U.S.T.H.

B Coordination SM-ST of
Chapter I.
Faculty of Mathematics MATH 1 Module
Logic, Sets and Maps
1st year Licence SM-ST Academic year 2023-2024

I) Logic
Logic enables us to model and study mathematical reasoning.

1) Definitions
I Proposition : We call proposition a statement or expression that can be true or false. Every
proposition has a truth value T (true) or F (false)..
Example 1.

• Algiers is a coastal city. (T)

• The triangal rectangal has a right angle. (T)
• 3 + 5 = 0. (F)
• x, y two reals, x is greater than y. (This is not a proposition, it’s a statement)
I Axiom : We call axiom any proposition considered as evident, accepted as true without demonstration.
Example 2. Euclide’s Axiom asserts that through a given point A not on a line (D), there is one and
only one line in the plane of A parallel to (D).
I Theorem : We call theorem any proposition that is proven to be true.

I Corollary : A corollary is a direct consequence of a theorem.

I Lemma : We call lemma any true proposition preparatory to the establishment of a theorem of greater
importance.

2) Logical connectives
Logical connectives are used to define other propositions from one or more initial propositions. Let P and
Q be two propositions, defined by :

I Negation : The negation of a proposition P is the proposition, denoted P , which is true when P is
false and false otherwise.
Example 3. P : 3 is an even number (F), P : 3 is not an even number (T).
I Conjunction : The conjunction of two propositions P and Q is the proposition (P and Q), denoted
(P ∧ Q), which is true if P and Q are both true at the same time. It is false otherwise. This is summarized
in the following truth table :
P Q P∧Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example 4. 2 divides 9 and 136 is a multiple of 17. (F)

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I Disjunction : The disjunction of two propositions P and Q is the proposition (P or Q), denoted
(P ∨ Q), which is true if at least one of the two propositions are true. It is false otherwise. This is
summarized in the following truth table :
P Q P∨Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Example 5. 2 divides 9 or 136 is a multiple of 17. (T)
I Implication : The proposition P implies Q, denoted (P ⇒ Q), is the proposition which is false when
P is true and Q is false. It is true otherwise.
In other words, it is the proposition (P ∨ Q).
P Q P ⇒Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
√
Example 6. 2 × 2 = 6 ⇒ 3 = 1. (T) (If P is false then P ⇒ Q is always true)
Remark. From the implication (P ⇒ Q), we define :
• The implication (Q ⇒ P ), called converse of the implication (P ⇒ Q).
• The implication (Q ⇒ P ), called contrapositive of the implication (P ⇒ Q).
• The negation (P ⇒ Q) is the proposition (P ∧ Q).

Example 7. Let be the following implication : (n2 is even )⇒ (n is even).

1. Its converse is : (n is even )⇒ (n2 is even).
2. Its contrapositive is : (n is odd ) ⇒ (n2 is odd).
3. Its negation is : (n2 is even ) and (n is odd).
I Equivalence : The proposition P equivalent to Q, denoted (P ⇔ Q), is the proposition which is true
when P and Q are both true or both false. It is false otherwise.
In other words, it is the proposition (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q ⇒ P ).
P Q P ⇔Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Example 8. Let x ∈ R. We have the following equivalence : 2x − 2 = 0 ⇔ x = 1 (the implication and its
converse are both true).
Remark. In mathematical practice, we’re only interested in true propositions. In other words, we’ll write
P ⇔ Q or P ⇒ Q only when they’re true.
Example 9.
√
1. 0 ≤ x ≤ 64 ⇒ x ≤ 8. (T)
2. Let x, y ∈ R. We have the following equivalence : x2 + y 2 = 0 ⇔ x = y = 0. (T)
Proposition. Let P , Q two propositions. We have the following (true) equivalences :
1. P ⇔ P , 2. (P ∧ Q) ⇔ P ∨ Q, 3. (P ∨ Q) ⇔ P ∧ Q, 4. (P ⇒ Q) ⇔ (Q ⇒ P ).

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3) Quantifiers
Let P (x) the proposition dependant on the element x of a set E. We write
• ∀x ∈ E, P (x) : when the proposition P is true for all the elements x ∈ E.
∀, which can be read whatever or for all, is called universal quantifier.
• ∃x ∈ E, P (x) : when there exists at least an element x of the set E for which the proposition P is
true.
∃, which can be read there is at least one, is called existential quantifier.
• ∃ ! x ∈ E, P (x) : when there exists a unique element x of the set E for which the proposition P is
true.
There is jointly existence and uniqueness of the element x verifying the proposition P .
Example 10.
1. ∀x ∈ [0, +∞[, x2 ≥ 0 (T)
2. ∀x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 4 (F)
3. ∃n ∈ N, n2 − n > n (T) (n=3, n=10, n=100).
4. ∃x ∈ R, x2 = −4 (F) (no squared real will give a negative numbe).
5. ∃!n ∈ N, n2 − n > n (F)

Negation of propositions depending on quantifiers

• The negation of (∀x ∈ E, P (x)) is (∃x ∈ E, P (x)).
Example 11. The negation of (∀x ∈ [1, +∞[, x2 ≥ 1) is (∃x ∈ [1, +∞[, x2 < 1).

• The negation of (∃x ∈ E, P (x)) is (∀x ∈ E, P (x)).

Example 12. The negation of (∃n ≥ 0, n3 − n is a multiple of 3) is (∀n ≥ 0, n3 − n it is not a
multiple of 3).

Remak.
• We can find propositions that depend on two quantifiers.
For example : ∀x ∈ R, ∃y > 0, x + y > 10.
• The order of quantifiers is very important. Consider the following two propositions:
∀x ∈ R, ∃y ∈ R, y > x and ∃x ∈ R, ∀y ∈ R, y > x.
The first is true and the second is false. Indeed, in the first case, you can always find a number
greater than a given real number, because R is not bounded. For the second, however, you can’t find
a real number that’s smaller than all the others, because R has no lower bound.

4) Modes of reasoning
Here is some mode of reasoning in mathematics.

4.1 Direct reasoning

We want to show that the proposition P ⇒ Q is true. This reasoning consists in assuming that P is true
and showing that Q is true.
a b
Example 13. Let a, b ≥ 0. Let us show that if = then a = b.
1+b 1+a
a b
We suppose that = then a(1 + a) = b(1 + b) so a + a2 = b + b2 d’où a2 − b2 = b − a. This leads
1+b 1+a
to (a − b)(a + b) = −(a − b) that is to say (a − b)(1 + a + b) = 0 thus a = b or a + b = −1. As a, b ≥ 0
then their sum cannot be negative. Therefore, we conclude that a = b.

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4.2 Contrapositive
The reasoning by contrapositive is based on the following equivalence:
(P ⇒ Q) ⇔ (Q ⇒ P ).
So if we want to show P ⇒ Q, we just need to show Q ⇒ P .
Example 14. Let n ∈ N. Let’s show that if n2 is even then n is even.
First, let’s write the contrapositive: If n isn’t even, then n2 isn’t even.
It is assumed that n is not even. We want to show that n2 is not even. Since n is not even, it is odd and
so there exists k ∈ N such that n = 2k + 1. Then
n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 2l + 1 with l = 2k 2 + 2k ∈ N.
. And so n2 is odd.
Therefore, by contraposition, this is equivalent to: if n2 is even then n is even.

4.3 Contradiction
Reasoning by contradiction to show that a proposition P is true is based on the following principle : We
assume that P is true and look for a contradiction. Thus, if P is false, this means that P must be true.
Example 15. Let’s show the following proposition: 0 has no inverse in R. Let’s reason by the absurd, i.e.
suppose 0 admits an inverse in R.
1
Then ∃x0 ∈ R : 0 = 0 ⇒ 0.x0 = 1 ⇒ 0 = 1. Which is absurd, so 0 has no inverse in R.
x

4.4 Counter-example
This mode of demonstration is used to show that a proposition of the form: For any x in E, P (x) is false.
To do this, we need only show that its negation is true, which means that: If there exists x in E, P (x) is
true.
Example 16. Let’s show the following proposition ∀x ∈ R, x2 + 1 = 0 is false.
It suffices to show that its negation is true, i.e. ∃x ∈ R, x2 + 1 6= 0 is true. For x = 1, x2 + 1 = 2 6= 0 is
true. So the proposition ∀x ∈ R x2 + 1 = 0 is false.

4.5 Induction
The principle of induction makes it possible to show that a proposition P (n), depending on n, is true for
all n ∈ N. Demonstration by induction involves three steps:
Initialization: we show that P (0) is true.
Heredity : Assume that P (n) is true for a given n ≥ 0 and show that the assertion at the next rank
P (n + 1) is true.
The conclusion: Recall that the induction principle P (n) is true for all n ∈ N.
Remark. If we need to show that a proposition is true for all n ≥ n0 then we start the initialization at
rank n0 .
Example 17. Let’s show that : ∀n ∈ N, 2n > n.
For n ≥ 0, let’s denote P (n) the following assertion: 2n > n.
We’ll show by induction that P (n) is true for all n ≥ 0.
Initialization: For n = 0 we have 20 = 1 > 0 so P (0) is true.
Heredity: Set n ≥ 1. Assume that P (n) is true and show that P (n + 1) is true.

2n+1 = 2 · 2n
= 2n + 2n
> n + 2n car 2n > n
> n + 1 car 2n ≥ 1
So P (n + 1) is true.
Conclusion : by the induction principle of P (n) is true for each n ≥ 0, i.e. 2n > n ∀n ≥ 0.

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II) Sets
Definition 1. Set
A set is a collection of objects, these objects are called the elements of the set.
If a is an element of a set E, we write a ∈ E and read a belongs to E or a is an element of E.
If a is not an element of E, write a ∈ / E and read a does not belong to E.
• Sets are generally designated by capital letters: E, F, A, B, · · · . Elements are generally designated by
small letters: a, b, x, y, · · · .
• We admit the existence of a set denoted ∅, called empty set, which contains no elements.
• A set reduced to a single element a is denoted {a}. It is called singleton.
• The set E is said to be included in the set F (or contained in F ) if every element of E is an element
of F . We also say that E is a part or subset of F . We write E ⊂ F . By definition
(E ⊂ F ) ⇔ (∀x, x ∈ E ⇒ x ∈ F )

• We say that the set E is equal to the set F and we denote E = F if we have E ⊂ F and F ⊂ E.
• If E is a set and P a proposition true for some elements of E, the set of elements of E that verify
the proposition P is a subset of E often denoted as follows:
{x ∈ E : P (x) } or {x ∈ E | P (x)}

Example 18. The following examples are already well known :

1. N = {0, 1, 2, · · · } is the set of natural numbers.
2. Z = {· · · , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, · · · } is the set of integers.
3. Q = { pq : p ∈ Z, q ∈ Z∗ , p and q being relatively prime to each other} is the set of the rational
numbers.
√
4. R is the set of real numbers, 1, 2, π, ln 2, · · ·
5. R∗ is the set of non null real numbers.
6. R+ is the set of positive or null real numbers.
7. R∗+ designates the set of strictly positive real numbers.
8. C denotes the set of complex numbers.
9. A = {x ∈ R : x2 − 3x + 2 ≥ 0}.
Definition 2. Complement
Let A be a part of a set E. The set of elements of E that do not belong to A is called complement of A in
E. Denoted as : E \ A or CEA or Ac . So we have
CEA = {x : x ∈ E et x ∈
/ A}

Definition 3. Parts set of E

For any set E, there exists a set called the set of parts of E, i.e. P(E), whose elements are all the subsets
of E, including the empty set and E itself.
Remark 1. The cardinal of a finite set E is the number of elements which has this set. Denoted Card(E).
We have the following property: Card(E) = n ⇒ Card(P(E)) = 2n .
Example 19.
If E = {1, 2, 6} then P(E) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {6}, {1, 2}, {1, 6}, {2, 6}, {1, 2, 6}}.
Card(E) = 3 and Card(P(E)) = 23 = 8.

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1) Set Operations
Definition 4. Union
We call union (or gathering) of two sets E and F and we denote E ∪ F , the set of the elements x where
x ∈ E or x ∈ F . So we have
E ∪ F = {x : x ∈ E or x ∈ F }.
Definition 5. Intersection
We call the intersection of two sets E and F and we denote E ∩ F , the set of all elements x such that
x ∈ E and x ∈ F . So we have
E ∩ F = {x : x ∈ E and x ∈ F }.
If E ∩ F = ∅ we say that E and F are disjointed.
Definition 6. Difference
The difference of two sets E and F is the set form of the elements of E that do not belong to F . The
difference between E and F (in this order), denoted by E \ F , is given by :

E \ F = {x : x ∈ E et x ∈
/ F }.

2) Properties
Let A, B, C be three parts of a set E.

1. A ∩ B = B ∩ A, A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C, A ∪ B = B ∪ A, A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C.

2. A ∩ ∅ = ∅, A ∩ A = A, A ⊂ B ⇔ A ∩ B = A, A ∪ ∅ = A, A ∪ A = A, A ⊂ B ⇔ A ∪ B = B.

3. A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C), A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

4. (Ac )c = A, A ⊂ B ⇔ B c ⊂ Ac , (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c , (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c .

3) Cartesian product
Let E and F be two sets. We call the cartesian product of E and F and we denote E × F , the set of
pairs (x, y) such that x ∈ E and y ∈ F .

E × F = {(x, y) : x ∈ E and y ∈ F }
Example 20.

1. R2 = R × R = {(x, y) : x, y ∈ R}

2. [0, 1] × R = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, y ∈ R}

III) Maps
1) Definitions and examples
Definition 7. Map
Let E and F be two sets. A map f from E to F is a correspondence that associates any element x from
E with a unique element y from F , noting f (x). In other words,

∀x ∈ E, ∃! y ∈ F, f (x) = y

• E is called the starting set and F the arrival set.

• f (x) is called the image of x by f and x is called the antecedent.

• A map is generally represented as follows : f : E → F , x 7→ f (x).

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Example 21.
1. √
f1 : R+ → R, x 7→ x, f2 : R → R, x 7→ sin x.

2. We call the identity map of a set E and we denote IdE or 1E , the map which to every x ∈ E makes
x correspond to itself. By definition, we have :
IdE (x) = x for any x in E

Definition 8. Graph of map

The set Γf defined by f : E → F is called graph: Γf = {(x, f (x)) ∈ E × F : x ∈ E}.

Example 22. The graph of map is represented by

the following diagram:

is Γ = {(a, α), (b, α), (c, β), (d, β), (e, δ)}.

Definition 9. Equality
Let f and g be two maps such that f, g : E → F . We say that f and g are equal if and only if for every x
in E, f (x) = g(x). denoted by f = g.

2) Inverse images and direct images

Definition 10. Direct image, inverse image
Let E and F be two sets, f : E → F a map, A ⊂ E and B ⊂ F .
1. We call direct image of A by f the subset of F , denoted f (A), defined by :
f (A) = {f (x) : x ∈ A}.
In other words : y ∈ f (A) ⇔ ∃x ∈ A, y = f (x).

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 2. We call inverse image of B by f which is denoted by f −1 (B), the set of x ∈ E where f (x) ∈ B
and we have :
f −1 (B) = {x ∈ E : f (x) ∈ B}

Example 23. Exercise of the sheet.

Remark 2.
• The image f (E) of E is called the image of f and is denoted Im(f ).

• We have the following obvious relations :

f (∅) = ∅, f −1 (∅) = ∅, f −1 (F ) = E

A ⊂ f −1 (f (A)) for every part A of E

f (f −1 (B)) ⊂ B for every part B of F
A1 ⊂ A2 ⇒ f (A1 ) ⊂ f (A2 ), B1 ⊂ B2 ⇒ f −1 (B1 ) ⊂ f −1 (B2 )
f (A1 ∪ A2 ) = f (A1 ) ∪ f (A2 ), f (A1 ∩ A2 ) ⊂ f (A1 ) ∩ f (A2 )
f (B1 ∪ B2 ) = f −1 (B1 ) ∪ f −1 (B2 ), f −1 (B1 ∩ B2 ) = f −1 (B1 ) ∩ f −1 (B2 )

Definition 11. Let be f : E → F and g : F → G so g ◦f : E → G is the map defined by g ◦f (x) = g(f (x))
for any x in E.
Example 24. Let’s take E = F = G = R and f (x) = cos x, g(x) = x2 + 1.
We have : (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = cos2 x + 1 and (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = cos(x2 + 1).
Theorem 1. Let f : E → F , g : F → G, h : G → H be three maps. So we have

(h ◦ g) ◦ f = h ◦ (g ◦ f ).

3) Injective, surjective and bijective maps

Definition 12. Let E and F be two sets and f a map from E to F .
1. We say that f is injective (or an injection) if and only if, whatever x1 , x2 ∈ E, f (x1 ) = f (x2 )
implies x1 = x2 , or x1 6= x2 implies f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ). In other words

∀x1 , x2 ∈ E f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2 .

2. We say that f is surjective (or a surjection) if for every y ∈ F , there exists x ∈ E such that
y = f (x). In other words
∀y ∈ F, ∃ x ∈ E y = f (x).

3. We say that f is bijective if it is both injective and surjective. That is, for any y ∈ F , there exists
a unique x ∈ E such that y = f (x). In other words:

∀y ∈ F, ∃ ! x ∈ E y = f (x).

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Remark 3. Another way of formulating injectivity and surjectivity is to use antecedents.

• f is injective if and only if every element y of F has at most one antecedent (and possibly none).

• f is surjective if and only if every element y of F has at least one antecedent.

The notions of injectivity, surjectivity and bijectively of a map are represented as follows:

Remark 4. Let f : E → F be a map. We have :

• f is non-injective if and only if ∃x1 , x2 ∈ E such that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) and x1 6= x2 .

• f is non-surjective if and only if ∃y ∈ F, ∀x ∈ E y 6= f (x).

• f is non-bijective if and only if f is non-injective or non-surjective.

Example 25.
1
1. Let f : N → Q defined by f (x) = . Let’s show that f is injective:
x+1
1 1
Let x1 , x2 ∈ N be such that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). Then = i.e. x1 + 1 = x2 + 1 so x1 = x2 . So
x1 + 1 x2 + 1
f is injective. However, it is not surjective. The task is to find an element y that has no antecedent
by f . Here, it’s easy to see that we always have 0 < f (x) ≤ 1 and so, for example, y = 0 has no
antecedent.

2. Let g : Z → N defined by g(x) = x2 . Then g is not injective. Indeed, we can find two different
elements x1 and x2 in Z such that g(x1 ) = g(x2 ). Just take for example x1 = 2, x2 = −2. g is not
surjective either, in fact there are y ∈ N elements which have no antecedent. For √
example, y = 3. If
2
y = 3 had an antecedent x by g, we will have g(x) = y i.e. x = 3, hence x = ± 3. But then x is
not an integer from Z. So y = 3 has no antecedent and g is not surjective.

IV) Inverse mapping

Definition 13. Inverse mapping
Let f be a map from E to F . We say that f admits an inverse mapping if and only if there exists a map
g from F to E such that
∀(x, y) ∈ E × F y = f (x) ⇔ g(y) = x
If such a map g exists, it is unique and denoted f −1 . This leads to

f ◦ f −1 = IdF and f −1 ◦ f = IdE .

Theorem 2. Let f be a map of E in F . f admits an inverse if and only if f is bijective.

Example 26. Let g be the map defined from R to R by f (x) = 5x − 7. Its inverse bijection is g(y) =
7+y
f −1 (y) = .
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Proposition 1. Let f : E → F and g : F → G be two bijections. Then g ◦ f : E → G is a bijection and
its inverse mapping is the map f −1 ◦ g −1 i.e. (g ◦ f )−1 = f −1 ◦ g −1 .