cells. Some of the iron is stored in the liver. The bilirubin pigment from
the old red blood cells is used in the production of bile in the liver.
~ There are about 5 million red blood cells in a cubic meter of blood (mmm 3).
~ There are 2 million red blood cells being produced every second.
~ Oxygen moves in and out of RBCs through diffusion.
~ Anaemia is a disorder that results from too few RBCs or hemoglobin, or a
shortage of B-12 vitamins which prevents the making of RBCs. This is called
pernicious anemia.

Transport of Carbon Dioxide

~ CO2 requires an enzyme in RBCs to combine with water to form carbon dioxide
acid. Then splits into 2 parts, 70% of the part containing the original CO 2 leaks out of
the RBCs into the plasma. CO2 is mostly transported in the plasma and bicarbonate.
~ Carbon monoxide readily combines with hemoglobin, 300 times more than
oxygen. It displaces oxygen on RBCs so that oxygen cannot be carried.
~ More than a few minutes of introducing carbon monoxide would be fatal.
White Blood Cells

~ WBCs protect the body against diseases and infections.

~ They are produced in the bone marrow and lymphatic tissue.
~They have no fixed shape and move like amoebas.
~ They are able to change their shape.
~ They crawl by flattening and changing their shape. They crawl along the inside
walls of blood vessels and leave the blood by squeezing between the cells of the
thin walls of tiny blood vessels. After which they move around between the cells and
tissues.
~ They are spherical while being carried along in the bloodstream.
~ White blood cells are much larger than red blood cells, and they are fewer, about
6000 per mm3.
~ There are two main types
● Lymphocytes
● Phagocytes
~ Lymphocytes make antibodies to destroy germs or poisons made by germs.
~ These gems contain antigens which stimulate lymphocytes to create antibodies.
~ Some lymphocytes remain in our blood after an infection and give immunity to
certain diseases.
~ Antibodies destroy germs and their poisons by:
● Combining with antigens to kill them.
● Causing them to burst.
● Sticking to the surface of germs allowing phagocytes to move in and engulf
them.
● Making germs clump together.
● Combining with poisons, produced by germs making them harmless. These
antibodies are called anti-toxins.
~ Phagocytes move to an area of infection and attack germs by engulfing them.
~ Phagocytosis: the ingestion and digestion of germs. They move and eat like
amoebas.

~ Inflammation: infected areas become red, swollen and painful. This occurs when
phagocytes move to an infected area.
~ Pus: the accumulation of dead bacteria and phagocytes.
~ The inflamed area can swell, becoming a boil, which eventually bursts from
pressure.
~ Leukemia: cancer of the blood where the number of white blood cells increases
greatly and starts destroying the red blood cells.
Specific Immune Responses

~ Immune responses are those that the body makes to each disease causing
organism. To make these individual responses our bodies first have to be able to
recognize the different organisms. The cells that do this are called lymphocytes.
~ There are many types of lymphocytes, but the most important two are:
● B lymphocytes
● T lymphocytes
~ Microorganisms have markers called antigens attached to their surface.
~ Lymphocytes have receptor proteins on their surface which attack these
antigens.
~ Each lymphocyte has a slightly different receptor protein on their surface that
binds with different antigens, recognizing each microorganism.
~ Once binding to an antigen the lymphocyte becomes activated and begins
dividing quickly. This results in millions of the same kinds of lymphocytes that are
able to recognize that antigen.
~ B lymphocytes when activated produce antibodies specific to the antigen causing
the clumping of microorganisms.
~ Some lymphocytes do not get involved with antigens, but they develop into
memory cells.
~ Memory cells make us immune to diseases. This is called primary immunity.
~ Secondary immunity involves memory cells spotting the re-infection of
microorganisms, producing lymphocytes to fight off the microorganisms.
~ T lymphocytes are able to recognize cells that are infected with viruses or
cancers.
~ T lymphocytes destroy our own body cells that are infected in a number of ways.
● They release a chemical that punches a hole in an infected cell causing the
contents to leak out.
● Some cause the entire cell to self destruct, “programmed cell death”.
● Some develop as memory cells.

Immunization

Immunization

~ Immunization is defined as the process of becoming totally or partially immune to

a disease.
~ These are two basic types of immunity:
- Natural immunity
- Artificial immunity

Natural Immunity

~ There are two types of natural immunity

- Actively acquired
- Passively acquired
~ Actively acquired immunity results when exposure to a disease organism triggers
the immune response to produce antibodies to that disease.
~ Actively acquired immunity involves the lymphocytes which could
- Cause herms to be clumped together and be destroyed by phagocytes.
- Cause germs to disintegrate.
- Neutralize poisons these germs produce by producing antibodies.
~ The production of antibodies takes time, so the symptoms of a disease will show
before the body mn=anages to destroy the pathogens and its poisons. After they
are destroyed the antibodies disappear from the body.
~ Passive immunity is provided when a person is given antibodies to a disease
rather than producing them through his/her own immunity.
~ Some antibodies pass through the placenta, providing a newborn with immunity
against certain diseases.
~ Breast milk contains antibodies which gives important protection during
breastfeeding.
~The antibodies gradually disappear from the baby’s blood and because the baby’s
lymphocytes have not been involved in the production of this immunity it is short
lived.

Artificial Immunity

~ There are two ways in which we receive passive immunity:

- Actively acquired by vaccinations
- Passively acquired by vaccinations
~ When people receive immunity through actively acquired vaccinations, these
vaccinations contain live but weakened, dead, or inactive pathogens which cannot
cause diseases.
~ Lymphocytes still make antibodies for the antigens present, thereby “cleaning”
the antigens or the pathogens.
Eg. typhoid fever, measles, tuberculosis
~ When persons receive immunity through passively acquired vaccination, these
vaccines contain ready made antibodies, usually antitoxins, therefore they provide
an immediate supply of antibodies.
~ Because antibodies gradually disappear from the body the lymphocytes have not
“learnt” to male them. Therefore immunity is short lived.
Eg. vaccines which provided 3 months protection against hepatitis

Platelets

~ Platelets are also called thrombocytes.

~ They are made in the bone marrow and have a lifespan of 8-14 days.
~ There are 250,000 platelets in every mm3 of blood.

~ Platelets are cell fragments and therefore lack a nucleus.

~ They vary in shape and are smaller than red blood cells.

~ Platelets function to help blood clot, preventing blood loss from wounds.

~ Clotting occurs when blood vessels are damaged. Platelets and or damaged
tissue cells release an enzyme called thromboplastin, which changes another
enzyme called prothrombin into thrombin whenever calcium is present.

~ Thrombin converts the plasma protein fibrinogen to fibrin threads. These threads
are sticky, They stick to each other and the damaged tissue to form a mesh,
draping the platelets and blood cells which covers the wound and stops bleeding.

~ Prothrombin is made in the liver and requires vitamin K for its production.

~ Clotting includes several factors, including factor VII.

~ On the surface of the skin, the mesh of threads, platelets and cells form a plug
which gradually hardens into a scab.

~ The scab falls off when the tissue beneath is repaired.

Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system has 3 parts:

● Lymph: liquid transport medium.
● Lymph vessels: tubes in which lymph travels.
● Lymph nodes: swelling along the lymph vessels.
~ Functions of the lymphatic system
● Removes unwanted materials.
● Produces lymphocytes and antibodies.
● Removes some tissue fluid from tissue.
● Digested fats, fatty acids, and glycerol, is absorbed in lacteals.
~ The lymphatic system starts as blind ended tubes, lymph capillaries distributed
among tissues.
~ The walls of lymph capillaries are only one cell thick, allowing fluid to pass
through them. However much larger particles such as bacteria and proteins are able
to pass as well.

~ In blood capillaries pressure pushes some of the plasma out of the blood
capillaries, this plasma then becomes tissue fluid.

~ Tissue fluid lacks large blood proteins and RBCs because they are too big to pass
through the pores of the capillaries. However, WBCs are able to change shape to fit
through the pores.

~ Tissue fluid provides cells with oxygen and nutrients that enters inside with tissue
fluid and removes waste nutrients from cells. These diffuse back into the
bloodstream through capillaries.

~ Tissue fluid keeps temperature and blood composition constant.

~ Approximately 10% of tissue fluid passes into lymph capillaries instead of

returning back to the blood. This forms lymph. Along with it comes bacteria, viruses
and protein molecules and other particles from the tissue spaces.

~ Lymph capillaries lead into larger lymph vessels.

~ The lymphatic system does not have a pump like the circulatory system,
therefore circulation of the lymph is dependent on:
● Muscular movement
● Valves preventing backflow
● Breathing movements
● Pressure from influx of lymph into the lymph capillaries
~ Lymph travels in one direction through lymph vessels. It passes through lymphs
nodes where it is filtered and unwanted material is removed.
~ Lymph nodes are also responsible for making lymphocytes and antibodies.
~ Filtering is done by phagocytes found in these nodes by engulfing bacteria,
viruses etc.
~ If an infection occurs in the lymph nodes, the nodes swell and the infection may
spread through the lymph vessels.
Excretion and Homeostasis

Excretion

~ Excretion is the necessary removal of toxic waste products of metabolism. This

process involves ridding the body of chemical waste and any materials that are in
excess supply.
~ Metabolism is all chemical reactions that occur in a living cell.
~ Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.
Eg. temperature, blood sugar levels, etc.
~ Excretory products (including organs of excretion)
● Carbon dioxide, water vapor
● Urea
● Bile pigments
● Kidneys (removes urea, water, and salts)
● Skin (removes urea, water and salts)
● Lungs (CO2 and water vapor)
● Liver (bile pigments)
~ Detoxification of substances such as drugs, poisons and unwanted hormones so
that they can be excreted more easily by the kidneys.
~ Urea formation: Urea is formed by the deamination of amino acids in the liver.
Through this process nitrogen is removed and converted to urea:
A) An enzyme in the liver splits the amino acids molecules into two parts,
carbon part and nitrogen part.
B) The carbon part is used to form either pyruvate acid which is broken
down to release energy in cellular respiration, or glycogen or fat
storage.
C) The nitrogen part forms ammonia which is combined with carbon
dioxide to form urea.
~ Excretion of bile: it breaks down old RBCs, storing the iron and excreting the
remains of pigments in bile, which aids in the digestion of fats. Bilirubin gives bile its
yellowish-green color.

The Liver

~ The liver is the second largest organ in the body. It is found below the diaphragm
in the upper right side of the abdominal cavity.

~ It is darkish red-brown and consists of a large number of cells. Each of these cells
is like a tiny chemical factory called a tubule. These cells are richly supplied with
blood through an intricate network of capillaries.

~ The composition of tiny blood vessels and cells give the liver a spongy texture.
However it has a very smooth surface.

~ Most of the liver’s functions involve homeostasis. Functions include:

● Digestion -Stores food substances
● Produces heat -Makes cholesterol
● Detoxifies poisons -Converts lipids (fats)
● Makes urea -Makes fibrinogen
● Controls blood glucose levels -Produces white blood cells
● Destroys old RBCs

Urinary System

~ Functions of the urinary system:

● Excretion of waste substances eg. urea and salts
● Osmoregulation: the control of the relative concentrations of salts and water
balances in the body.

Urinary System Structure

~ It consists of two kidneys and ureters leading to the bladder and urethra.
~ Each kidney connects with an artery and a vein called the renal artery and the
renal vein.
~ The kidneys filter the blood and produce urine, a liquid waste.
~ Urine is mostly water, with some urea, salts and other substances.
~ Urine forms in the kidneys is carried through the tubes called the ureters. They
connect the kidney to the bladder.
~ The bladder is a sac-like organ that stores urine. The walls of the bladder are
muscular and help push urine out of the body.
~ Urine is carried from the bladder to the outside of the body through a tube called
the urethra

The Kidney

~ The kidneys are dark-reddish brown in color and bean-shaped.

~ The kidneys are located high up on the back wall of the abdomen behind the
intestines.
~ About one pint of blood passes through the kidney every minute.
~ The kidneys are very efficient, the body only needs one to function.
~ The kidneys have three main parts:
● Cortex
● Medulla
● Renal Pelvis
~ Leading from the pelvis is the ureter.
~ The kidneys are made up of thousands of tiny tubules called nephrons.
~ They filter blood entering the kidney.
~ Each nephron begins in the cortex of the kidney, loops down to the medulla, back
into the cortex, and then down again into the medulla to the pelvis.

Structure of the Nephrons

~ The job of filtering the blood and forming the urine is done by the microscopic
units called nephrons. There are about 1 million in each kidney.
~ The nephron consists of two structures
● Glomerulus (knot of capillaries)
● Tubule
~ The nephron also consists of a cup-shaped Bowman’s Capsule surrounding the
Glomerulus. It is connected to the tubules.
~ The tubule is divided into 3 sections:
● The proximal convoluted tubule
● The loop of Henle
● The distal convoluted tubule
~ The tubule then connects with a larger tube called the collecting duct. Several
tubules lead to a collecting duct.
~ Urine passes from the collecting duct into the pelvic cavity then into the ureter.

Formation of Urine

~ The kidneys work by 3 basic steps

● Filtering
● Reabsorbing
● Removing

@ Step 1: Blood enters the kidneys from the renal artery.

@ Step 2: Blood then enters the glomerulus where ultrafiltration takes place.
Ultrafiltration is the process where the small molecules are filtered out under high
pressure. The pressure is generated by the different sizes of arteries in the
glomerulus, the artery entering the glomerulus is bigger than the artery leaving the
glomerulus.
During ultrafiltration everything in blood except blood cells, platelets and blood
proteins are forced out of the blood in the Bowman’s capsule.
The substance in the capsule is called the filtrate and is composed of amino acids,
water, glucose, hormones, vitamins, salts and urea.
@ Step 3: The filtrate passes into the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, and
the distal convoluted tubule where selective reabsorption takes place.
- Substances such as glucose, hormones, vitamins, amino acids, some salts are
reabsorbed back into the blood.
- Reabsorption takes place by active transport. Water is absorbed by osmosis.
- All substances except for water and salts are reabsorbed in the proximal
convoluted tubule. Most water and salt is reabsorbed in the loop of Henle and
the distal convoluted tubule.

@ Step 4: The remainder of filtrate, which is now called urine, contains water, salt,
and urea. The urine flows into the collecting ducts which meet in the pelvis of the
kidneys.

@ Step 5: Urine flows from the pelvis through the ureters and into the bladder
where it is stored until it is expelled from the body.
- When the bladder is full, nerve endings in its walls signal the brain that it
must be emptied.
- The sphincter muscle at the base of the bladder is released and urine is
expelled from the urethra.
- Meanwhile, the “clean” blood leaves the kidneys and re-enters the circulatory
system through the renal artery.

Urine

~ The passing of urine is called micturition or urination.

~ Loss of control of the external sphincter which voluntarily controls the release of
urine and results in an accident is called incontinence.
~ Urine is the watery yellow fluid produced by the kidneys. It is yellow due to the
pigment urochrome.
~ Some foods can also affect its color. It is acidic and typically odorless.
~ Only when it becomes contaminated with bacteria does it have a strong smell.
~ Cystitis: a bladder infection causing a strong, unpleasant odor.
~ Quality depends on fluid intake, types of foods eaten, and amount of sweat and
creatine, hormones, potassium, calcium and magnesium, traces of alcohol, steroids
or certain drugs appear in urine if taken.
~ A test strip is a dipstick used for detecting substances in urine.
~ The bladder can expand to hold about 400cm 3 of urine.

Disorders of the Urinary System

~ Some disorders of the urinary system are:

- Kidney stones: form in the kidney or bladder where they may cause bleeding.
They can be moved surgically or passed through urine.
 - Cystitis: the inflammation of the bladder (caused by bacterial infection) more
common in females because they have a shorter urethra.
- Kidney failure.

Kidney Failure

~ If a person’s kidneys fail, they will either have to undergo dialysis regularly or get
a kidney transplant.
Dialysis

~ Dialysis is a medical treatment used to remove waste from the blood of a person
whose kidneys have failed.
~ The function of a dialysis machine is to remove urea and other waste products,
excess salts and water through filtration.
~ The dialysis machine is also called the artificial kidney.

How dialysis machines work

! Step 1: Blood is led from a tube in the radial vein and pumped through a dialysis
tubing called visking tubing.

! Step 2: The visking tubing has microscopic pores allowing substances to leak out
of the blood into the water bath surrounding it.

! Step 3: The liquid in the water bath contains salts and glucose in the right
composition that should be in the blood. Only substances above this concentration
will diffuse out of the blood and into the bath along with urea. This prevents
essential substances from being lost.

! Step 4: The bathing solution is maintained at a constant temperature and changed

often to prevent unwanted blood solutes from accumulating inside of it.

! Step 5: The blood is then returned to the patient through the radial vein in the
arm.

Kidney Transplant

~ Two main problems associated with this practice:

- Finding a healthy kidney of a willing donor.
- Preventing the kidney from being rejected by the lymphocytes.
- The immune system attacks all foreign bodies in the body.
~ People with transplanted kidneys take immunosuppressants to stop their immune
system from attacking it.
~ Immunosuppressants stop the immune system from working properly thereby
stopping the attacks. However, the person is susceptible to illness.
~ Bone marrow can be treated with radiation to stop the production of white blood
cells.

The Kidney and Osmoregulation

~ Osmoregulation is the control of relative concentrations of water and salts in the

blood.

~ It is important to control the movement of water into and out of the cells for them
to work properly and maintain health.

~ If body fluids, blood and tissue fluids, become too diluted the water enters the
cells by osmosis and they swell or may burst. This can lead to a condition called
Oedema.

~ Oedema is swelling due to excess fluid.

~ Low osmotic pressure means that fluid has a low salt concentration and a high
water concentration.

~ If body fluids become too concentrated, water leaves the cells by osmosis and the
cells shrink and the body becomes dehydrated.

~ High osmotic pressure means there is a high salt concentration and a low water
concentration.

~ The kidneys regulate the concentration of the body fluids by controlling the
amount of water and salts reabsorbed into the blood during selective reabsorption.

~ This regulation is an example of homeostasis.

~ If the blood concentration passing through the hypothalamus of the brain is too
concentrated (due to drinking too little fluids), it sends an electrical impulse to the
pituitary gland causing it to produce ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH) or Vasopressin.

~ ADH stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb most of the water from the filtrate. As a
result small amounts of concentrated urine is produced.

~ ADH also affects the collecting ducts causing it to reabsorb water.

~ If the blood passing through the hypothalamus is too diluted (too much water) no
ADH is released.

~ Therefore the kidneys reabsorb very little water and large amounts of dilute urine
is produced.

~ The tubules maintain the blood’s PH through the exchange of ions.

Homeostasis

~ Homeostasis is achieved by using both the nervous system and endocrine

system.
~ The hypothalamus is the homeostatic center.
~ Some conditions that must be kept constant:
- Blood pH (7.4)
- Body temperature (98.6)
- Osmotic pressure
- Blood sugar levels
- Circulating hormones
~ Any alteration of these conditions can cause disease and lead to death.
~ Any change from normal levels bring into operation a corrective mechanism
which will bring the changes back to normal. This is called negative feedback,
because it reduces the effect of the original change.
~ A positive feedback mechanism is when a reaction increases or intensifies a
response until an end is reached.

Thermoregulation
~ Terms to know about temperature regulation:
- Temperature: a measure of the presence or absence of heat energy.
- Homeothermic/ endothermic/ warm-blooded: organisms with a constant body
temperature. (Mammals and birds)
- Poikilothermic/ ectothermic/ cold-blooded: organisms with a varied body
temperature. ( Reptiles, amphibians, fish, invertebrates)
- Endothermic: animals with heat inside their bodies.
- Ectothermic: animals which gain heat from outside of their bodies.

~ Hypothermia: a condition which causes the hypothalamus to stop working due to

a decrease in body temperature.
- The body temperature continues to drop, slowing metabolism down.
Eventually the person enters a coma. If immediate action isn’t taken the
person will die.
~ Hyperthermia: overheating of the body.
- This can cause heat stroke.
~ The skin plays an important role in temperature regulation.
~ The skin has 4 main functions
- Protects the body from physical damage
- Protects the body from UV rays
- Prevents germs from entering
- Helps camouflage animals

The Skin and Thermoregulation

~ In cold temperatures
- Hair is raised to trap air
- Vasoconstriction occurs ( narrowing of blood vessels to preserve heat in
blood)
- Little to no sweat
- Increased metabolism (metabolic activities produce heat)
- Shivering ( the constant contraction and relaxation of muscles produces heat)

~ In hot temperatures
- Hair lies flat ridding the body of warm air
- Vasodilation occurs ( widening of blood vessels near the surface of the skin so
heat escapes)
- Increased sweating ( cools skin by evaporation)
- Decreased metabolism ( due to thyroxine production)
- No shivering

Homeostasis of Blood glucose

~ The liver and pancreas are responsible for controlling blood sugar levels.
The pancreas is both an endocrine and exocrine gland. The Islets of Langerhan is
the endocrine tissue inside the pancreas. It is this part that is involved in
maintaining blood sugar levels.
~ The Islets of Langerhan in the pancreas monitors blood sugar levels.
~ If not corrected high levels of glucose levels lead to hyperglycemia and low levels
lead to hypoglycemia.
~ Diabetes results mainly from the pancreas’ inability to produce insulin.

~ When blood sugar levels are too high:

- Islets of langerhan in the pancreas detect this change and secrete the
hormone insulin.
- Insulin causes the liver to convert excess glucose to glycogen for storage in
the liver and muscles.
- Liver also converts some of the glucose to fat.
- The body cells absorb glucose for respiration.

~ When blood sugar levels are too low:

- Islets of langerhan in the pancreas detect this change and secretes the
hormone, glucagon.
- Glucagon causes the stored glycogen to be converted into glucose which is
released into the bloodstream.
- Liver also converts fats and some proteins to glucose.
- The body cells absorb less glucose.